BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FLUID MECHANICS
(18ME43)
MODULE 3

CLASS NOTES

Prepared By

Prof. V.C. Ravi

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Bangalore Institute of Technogy
 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

FLUID DYNAMICS

Introduction: A fluid motion can be completely analyzed by the application of certain fundamental
equations. These equations are i) The continuity equation ii) Energy equation and iii) The momentum
equation. The above three equations are based on the three fundamental laws namely the law of
conservation of mass of mass flow , the law of conservation of energy and the law of conservation of
momentum.

The various force may influence the motion of a fluid are due to gravity, pressure, viscosity ,
turbulence , surface tension and compressibility. The gravity force Fg is due to the weight of the fluid
and it is equal to mg. The pressure force Fp is exerted on the fluid mass if there exists pressure
gradient between the two points in the direction of flow. The viscous force Fv is due to the viscosity
of the flowing fluid and thus exist in the case of all real fluids. The turbulent force Ft is due to the
turbulence of the flow. The surface tension force Fs is due to the cohesive property of the fluid mass.
The compressibility force is due to elastic property of the fluid.
If a certain mass of fluid in the motion is influenced by all the above mentioned forces, then according
to Newton’s second law of motion the following equation of motion may be written.
ma = Fg + Fp + Fv + Ft + Fs + Fe
In most of problems of the fluids in motion the surface tension forces and the compressibility forces
are not significant . Hence these force may be neglected. Then above equation can be written as
ma = Fg + Fp + Fv + Ft
The above equation is known as the Reynolds equation of motion. Which is used in the analysis of
turbulent flows.
Further for laminar or viscous flows the turbulent forces also become less significant and hence these
may be neglected. Resulting equation is known as the Navier –Stokes equation of motion. This is
usefull in the analysis of viscous flow. The above equation reduces to

ma = Fg + Fp + Fv

Further if the viscous forces are also of little significance in the problems of the fluid flows, then these
forces may also be neglected. The equation simplifies to
ma = Fg + Fp – Euler’s equation of motion

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3-2

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Euler’ equation of motion:

As stated above in the Euler’s equation of motion only two forces, namely the pressure force and the
fluid weight or in general the body force, are assumed to be acting on the mass of the fluid in motion.

p +(¶p/ ¶ s ) ds dA S

ds ds q
q dz
pdA

rgdA ds

Assumption:1) flow is study 2 ) Flow is incompressible 3) Flow is inviscid 4) Flow is Irrotational.

Consider a stream line in which the flow is taking place in the direction of S as shown in the figure.
Consider a cylindrical element of cross section dA and length dS. The forces acting on the cylindrical
element are
1) Pressure force pdA in the direction of flow.
2) Pressure force (p+∂p/∂s.ds)dA in opposite direction of flow.
3) Weight of element rgdAdS
Let q be the angle between the direction of flow and the line of action of the weight of element . The
resultant force in the direction S must be equal to the mass of the fluid element x acceleration in the
same direction.
pdA – (p+∂p/∂s.ds)dA - rgdAdS cosq = rdAdS x as 1
Now as dV/dt = ∂V/ ∂S x dS/dt + ∂V/∂t = V ∂V/ ∂S + ∂V/∂t
If the flow is steady ∂V/∂t = 0 and partial derivative becomes total differential as = V dV/dS
Using this value of as in the equation 1
(-dP/dS ) x dSdA - rgdAdS cosq = rdAdS x V dV/dS
Divide throught by rdAdS
(-dP/ rdS ) - g cosq = V dV/dS
(dP/ rdS ) +g cosq +V dV/dS = 0
From figure cosq = dZ/dS

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3-3

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

(dP/ rdS ) +g dZ/dS + V dV/dS = 0

dP/ r +g dZ + V dV = 0 2
The above equation is the Euler’s equation of motion.
Integrating the above equation we can obtain the Bernoulli’s equation of motion.
Integrate the above equation.
 dP/ r + g dZ +  V dV = 0
P/r + gZ + V2/2 = constant
Or P/rg + Z + V2/2g = constant 3
Above is Bernoulli’s equation. It represents the sum Pressure energy (P/rg), Potential energy (Z) and
Kinetic energy.

Bernoulli’s theorem:
This is based on the well known principle of conservation of energy. The theorem stated as follows.
“In steady continuous flow of a frictionless incompressible fluid , the sum of the potential head, the
pressure head and the kinetic head is same at all points.

a
P A V1 a'
1 1
Converging duct

b
d
b'
Z1
ds1 d'
P A2V2
2
c
ds2 c' Z2
Datum

Consider a steady flow of incompressible liquid flowing through a non uniform cross sectional pipe
lying entirely in the X-Y plane. Flow can be assumed to be uniform and normal to the inlet and outlet
areas. The fluid mass has an area A1, average velocity V1, and pressure P1 at entrance. The
corresponding values at the exit are A2, V2, and P2. Mass of the fluid in the region abcd shifts to new
position a’b’c’d’ during infinitely small interval of time. Since the area a’b’cd common to both the
regions abcd and a’b’c’d’, it will not experience any energy change. Evidently then the energy
changes of the fluid masses in the section abb’a’ and cc’d’d have to be considered.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3-4

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Using principle of conservation of mass.

Fluid mass within control volume abb’a’ = fluid mass within the region cc’d’d
m = rA1dS1 = rA2dS2 1
Work done during displacement of fluid mass from ab to a’b’ = Force x Displacement = P1A1dS1
Work done at exit is equal to = - P2A2dS2
Work is done opposite direction hence negative sign.
Net flow work = P1A1dS1- P2A2dS2 2
From equation 1 = A1dS1 = A2dS2 = m/r
Net flow work = m/r(P1-P2) 3
The fluid flows downward and therefore loss of potential energy = mg(Z1-Z2)
The fluid mass accelerates from V1 to V2 , gain of kinetic energy = m/2(V22-V12)
From the principle of conservation of conservation of energy
loss of potential energy + Work done by pressure = Gain kinetic energy.
mg(Z1-Z2) + m/r(P1-P2) = m/2(V22-V12)
Dividing throught by rg and using m = rg
(Z1-Z2) + (P1-P2)/ rg = (V22-V12)/2g
Rearranging
V12/2g + P1 / rg + Z1 = V22/2g + P2 / rg + Z2
Or V2/2g + P / rg + Z = Constant
Thus in a steady flow system of incompressible frictionless fluid the sum of velocity, pressure and
potential heads remains constant at every section.

Bernoulli’s theorem for real fluids:

Theorem for real fluids.
In steady flow fluid with friction present, the total head at any section is equal to that at any
subsequent section plus the loss of head occurring between two sections.
All liquids are more or less viscous and their flow is accompanied by frictional forces or resistances,
which hinder motion. Therefore, from section to section there must be expenditure of energy by the
liquid in overcoming the resistances. Obviously, energy at the downstream is less than that at the
upstream section by an amount equivalent to frictional loss. Bernoulli’s equation for real fluids may
then be written as
V12/2g + P1 / rg + Z1 = V22/2g + P2 / rg + Z2 +hf
Where hf is the frictional loss of energy or head along the streamline between two section.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3-5

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Numerical Problems on Fluid Dynamics

1) A pipe of diameter 250mm conveys a discharge of 2400 litres of water / min and has a pressure of
20KN/m2 ata certain section. Find the total energy head with respect to datum 4m below the pipe.
Soln:Data- D = 250 mm, Q = 2400 L/s , P =20 KN/m2, Z = 4 m.

P = 20KN/m2
D = 250 mm
4m

Q = 2400 /(1000 x 60) = 0.04 m3/s

V = Q /A = Q / (D2/4) = 0.04/ ( x0.25 2/4) = 0.815 m/s
Kinetic head = V2/2g = 0.8152/ (2 x 9.81) = 0.034 m
Pressure head = P/rg = 20x 1000/ (1000 x 9.81) = 2.039 m
Toatal energy head = P/rg + V2/2g +Z = 2.039 + 0.034 + 4 = 6.073 m

2) An oil of specific gravity 0.80 flows in a horizontal pipe at a height of 3m above a datum plane. At
a section of the pipe , the diameter is 120 mm and the pressure intensity is 1.25 bar. If the total energy
head at section is 25 m find the rate of flow of oil.
Soln:Data- Sp gr = 0.8 , D = 120 mm , P = 1.25 bar , T E = 25 m

P = 1.5 bar
D = 120 mm
3m

Pressure head = P/rg = 1.25x 105 / (1000 x 0.80 xx 9.81) = 15.93 m

Potential head = Z = 3 m.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3-6

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Total energy head = P/rg + V2/2g +Z

25 = 15.93 + + V2/(2x 9.81) + 3
V = 10.912 m/s
Discharge Q = AV = D2/4 x V =  x 10.912x 0.122/4 = 0.1234 m3/s

3) Figure shows a pipe of varying diameter conveying water from section 1-1 to a section 2-2. The
diameter at these section are respectively 300 mm and 600 mm, the pressure head at section 1-1 being
6.75 m of water column. Find the pressure head at section 2-2 if the rate of flow in the pipe is 0.360
m3/s
Soln:Data-d 1 = 300 mm, d2= 600 mm , P1 = 6.75m , Q = 0.360 m3/s
d2 = 600 mm
2

d1= 300 mm 2
1

1 7.5 m
3m

V1= Q / A1 = Q / (D12/4)
= 0.360 /( x 0.32/4 )
= 5.093 m/s
V2= Q / A2 = Q / (D22/4)
= 0.360 /( x 0.62/4 )
= 1.273 m/s
According to Bernoulli’s principle
Z1 + P1/rg + V12/ 2g = Z2 + P2/rg + V22/ 2g
3 + 6.75 + 5.0932 /(2 x9.81) = 7.5 + P2/rg + 1.2732/ (2x 9.81)
11.072 = 7.583 + P2/rg
P2/rg = 11.072 - 7.583 = 3.489 m

4) Water flows at the rate of 75 litres /second in a pipe whose diameters at section 1-1 and 2-2 are 300
mm and 150 mm respectively. Which are at height 5m and 3m above the datum. If the pressure at
section 1-1 is 450 Kpa . Find the pressure at section 2-2 neglect loss of energy.
Soln:Data- Q = 75 LPs , d1 = 300 mm , d2 = 150 mm , Z1 = 5 m , Z2 = 3m , P1 = 450 Kpa
Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3-7
 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

V1= Q / A1 = 0.075 / (d12/4)

= 0.075 /( x 0.32/4 )
= 1.061 m/s
V2= Q / A2 = Q / (d22/4)
= 0.075 /( x 0.152/4 )
= 4.244 m/s
V12/ 2g = 1.0612/ 2x9.81 = 0.057m
V22/ 2g = 4.2442/ 2x9.81 = 0.918m
P1/rg = 450 x 1000 / (1000 x 9.81) = 45.872 m
Applying the Bernoulli’s equation between section 1-1 and 2-2
Z1 + P1/rg + V12/ 2g = Z2 + P2/rg + V22/ 2g
5 + 45.872 +0.057 = 3 + P2/rg + 0.918
50.929 = 3.918 + P2/rg
P2/rg = 47.011 m
P2 = 47.011 x rg = 47.011 x 1000 x 9.81 = 461.178 Kpa

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3-8

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

5) Water is flowing through a pipe of length 150 m , having diameter 500 mm at the upper end and
250 mm at the lower end. Rate of flow is 70 Litres/second. The pipe has slope of 1 in 30 . Find the
pressure at the lower end if the pressure at higher level is 2.5 bar.
Soln:Data- L = 150 m, d1 = 500 mm, d2= 250 mm , Q = 70 LPS , Slope = 1/30 , P1 = 2.5 bar

d1 = 500 mm

Slope = 1/30
2
Z=0 1
d2 = 250mm
2 150m

Assume Z2 = 0 , Z1 = (1/30) x L = 150/30 = 5m

V1= Q / A1 = 0.070 / (d12/4)
= 0.070 /( x 0.52/4 )
= 0.3565 m/s
V2 = Q / A2 = Q / (d22/4)
= 0.070 /( x 0.152/4 )
= 1.426 m/s
Applying the Bernoulli’s equation between section 1-1 and 2-2
Z1 + P1/rg + V12/ 2g = Z2 + P2/rg + V22/ 2g
5 + 2.5 x 105 / (100 x 9.81) + 0.35652 / (2 x 9.81) = P2/(1000x 9.81) + 1.4262 / (2 x9.81) + 0
30.491 = P2/(1000x 9.81) + 0.1036
P2/(1000x 9.81) = 30.387
P2 = 2.98 x 105 = 2.98 bar

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3-9

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

6) Water is flowing through a taper pipe of length 100 m having diameter 600 mm at the upper end
and 300 mm at the lower end, at the rate of 50 litres /s . The pipe has a slope of 1/30. Find the pressure
at the lower end if the pressure at the higher level is 19.62 N/cm2
Soln:Data-

d1 =600 mm

Slope = 1/30
2
Z=0 1
d2 = 300mm
2 100m

Assume Z2 = 0 , Z1 = (1/30) x L = 100/30 = 10/3m

Q = A1V1 =A2V2
V1= Q / A1 = 0.050 / (d12/4)
= 0.050 /( x 0.62/4 )
= 0.1768 m/s
V2 = Q / A2 = Q / (d22/4)
= 0.050 /( x 0.302/4 )
= 0.7074 m/s
Applying the Bernoulli’s equation between section 1-1 and 2-2
Z1 + P1/rg + V12/ 2g = Z2 + P2/rg + V22/ 2g
10/3 + 19.62x x 104 / (1000 x 9.81) + 0.17682 / (2 x 9.81) = P2/(1000x 9.81) + 0..70742 / (2 x9.81) + 0
23.33 = P2/(1000 x 9.81) + 0.0255
P2/(1000x 9.81) = 23.30
P2 =23.30 x 9810 = 22.86 x 104 N/m2

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 10

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

7) A closed tank is placed on the ground contains water and air under pressure above it. Water
delivered at the rate 12 Lps from this tank to another tank placed on the roof off the building 25 m
above the ground.The connecting hose pipe is 60 mm dia and the loss of head in the pipe is 3.75 m.
Find the air pressure in the ground tank.
Soln:Data- hf = 3.75 m . Dp = 0.06 m, Q = 12.5 x 10-3 m3/s

25 m
Air

Q = ApVp
Vp = Q /Ap = Q / (d12/4)
= 4 Q / (d12)
= 4 x 12.5 x 10-3 / ( x 0.062)
= 4.421 m/s = V2
Applying the Bernoulli’s equation between Water in the ground level and water delivered to roof
tank .
Z1 + P1/rg + V12/ 2g = Z2 + P2/rg + V22/ 2g +hf
Z1 = 0, Z2 = 25 m, P2 = 0 , V1 =0
P1/rg = V22/ 2g +hf
= 25 + 4.4212/ (2x 9.81) + 3.75 = 29.746
P1 = 29.746 x 9810 = 291.81Kpa Pressure of air in the ground tank

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 11

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

8) A pipe line carrying an oil of specific gravity 0.8 changes in diametr from 30mm at position A to 50
mm diameter at position B which is at a 5 m higher level. If the pressure at A and B ar 20 N/cm 2 and
15 N/cm2 respectively and discharge is 150 LPs . Determine the loss of head and direction of flow.
Soln:Data- Sp gr = 0.8 , d1 = 0.30 m , d2= 0.5 m (Z1-Z2) = 5m, P1 = 20 N/cm2 = 20 x 104 N/m2 , P2 =
15 x 104 N/m2 , Q = 150 x 10-3 m3/s

d B = 0.5 m

5m
ZB
B
ZA = 0
dA = 0.3 m A

Q = A1V1 =A2V2
V1= Q / A1 = 150 x 10-3 / (d12/4)
= 150 x 10-3 /( x 0.32/4 )
= 2.122 m/s
V2 = Q / A2 = Q / (d22/4)
= 150 x 10-3 / /( x 0.502/4 )
= 0.764 m/s
Applying the Bernoulli’s equation between section 1-1 and 2-2
Z1 + P1/rg + V12/ 2g = Z2 + P2/rg + V22/ 2g + hf
Energy at 1-1 = Energy at 2-2 + hf

Energy at 1-1 = Z1 + P1/rg + V12/ 2g

= 0 + 20 x 104 / (9810 x 0.8) +2.1222 / 2 x 9.81
= 25.714 m
Energy at 2-2 = Z2 + P2/rg + V22/ 2g
= 5 + 15 x 104 / (9810 x 0.8) + 0.7642/ 2 x 9.81
= 24.142 m
The loss of head hf = Energy at 1-1 – Energy at 2-2 = 25.714 – 24.142 = 1.572 m
Energy at 1-1 > Energy at 2-2 Therefore fluid flows from section 1-1 to 2-2

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 12

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

9) A vertical pipe carrying oil of specific gravity 0.8 tapers uniform from 20 cm diameter at the lower
section to 10 cm diameter at the upper section. The vertical distance between the sections is 1m. The
pressure gauge installed at the lower wnd upper sections read 5 N/cm2 and 8 N/cm2 respectively.
When the discharge is 30 litres /s . Calculate the loss of head between the two section. Determine also
direction of flow.
Soln:Data- Q = 30 x 10-3 m3/s , d1 = 0.2 m, d2 = 0.1 m , P1 = 60 N/cm2 , P2 = 8 N/cm2
d2 = 0.1 m

2 2 P2 = 8 N/cm2
1m

1 1 P1 = 6 N/cm2
d1 = 0.2 m

Q = A1V1 =A2V2
V1= Q / A1 = 30 x 10-3 / (d12/4)
= 30 x 10-3 /( x 0.22/4 )
= 0.955 m/s
V2 = Q / A2 = Q / (d22/4)
= 30 x 10-3 / /( x 0.102/4 )
= 3.819 m/s
Applying the Bernoulli’s equation between section 1-1 and 2-2
Z1 + P1/rg + V12/ 2g = Z2 + P2/rg + V22/ 2g + hf
Energy at 1-1 = Energy at 2-2 + hf
Assume Z1 = 0
Energy at 1-1 = Z1 + P1/rg + V12/ 2g
= 0 + 6 x 104 / (9810 x 0.8) +0.9552 / 2 x 9.81
= 7.692 m
Energy at 2-2 = Z2 + P2/rg + V22/ 2g
= 1 + 8 x 104 / (9810 x 0.8) + 3.8192/ 2 x 9.81

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 13

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

= 11.937 m
The loss of head hf = Energy at 2-2 – Energy at 1-1 = 11.937 – 7.692 = 4.245 m
Energy at 2-2 > Energy at 1-1 Therefore fluid flows from section 2-2 to 1-1 in the downward
direction.

10) Water flows upwards through tapered pipe as shown in the figure. Find the magnitude and
direction of diffrential mercury manometer corresponding to a discharge of 0.12 m3/s. The friction in
the pipe is neglected.

11) A pipe of diameter 400 mm carries water at velocity of 25 m/s. The pressure at the points A and B
are given as 29.43 x 104 N/m2 and 22.563 x 104 N/m2 respectively. While the datum head at A and B
are 28 m and 30 m Find the loss of head between A and B.
Soln:Data- d = 400 mm, V = 25 m/s , PA = 29.43 x 104 N/m2 , PB = 29.43 x 104 N/m2
ZA = 28 m, ZB = 30 m

B 4 2
400
m PB = 22.563 x 10 N/m

A B

PA = 29.43 x 10 4 N/m 2
ZB = 30 m

A
ZA=28m

Va= VB = 25 m/s
Energy at A = EA = ZA + PA/rg + VA2/ 2g
= 28 + 29.43 x 104/ (9810) + 252/ (2x 9.81)
= 89.852 m
Energy at B = EB = ZB + PB/rg + VB2/ 2g
= 30 + 22.563 x 104/ (9810) + 252/ (2x 9.81)
= 84.85 m
Loss of head = EA – EB
= 89.852 - 84.85
= 5 m = Loss of head

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 14

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

12) A pipe gradually tapers from a diameter of 0.3 to 0.1 m over the lenghth as shown in the figure.. It
conveys kerosene (sp gr = 0.8) at 50 LPS . The pressure at the bottom end is 200 KN/m2. If the
pressure at upper end is not to fall below 100 KN/m2 find the value of Z2.
Soln:Data- d1 = 0.3 m, d2 = 0.1 m , Q = 50 x 10-3 m3/s P1 = 200 KN/m2, P2 = 100 KN/m2
d2 = 0.1 m P2 = 100 kN/m2

d = 0.3 m
1 Z2 = ?

Z1 = 0
2
P1 = 200 kN/m

Q = A1V1 =A2V2
V1= Q / A1 = 50 x 10-3 / (d12/4)
= 50 x 10-3 /( x 0.32/4 )
= 0.7074 m/s
V2 = Q / A2 = Q / (d22/4)
= 50 x 10-3 / /( x 0.102/4 )
= 6.366 m/s
Applying the Bernoulli’s equation between section 1-1 and 2-2

Z1 + P1/rg + V12/ 2g = Z2 + P2/rg + V22/ 2g

0 + 200 x 1000 / ( 9810 x 0.8) + 0.7072 / (2x 9.81) = Z2 + 100x 1000/(9810 x0.8) + 6.362 / (2x 9.81)
Z2 = 6.38 m

13) A pump has tapering pipe running full of water. The pipe is placed vertically with the diameter at
the base and top being 1.2 m 0.6 m respectively. The pressure at the upper end is 240 mm of Hg
vaccum. While the pressure at the lower end is 15 KN/m2. Assume the head loss to be 20% of
difference in velocity head. Calculate the discharge, the flow is vertically upwards the difference of
elevation is 3.9 m.
Soln:Data- d1 = 1.2 m , d2 = 0.6 m P2 = -240 mm of Hg, , P1 = 15 KN/m2 , hf = 0.2[V22-V12] / 2 x g

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 15

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

P2 = -240 mm of Hg = 0.24 m of Hg = 0.24 x 13.6 x 9810 = -32019.84 N/m2

A1 = d12/4 =  x 1.22/4 = 1.131 m2

A1 = d22/4 =  x 0.62/4 = 0.283 m2

Q = A1V1 =A2V2
V2 = A1V1 / A2 = 1.131 x V1 / 0.283 = 4 V1

Z1 + P1/rg + V12/ 2g = Z2 + P2/rg + V22/ 2g + hf

Z1 + P1/rg + V12/ 2g = Z2 + P2/rg + V22/ 2g + 0.2[V22-V12] / 2 x g

P1/rg - P2/rg = [V22 -V12] / 2g + 0.2[V22-V12] / 2 x g + Z2

15 x 1000/9810 –(-32019.84 / 9810) = 1.2[V22 -V12] / 2g + 3.9

1.53 + 3.264 = 1.2[(4V1)2 -V12] / 2g + 3.9

(4.794 – 3.9) /1.2 = 15 V12/(2 x 9.81)

15 V12/(2 x 9.81) = 0.745

V12 = 0.745 x 2 x 9.81 /15 = 0.9446

V1 = (0.9446)1/2 = 0.987 m/s

Discharge = A1 x V1 = 1.131 x 0.987 = 1.116 m3/s

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 16

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

14) During the test of a centrifugal pump, water drawn from a reservoir through a vertical 30 cm
diameter suction pipe , and the pump is discharged the water in to the horizontal 25 cm diameter
delivery pipe. A Bourdon pressure gauge just outside the casing on the suction pipe reads 0.5 bar.
While disharge pressure gauge indicated of pressure of 3 bar gauge. The vertical distance between
the pipe entry at sections where gauges were attached is 2m, If the water discharge through the
arrangement was measured as 0.2 m3/s. Calculate the power consumed by the pump.
Soln:Data-d1= 0.30 m, d2=0.25 m , P1=-0.5bar, P2 = 3bar ,Q = 0.2 m3/s

d2=25 cm
2m

d1=30 cm

Velocity of flow on the suction and discharge side is

Q 0.2
V1    2.829m / s
d12
x0.3 2
4 4
Q 0.2
V2    4.074m / s
d 2 x0.25 2
2

4 4
Energy head available at section with respect to elevation datum passing through section 1

V12 P1 2.289 2  0.5 x10 5

E1    Z1    0  4.829m
2 g rg 2 x9.81 9810

Head available with the flow at the section 2

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 17

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

V22 P2 4.074 2 3x10 5

E2    Z2    2  33.426m
2 g rg 2 x9.81 9810
If energy loss through the pump is neglected. Then the mechanical or head input to the pump equals
the difference between the total eneries of flow at the discharge and suction sides.
H= E2  E1  33.426  (4.829)  38.255m
Power input to the pump = rgQH= 9810x0.2x38.255 = 75.056 KW

15) A 50 cm diameter pipe supplying water steadly to a turbine at 0.20 MN/m2. The water leaves the
turbine on exit side through a 100 cm pipe with a pressure of- 0.03 MN/m2. A vertical distance of 3 m
seprates the centre of pipe at section where measurements of pressure have been made. Calculate the
power deliverved to the turbine from water if 0.5 m3/s of waater pass through the arrangement neglect
the losses.
Soln:Data:- d1 = 0.50m, P1= 0.2 MN/m2, P2=-0.03 MN/m2, Z1-Z2 = 1.5 m, Q = 0.5m3/s . d2 = 0.6 m

50 cm
1
Penstock TURBINE

1
1.5m

Draft tube

2 2
100 cm

Velocity of at inlet in to the turbine (section1-1) and at exit of the draft tube are

Q 0.5
V1    2m / s
d12 x0.5 2
4 4
Q 0.5
V2    0.6366m / s
d 2 x12
2

4 4

Energy level available at section 1-1 with respect to horizontal datum through section 2-2

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 18

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

V12 P1 22 0.2 x10 6

E1    Z1    1.5  22.09m
2 g rg 2 x9.81 9810
Head available with the flow at the section 2

V22 P 2 0.6366 2  0.03x10 6

E2    Z2    0  3.037m
2 g rg 2 x9.81 9810
If energy loss through the pump is neglected. Then the mechanical or head input to the pump equals
the difference between the total eneries of flow at the discharge and suction sides.
H= E2  E1  22.09  (3.037)  25.127m
Power input to the pump = rgQH= 9810x0.5x 25.127= 123.247KW

16) A pump of water 9KW with 85% efficiency is discharging oil of sp gravity 0.85 to the overhead
tank shown in the figure. If the total loss of head in the pipe system is 1.2 m of the flowing fluid. Find
the discharge.
Soln:Data- P = 9 KW, = 0.85, rg = 8338.5N/m3, hl= 1.2 m
B
EL = 25 m

P = 39.25 kPa

A
EL = 5 m
P

hs = Energy head supplied by the pump.

Energy head at A + hm = Energy head at B + Losses
Neglecting the kinetic head
PA V A2 P V2
[Z a   ]  hs  Z B  A  A
rg 2 g rg 2 g

39.25 x10 3
5  0]  hs  25  0  0
8338.5
hs= 16.493 m
Power of the pump = 9KW, = 0.85
Power supplied by the pump = P x  = 9 x 0.85 = 7.65 KW

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 19

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

rgQhs
But power P =  8338.5 xQx16.493 / 1000  7.65
1000
Q = 0.0556 m3/s = 55.6 litres /s
17) Figure shows a pipe discharging water from a tank.The 150 mm diameter pipe is fitted with with a
75 mm diameter nozzle at outlet. Find the discharge. Find also the pressure heads at the points marked
1,2,3 and 4. Ignore loss of energy head.
Soln :Data-

10cm dia
3m

A 1 3
4.5 m

4 B

Nozzle = 5cm
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between A and B

ZA + PA/rg + VA2/ 2g = ZB + PB/rg + VB2/ 2g

PA = PB = 0 VA = 0, ZA = 4.5 m , ZB = 0
VB = √ =√ = 9.4 m/s

Discharge though the nozzle = Q = AB VB = VB = = x 9.4 = 0.01845 m3/s

Flow velocity of water in the pipe = = = = 2.35 m/s

Velocity of water at points 1,2,3,4 = 2.35 m/s

 V1 = V2= V3= V4 = 2.35 m/s

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 20

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Pressure at point 1
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between A and 1
ZA + PA/rg + VA2/ 2g = Z1 + P1/rg + V12/ 2g
PA = 0 , VA = 0 ZA = Z1 = 4.5
P1/rg + 2.352/ (2 x 9.81) = 0
P1/rg = -0.2815 m of water

Pressure at point 2
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between A and 2
ZA + PA/rg + VA2/ 2g = Z2 + P2/rg + V22/ 2g
PA = 0 , VA = 0 ZA = 4.5 m, Z1 = 7.5 m
4.5+ 0 + 0 = 7.5 + P2/rg + 2.352/ (2 x 9.81)
P2/rg = -3.2815 m of water

Pressure at point 3
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between A and 3
ZA + PA/rg + VA2/ 2g = Z3 + P3/rg + V32/ 2g
PA = 0 , VA = 0 ZA = 4.5 m, Z3 = 4.5 m
4.5+ 0 + 0 = 4.5 + P2/rg + 2.352/ (2 x 9.81)
P3/rg = -0.2815 m of water

Pressure at point 4
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between A and 3
ZA + PA/rg + VA2/ 2g = Z4 + P4/rg + V42/ 2g
PA = 0 , VA = 0 ZA = 4.5 m, Z4 = 0 m
4.5+ 0 + 0 = 0 + P4/rg + 2.352/ (2 x 9.81)
P4/rg = 4.219 m of water

18) Find the height h to which the water jet will shoot out of the nozzle in the arrangement shown in
the figure neglect the losses.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 21

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

h
B
Nozzle dia = 100 mm

1m
Dia 200 mm
A
Pa = 50 Kpa

Discharge = πda2Va/4 = πdb2Vb/4

Va = [ ] ==[ ] = 1/4Vb

Applying Bernoulli’s equation to the points A, B and C

ZA + PA/rg + VA2/ 2g = ZB + PB/rg + VB2/ 2g = ZC + PB/rg + VB2/ 2g

= = (1 +h) + 0 + 0

 =h

=1+h

= 4.06021

 h = 4.33 m
FLOW MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Introduction: Bernoulli’s equation finds wide application in the solution of many problems of fluid
flow. The other equation which is commonly used in the solution of the problems of fluid flow is the
continuity equation. Both these equations combinedly form a very useful tool in the solution of the

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 22

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

many problems of the fluid flow. All flow measurement instruments can be classified in to two
categories as velocity measuring and discharge measuring instrument.

1) Velocity measuring instruments: Ex. Pitot tube, Hot wire anemometer and current meter.
2) Discharge measuring Instruments: Ex. Venturimeter, Orifice meter, flow nozzle meter, elbow
meter, Rota meter .
Orifices are used for measuring discharge in tanks and reservoirs. Notches , Weirs are used for
measuring the discharge in open channel line, rivers and canals.

Introduction to Venturimeter:

PRESSURE GAUGES

(1/3 to 3/4 ) D

CONVERGENT CONE

5v to 15v
21vu1v
D

THROAT
DIVERGENT CONE
2 .7(D-d)

MANOMETER

Venturimeter is a device which is used for measuring the rate of flow of fluid through a pipe. The
basic principle on which it works is that by reducing the cross sectional area of the flow passage, a
pressure difference is created and the measurement of the pressure difference enables the
determination of the discharge through the pipe.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 23

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Venturimeter consists of 1) A inlet section followed by a converging cone 2) A cylindrical throat 3) A

gradually divergent cone. The inlet section of the venturimeter is of the same diameter at the at of the
pipe . This is followed by a convergent cone. The convergent cone is short pipe which tapers from
original size of the pipe to that of the throat of the venturimeter. The throat of the venturimeter is short
parallel sided tube having cross sectional area smaller than that of the pipe. The divergent cone of the
venturimeter is a gradually diverging pipe with its cross sectional area increasing from that of the
throat to the original size of the pipe. At the inlet section and the throat venturimeter pressure taps are
provided through pressure rings as shown in the figure. The divergent cone has a total included angle
between 50 to 150 where as the convergent cone angle is 21010 . Length of diverging cone must be
more than that of the converging cone in order to avoid the loss of energy. The velocity of flow at the
throat section is greater than that at inlet section. The increase in velocity of flow at throat section
results in decrease in the pressure at the section. As such a pressure difference is developed between
the inlet section and the throat of the venturimeter. The pressure difference between these sections can
be determined either by connecting differential manometer between pressure taps provided at theses
sections or connecting separate pressure gauges at each pressure taps. The measurement of the
pressure difference between these sections enables the calculation of rate of flow of fluid as follows.
Let d1 = diameter at the inlet
P1 = Pressure at section 1-1
V1 = Velocity of fluid at section 2-2
a1= Area at the section 1-1 = d12 / 4
And d2,P2,V2, a2 are corresponding values at section2-2 applying Bernoulli’s equation between
section 1-1 and 2-2 we get
P1/rg + V12 / 2g +Z1 = P2/rg + V22 / 2g +Z2
As the pipe is horizontal Z1 = Z2
P1/rg + V12 / 2g = P2/rg + V22 / 2g
(P1- P2) / rg = (V22 - V12 )/ 2g 1
But (P1- P2) / rg is the difference of pressure heads at section 1-1 and 2-2 and is equal to h or
(P1- P2) / rg = h Using this in the equation 1 we get
h = (V22 - V12 )/ 2g 2
Now applying the continuity equation at section 1-1 and 2-2
a1V1 = a2V2 or V1 = a2V2/a1
Substituting this value of V1 in the equation 2
h = [V22 – (a2V2/a1) 2] / 2g = V22 /2g [ 1-a22/a12] = V22 /2g [(a12-a22) / a12]

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 24

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

V22 = 2gh a12 / [(a12-a22)

V2 = [2gh a12 / [(a12-a22)]1/2
= a1(2gh)1/2 / (a12-a22)1/2
Discharge Q = a2V2 = a2a1(2gh)1/2 / (a12-a22)1/2 3
The above equation gives discharge under ideal conditions and is called theoretical discharge. Actual
discharge will be less than theoretical discharge . Actual discharge is calculated by
Qa = Cd x a1a2(2gh)1/2 / (a12-a22)1/2 4
When value of h is given by differential manometer
i) Let Sh = Specific gravity of heavier liquid.
So = Specific gravity of liquid flowing through the pipe.
X = difference of heavier liquid column in the U tube
Then h is calculated by h = X (Sh/So -1)
ii) If the differential manometer liquid is lighter than the liquid flowing through the pipe , the value of
h is given by h = X (1-Sl/So) .
Where Sl is lighter fluid specific gravity , So is specific gravity of fluid flowing through the pipe.
iii) Inclined venturimeter having heavier liquid then h = (P1/rg + Z1) – ( P2/rg + Z2) = X (Sh/So -1)
iv) Inclined venturimeter with lighter liquid h = (P1/rg + Z1) – ( P2/rg + Z2) = X (1-Sl/So)

Inclined venturimeter:
Venturimeter can also be used for measuring the discharge through a pipe which is laid either in an
inclined or in vertical position. Consider a venturimeter connected in an inclined pipe as shown in the
figure.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between sections 1 and 2 no loss of energy , we get
P1/rg + V12 / 2g +Z1 = P2/rg + V22 / 2g +Z2
Or ( P1/rg + Z1 ) - ( P2/rg + Z2 ) = V22 / 2g - V12 / 2g
h = V22 / 2g - V12 / 2g

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 25

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

y
Z1

Z2
MANOMETRIC LIQUID
WITH SP GR Sm DATUM

INCLINED VENTURIMETER
Where h is again the venture head which in this case is the difference between the piezometric heads at
sections 1 and 2. Again by considering the continuity equation along the above expression , we may
obtain an expression for the discharge Q through an inclined venture meter which will be same as
equation 3 and 4 . Thus it may be stated that even when a venturimeter is connected in an inclined pipe
the discharge Q is given by the equation 3 and 4 with only difference is that the venture head in this
case is equal to difference between the piezometric heads at sections 1 and 2. Furthermore as shown
in figure if a U-tube manometer is connected between the pressure taps at sections 1 and 2, then for a
difference in the levels of the manometric liquid in the two limbs equal to x, the following manometric
equation may be obtained .
P1/rg + (Z1- Z2) + y + x = P2/rg + y + x Sm/S
Or ( P1/rg + Z1 ) - ( P2/rg + Z2 ) = h = x(Sm/S – 1)

Orifice meter:
Orifice meter also works on the same principle as that of the venturimeter. Orifice meter is the cheaper
arrangement for discharge measurement through the pipe and its installation requires a small length as
compared with venturimeter.As such where the space is limited , the orifice meter may be used for the
measurement of discharge through the pipes.
An orifice meter consists of a flat circular plate with a circular hole called orifice, which is concentric
with the pipe axis. The thickness of the plate is les than or equal to 0.05 times the diameter of the pipe.
From the upstream face of the plate the edge of the orifice is made flat for a thickness t1 less than or

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 26

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

equal to 0.02 times the diameter of the pipe and the remaining thickness of the plate is beveled with
bevel angle lying between 30 to 45 degrees.

How ever , if the thickness t is equal to t1 , then no beveling is done for the edge of the orifice . The
plate is clamped between the two pipe flanges with the beveled surface facing down stream as shown
in the figure. The diameter of orifice may vary from 0.2 to 0.85 time the diameter of the pipe. But
generally the orifice diameter is kept as 0.5 times the pipe diameter. Two pressure taps are provided ,
one at section on the upstream side of the orifice plate . The upstream pressure tap is located at a
distance of 0.9 to 1.1 times the pipe diameter from orifice plate. The position of the down stream
pressure tap depends on the ratio of the orifice diameter and the pipe diameter. On the upstream side
pressure tap is provided away from the orifice plate in order to avoid the effect of convergence of
flowing stream. However on the downstream side the pressure tap is provided quite close to the orifice
plate at the section where the converging fluid has almost smallest cross sectional area (Vena
contracta) resulting in almost maximum velocity of flow and consequently minimum pressure at this
section. Therefore maximum possible pressure difference exists between the sections 1-1 and 2-2.
Which is measured by connecting a differential manometer between the pressure taps at these
sections or by connecting a separate pressure gauge at each of the pressure taps. The jet of the fluid
coming out of the orifice gradually expands from the vena contracta to again fill the pipe.
Let P1, P2 and V1, V2 be the Pressure and velocities at sections 1-1 and 2-2 respectively . Then for an
incompressible fluid, applying Bernoulli’s equation between the sections 1 nd 2 and neglecting the
losses we have
P1/rg + V12 / 2g +Z1 = P2/rg + V22 / 2g +Z2 1
As the pipe is horizontal Z1 = Z2
P1/rg + V12 / 2g = P2/rg + V22 / 2g
(P1- P2) / rg = (V22 - V12 )/ 2g = h 2

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 27

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

The above equation can be written as V2 = (2gh + V12)1/2

The above equation gives theoretical velocity of flow at section 2-2 .
Then actual velocity V2 = Cv (2gh + V12)1/2 3
If a1 and a2 are cross sectional area of the pipe at section 1-1 and that of the jet at section 2-2
respectively and Q represents the actual discharge throught the pipe , then by continuity equation
Q = a1V1=a2V2 4
The area of the jet section 2-2 may be related to the area of the orifice ao by the following expression.
a2/ao = Cc or a2 = Cc ao
Where Cc is the coefficient of contraction using this value of a2 in to the continuity equation .
V1 = V2 Cc ao / a1
Using this relation of V1 in to the equation 3 we get
V2 = Cv [2gh + (V2 Cc ao / a1 )2]1/2
Solving for V2 we get
V22 = Cv2 (2gh + V22 Cc2 ao2/a12)
V22 - Cv2 V22 Cc2 ao2/a12 = Cv2 2gh
V22( 1- Cv2 Cc2 ao2/a12) = Cv2 2gh
V22 = Cv2 2gh / ( 1- Cv2 Cc2 ao2/a12)
V2 = Cv (2gh)1/2 / ( 1- Cv2 Cc2 ao2/a12)1/2
Now Q = a2V2 = Cc ao V2 and Cc Cv = Cd
 Q = ao Cc V2 = ao Cc Cv (2gh)1/2 / ( 1- Cv2 Cc2 ao2/a12)1/2
= Cd ao (2gh)1/2 / ( 1- Cd2 ao2/a12)1/2
Using C = Cd ( 1- ao2/a12)1/2 / ( 1- Cd2 ao2/a12)1/2
Q = C ao (2gh)1/2 / ( 1- ao2/a12)1/2
= C aoa1(2gh)1/2 / (a12- ao2)1/2
Using C  Cd
Q = Cd aoa1(2gh)1/2 / (a12- ao2)1/2 5
Pitot tube:
Pitot tube is a simple device used for measuring the velocity of flow. The basic principle used in this
device is that if the velocity of flow at a particular point is reduced to zero, which is known as the
stagnation point, there is an increase in pressure due to conversion of kinetic energy into pressure
energy and by measuring the increase in the pressure energy at this point the velocity of flow may be
determined.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 28

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

h
h0
1 A

PITOT TUBE
In its simplest form it consist of glass tube , large enough for capillary effects to be negligible and bent
at right angles. The tube is dipped vertical in the flowing streams shown in the fig. The fluid enters the
tube and the level of fluid in the tube exceeds that of the fluid surface in the surrounding stream. This
is so because the end A of the tube is stagnation point where the fluid is at rest and the fluid
approaching the end A divides at this point and passes around the tube. The pressure at the stagnation
point is known as stagnation pressure.
Consider a point 1 slightly upstream of end A and lying along the same horizontal plane in the flowing
stream where the velocity of flow is V. Now if the point 1 and A are at same depth h o from free
surface of fluid in the stream and h is the height of the fluid raised in the pitot tube above the free
surface. Applying the Bernoulli’s equation between the points 1 and A and neglecting the loss of
energy we get ,

P1/rg + V12 / 2g +Z1 = P2/rg + V22 / 2g +Z2 1

But Z1=Z2 and V2 = 0
P1/rg = Pressure head at point 1 = ho , P2/rg = Pressure head at point A = h + ho
Therefore equation reduces to

ho + V12 / 2g = h + ho
Or V12 = 2gh
V1 = (2gh)1/2

When a pitot tube is used for measuring the velocity of flow in a pipe or any other closed conduit by
inserting it into the pipe. The value of h is determined by using differential pressure gauge with a static
pressure tapping in the pipe wall as shown in the figure.C. In some cases both static pressure and

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 29

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

dynamic pressure are measured using a combine pitot static tube as shown in fig D. It consists of a
concentric tube with an annular space filled with the liquid. The inner tube is used to measure the
impact pressure (Dynamic pressure). Where as the outer tube have holes on its surface measure the
static pressure. In this case the differential pressure head is given by
h = X ( Sgm/So -1)

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 30

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Orifices

Orifice is an opening in the side or base of the tank such that its upper edge is completely below the
free surface of the liquid in the tank.

Classification:
Orifices are generally classified as listed below.
1) According to the shape
i) Circular orifice ii) Bell mouth orifice 3) Triangular orifice

2) According to the shape of the edge

i) Sharp edged orifice ii) Bell mouth orifice

3) According to the nature of the orifice

i) Fully submerged orifice ii) Partially submerged orifice.

Terms used in the orifice:

I) Venacontracta:

Sharp edged orifice Bell mouthed

The jet of liquid coming out through orifice is subjected to the contraction up to the plane C-C .
Beyond this plane the cross sectional area of the jet remains constant and changes its direction. This
region of the jet where there is maximum contraction or minimum jet diameter is known as the
venacontracta. The reason for this is mainly the force acting at right angles to the horizontal plane.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 31

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

II) Coefficient of velocity (Cv)

It is defined as the ratio of the actual velocity of the jet to the theoretical velocity of the jet .Thus if V
is the actual velocity of the jet at venacontracta then
Cv = V/ (2gh)1/2
The difference between the actual velocity and theoretical velocity of the jet of liquid is due to the
friction in the orifice. This is very negligible in sharp edged orifices. The coefficient of velocity taken
as 0.97 to 0.98.

III) Coefficient of contraction(Cc)

It is defined as the ratio of the jet at venacontracta to the area of the orifice . Let ac is the c/s area of jet
at venacontracta to the area of the orifice then

Cc = ac/a
In practice its value varies from 0.61 to 0.65. For bell mouthed orifice there is no contraction of the jet
therefore the coefficient of contraction is equal to unity. But Cv value is reduced due to the effect of
increased friction.

IV) The coefficient of discharge(Cd)

It is defined as the ratio between the actual discharge issued from an orifice to theoretical discharge.

Cd = Actual discharge / Theoretical discharge = Q/ Qth

Q = Actual area of the jet at venacontracta x actual velocity of jet through venacontracta.
= ac x V = Cc a x Cv (2gh) 1/2
Theoretical discharge = C/s area of orifice x Theoretical velocity of jet
Qth = a(2gh)1/2
Cd = Q/ Qth
= Cc a x Cv (2gh) ½ / [a(2gh)1/2]
= Cc x Cv

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 32

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Experimental methods of determination of coefficients for an orifice

1) Jet distance measurement method.

X
C

y
C

Jet distance measurement method

Under the constant head h above the orifice the distance covered by the fluid particle from
venacontracta in horizontal direction is X. In time t the fluid particles moves downward through a
distance of y from the same under the influence of gravity. If the air resistance is constant and
negligible the horizontal component V of the jet velocity remains unchanged and hence the horizontal
distance traveled by a fluid particle in time t after it has left the venacontracta is
X = Vt 1

The vertical distance traveled by the particle in the same time t is

y =1/2gt2 2
where g is acceleration due to gravity. Eliminating t using equation 1 in 2
t = X/V
y = ½ g X2/V2
 V2 = gx2 / 2y
Or
V = (gX2/ 2y)1/2
The path of fluid particle is parabola.
Vth = (2gh)1/2
Cv = V/Vth
= (gX2/ 2y)1/2 / (2gh)1/2
= (X2/ 4hy)1/2

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 33

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

2) Velocity measurement method

Pitot tube

Velocity measurement method

V = Q / ac
Vth = (2gh) ½
 Cv = V/ Vth = Q/ ac (2gh) ½

Determination of coefficient of contraction Cc

Generally two methods are used 1) Direct method 2) Indirect method
Direct method is used for measuring the actual area of the jet at vencontracta by using micrometer. But
this method is suitable only for the circular orifice. If the shape is other than the circular one indirect
method is used. In indirect method the value of Cc is obtained by using the relation
Cc = Cd / Cv

Determination of coefficient of discharge (Cd)

To determine the coefficient of discharge liquid discharged through an orifice under constant head of
liquid h is collected in a measuring tank for a known period of time. The actual discharge Q passing
through the orifice may then be calculated by dividing the volume of the liquid collected by the time
during which it is collected. The theoretical discharge of the orifice being equal to (a x(2gh)1/2). Where
a is the orifice area and h is the constant head under which it is discharging. The value of the
coefficient of discharge for the orifice may then be determined as

Cd = Q / a (2gh) ½

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 34

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Notches:
Notch is a device used for measuring rate of flow of liquid through a small tank or channel. Notch is
defined as an opening provided in the side of the tank such that liquid surface in the tank or channel
below the top edge of the opening. Notches usually made up of metallic plates. The notches usually
classified according to the shape of the notch as listed below.
1) Triangular notches.
2) Rectangular notches.
3) trapezoidal notches.
4) Stepped notches.

1) Triangular Notch or V Notch

h

A C B
A C
H
dh

q
q/2
H-h

TRIANGULAR NOTCH

Generally, a triangular notch is preferred over rectangular notch for measuring low discharges. This is
mainly due to the difficulty in measuring the head over the rectangular notch. Figure shows a
triangular notch with vertex angle equal to q . Let H be the head above the crest of the notch. Consider
a horizontal elementary strip of thickness dh at a depth h below the water surface.
From triangle ACO tanq/2 = AC / CO = AC / H-h
 AC = tanq/2 x ( H- h)
Width of the strip = AB = 2AC
= 2 (H-h) x tanq/2
Area of the strip = 2 (H-h) x tanq/2 dh
Theoretical velocity of the liquid through the strip = (2gh) ½

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 35

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Discharge through the strip is dQ = Cd x Area of strip x Velocity (Theoretical)

= Cd x 2 (H-h) x tanq/2 dh (2gh) ½
= 2 Cd (H-h) x tanq/2 dh (2gh) ½
Total discharge through notch Q = 0H 2 Cd (H-h) x tanq/2 dh (2gh) ½
= 2 Cd x tanq/2 (2g) ½ 0H(H-h) (h) ½ dh
= 2 Cd x tanq/2 (2g)½ 0H(H h1/2 –h3/2) dh
H

= 2 Cd x tanq/2 (2g)½ [ (H h3/2 ) / (3/2) – h5/2 / (5/2)]

0

= 2 Cd x tanq/2 (2g)½ [ (H H3/2 ) x (2/3) – (2/5)] H5/2 ]

= 2 Cd x tanq/2 (2g)½ [ (H5/2 ) x 10 – 6 H5/2 ] /15
= 2 Cd x tanq/2 (2g)½ [ 4H5/2 /15]
= (8/15) Cd tanq/2 (2g)½ H5/2
For right angled V notch if Cd = 0.6 , q = 900 ,tanq/2 = 1
Q = (8/15) x 0.6 x 1 (2)½ H5/2
= 1.417 H5/2

2) Rectangular notch
h

H
dh

RECTANGULAR NOTCH

Consider a rectangular notch provided in a channel carrying water as shown in the figure. Let L be the
length of the crest of the notch and H be the height of the water surface above the crest. For

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 36

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

calculating the discharge of water flowing over notch consider elementary horizontal strip of water of
thickness dh and length L at depth h below the water surface as shown in figure.
The area of the strip = Ldh
Velocity of water flowing through the strip will be = (2gh)1/2
The discharge dQ through the strip is
dQ = Cd x Area of strip x Velocity (Theor)
= Cd Ldh (2gh)1/2
The total discharge , Q , for the whole notch is determined by integrating equation above between the
limits 0and H
Q = 0H Cd Ldh (2gh)1/2
= Cd L(2g)1/2 0H h1/2dh
H

= Cd L(2g)1/2 [ (2/3)h3/2]
0

= (2/3) Cd L(2g)1/2 H3/2

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 37

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

FLOW THROUGH PIPES

Introduction: A pipe is a closed conduit which is used for carrying fluids under pressure. Pipes are
commonly circular in cross section. The fluid flowing through the pipes subjected to resistance due to
shear force between fluid particles and boundary walls of the pipe and between the fluid particles
themselves resulting from the viscosity of the fluid. The resistance to the flow of the fluid is generally
known as the frictional resistance. Since the certain amount of the energy possessed by the fluid will
be consumed in overcoming this resistance to the flow, there will always be some loss of energy in the
direction of flow, which however depends on the type of flow. The flow of the fluid may be either
laminar or turbulent.

Loss of Energy in pipes:

Different energy losses taking place in pipes are classified as
i) Major losses
ii) Minor losses
i) Major losses : Major losses are due to friction, this can be calculated by the following
formulae a) Darcy-Weisbach formula b) Chezy’s formula .
ii) Minor losses: This is due
a) Sudden expansion
b) Sudden contrction of pipe
c) Bend in pipe.
d) Pipe fittings.
e) An obstruction in the pipe.

Frictional losses in pipe:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 38

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Let P1 , V1 are the pressure and velocity of flow at the section 1-1
L = Length of pipe between sections 1-1 and 2-2
d = Diameter of pipe
f’ = Frictional resistance / unit wetted area per unit velocity.
hf = Loss of head due to friction.
P2,V2 are values of pressure and velocity at section 2-2.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between section 1-1 and 2-2
P1/rg + V12 / 2g +Z1 = P2/rg + V22 / 2g +Z2+ hf 1
As pipe is horizontal Z1 = Z2 , V1 = V2 as diameter of pipe is same.
 P1/rg = P2/rg + hf
Or hf = P1/rg - P2/rg 2
hf is the loss of head due to friction and hence intensity of pressure will be reduced in the direction of
flow by frictional resistance.
Frictional resistance = Frictional resistance per unit wetted area per unit velocity
x wetted area x velocity 2
F1 = f’ x dL x V2 = f’ x p x L x V2 , Where p is perimeter
The forces acting on the fluid between sections 1-1 and 2-2 are
1) Pressure force at section 1-1 = P1A
2) Pressure force at section 2-2 = P2A
3) Frictional force in the horizontal direction we have
P1A – P2A – F1 = 0
(P1-P2)A = F1 = f’ x p x L x V2
(P1-P2) = f’ x p x L x V2 / A 3
From equation 1 (P1 – P2) = rg hf
rg hf = f’ x p x L x V2 / A

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 39

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

hf = (f’/rg) x (p/A) x L x V2 4
p/A = Wetted perimeter/ Area = d / (d2/4) = 4/d
hf = (f’/rg) x 4/d x L x V2
= (f’/rg) x ( 4L V2/d) 5
Using f’/rg = f/2g Where f is known as coefficient of friction
 Equation 5 becomes hf = 4fL V2/2gd
Above equation is known as the Darcy – Weisbach equation
Some times the above equation is written as
hf = f* L V2/2gd (f* = 4f)
f* is known as the friction factor
Coefficient of friction is a function of Reynolds number is given by f = 16 / Re for Re < 2000
f = 0.079 / Re1/4 Re 4000 to 106

Chezy’s equation :

hf = (f’/rg) x (p/A) x L x V2
The ratio A/p ( Area of flow / Wetted perimeter ) is called hydraulic mean depth (m)
M = A/p = (d2/4) / d = d / 4
Substituiting A/p =m or p/A = 1/m in to the above equation we get
hf = (f’/rg) x (1/m) x L x V2
or V2 = hf rgm / ( f’L)
V = [(rg /f’) x m x (hf / L)]1/2
Let (rg /f’)1/2 = C , Where c is constant known as chezy’s constant and hf / L = I , where i is the loss of
head per unit length of pipe
V = C (mi)1/2

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 40

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

ii) Minor Energy losses

a) Loss of head due to sudden enlargement.

The loss of energy occurs when a pipe of certain diameter suddenly expands to a larger diameter.
Consider a pipe of cross section A1 carrying liquid of specific weight (rg) , connected to a another
pipe of larger across sectional area A2 , at a certain section. Since there is sudden change in the cross
sectional area of the flow passage, the liquid emerging from the smaller pipe is not able to follow the
abrupt change of the boundary consequently at this section the flow separates from the boundary,
forming regions of separation in which turbulent eddies are formed which results in the loss of energy.
The region of separation however extends up to certain distance on the down stream side where the
liquid again follows the boundary of the pipe of larger cross sectional area. Let V1 and V2 are the
velocities of flow of liquid in narrower and wider pipes respectively. Then the loss of head is
calculated as follows.

Consider two sections of pipe 1-1 and 2-2 before and after the enlargement
P1 = Pressure intensity at section 1-1
V1 = Velocity of flow at section 1-1
A1 = Area of pipe at section 1-1
P2,V2 and A2 are corresponding values at section 2-2
p’ = Pressure intensity of the liquid eddies on the area A2- A1
He = Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
Applying the Bernoulli’s equation at section 1-1 and 2-2
P1/rg + V12 / 2g +Z1 = P2/rg + V22 / 2g +Z2+ Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 41
 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

But Z1= Z2 as pipe is horizontal

P1/rg + V12 / 2g = P2/rg + V22 / 2g + he
he = (P1- P2) / rg + (V12 - V22 )/ 2g 1
Consider the control volume of liquid between sections 1-1 and 2-2 then the force acting on the liquid
in the control volume in the direction of flow is given by .
Fx = P1A1 + p’(A2-A1) – P2A2
But p’ = P1
 Fx = P1A1 + P1 (A2-A1) – P2A2
=P1A1 + P1A2 – P1A1 – P2A2
= P1A2- P2A2
= (P1-P2) A2 2
Momentum of liquid at section 1-1
= rA1V1 x V1 = rA1V12
Momentum of liquid at section 2-2 = rA2V22
Change of momentum = rA2V22 - rA1V12
But from continuity equation we have A1V1 = A2V2 or A1 = A2V2/V1
Change of momentum = rA2V22 - r A2V2 V12 /V1
= rA2V22 - r A2V2 V1
= rA2[V22 – V1V2] 3
Net force acting on the control volume in the direction of flow must be equal to the rate of change of
momentum or change of momentum per second. Equating equations 2 and 3
(P1-P2)A2 = rA2[V22 – V1V2]
(P1-P2) / r = V22 – V1V2
Divide throught by ‘g’
(P1-P2) / rg = (V22 – V1V2)/g 4
Using this equation in equation 1 we get
he = (P1- P2) / rg + (V12 - V22 )/ 2g
= (V22 – V1V2)/g + (V12 - V22 )/ 2g
= 2V22 – 2V1V2 + V12 – V22 / 2g
= (V22 + V12 -2V1V2)/ 2g
= (V1-V2)2/2g

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 42

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

b) Loss of head due to sudden contraction:

Consider pipe carrying some liquid of specific weight rg . Whose cross sectional area at a certain
section reduces abruptly from A1 to A2 as shown in fig. In the region just upstream of junction there
being converging flow no major loss of energy occurs however immediately down stream of the
junction as the liquid flows from wider pipe in to narrower pipe a venacontracta is formed , after
which the stream of liquid widens again to fill completely the narrower pipe. In between the
venacontracta and the pipe wall lot of eddies are formed which causes considerable dissipation of
energy.

Let Ac is Area of flow at section C-C , Vc is the velocity of flow at section c-c , A2 is area of flow at
section 2-2 , V2 is the velocity of flow at section 2-2, hc is the loss of head due to sudden contraction .
hc is actually loss of head due to enlargement from section c-c to section 2-2 and is given by

hc= (Vc – V2)2 /2g = V22/2g[Vc/V2-1]2 1

From continuity equation we have
AcVc = A2V2 or Vc/V2 = A2/Ac = 1/(Ac/A2)= 1/Cc ( ìCc = Ac/A2)
Substituting the Vc/V2 in to the equation 1 we get
Hc = V22/2g[1/Cc -1]2 = KV22/2g
Where K = (1/Cc-1)2
If the values Cc is not given then hc is calculated by hc = 0.5 V22/2g

c) Loss of head at the entrance of the pipe :

This loss occurs when ever the fluid enters the pipe from a large tank or reservoir. This loss is similar
to the loss of energy due to sudden contraction of pipe. Usually this is taken as equal to hi = 0.5V2/2g

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 43

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

d) Loss of head at the exit ho = V22/2g

e) Loss of head due to an obstruction in a pipe

Whenever there is a obstruction in a pipe, the loss of energy takes place due to reduction of area of the
cross section of pipe at the place where obstruction is present. There is a sudden enlargement of the
area of flow beyond the obstruction due to which loss of head takes place as shown in fig.

Let a = Maximum area of obstruction, A = Area of pipe , V = Velocity , Then (A-a) = Area of flow of
liquid at section 1-1. As the liquid flows and passes through section 1-1 a vena contracta is formed
beyond section 1-1 after which stream widens again and velocity of flow at section 2-2 becomes
uniform and equal to velocity V. This situation is similar to sudden enlargement.
Le Vc = Velocity of liquid at vena contracta
Loss of head due to obstruction = (Vc-V)2/2g
From continuity equation ac x Vc = A x V
Ac is cross sectional area at vencontracta
Cc = Area at vena contracta / A-a = ac/A-a
ac = Cc x (A-a)
Cc x (A-a) x Vc = A x V
Vc = AV / Cc (A-a)
Using the above equation in equation 1 we get
Los of head due to obstruction = (Vc-V)2/2g = [AxV / {CC(A-a)/2g} –V]2
= V2/2g [A/{Cc(A-a)} -1]2

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 44

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

f) Los of head due to bend in pipe hb = KV2 / 2g Where K is coefficient of bend the value of K
depends on 1) Angle of bend 2) Radius of curvature of bend 3) Diameter of pipe.

g) Loss of head due to pipe fittings such as valves , couplings etc is equal to KV2/2g Where K is
coefficient of pipe fitting.

Flow through compound pipes:

Pipes can be connected to one another in two different ways 1) Series arrangement 2) Parallel
arrangement
1) Series arrangement:

Let L1, L2, L3 = Length of pipes 1, 2 and 3 respectively

D1, d2, d3 = Diameter of pipes 1, 2, 3 respectively
V1, V2, V3 = Velocity of flow through pipes 1, 2, 3
F1, f2, f3 = co-efficient of friction for pipes 1, 2, 3
H = Difference of water level in two tanks.

V L1 d
1 1
H

f1 L2d B
V 2
2
Ld
f 3 3
2 V
3
f
3

PIPES IN SERIES
The discharge passing through each pipe is same .
 Q = A1V1 = A2V2 =A3V3
The difference in the liquid surface level is equal to the sum of the total head loss in the pipes.
 H = 0.5V12/2g + 4f1L1V12 / 2gd1+0.5V22/2g+ 4f2L2V22/2gd2+ (V2-V3)2/2g + 4f3L3V32/2gd3+V32/2g

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 45

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

If minor losses are neglected , then above equation becomes as

H = 4f1L1V12 / 2gd1+ 4f2L2V22/2gd2+ 4f3L3V32/2gd3

If coefficient of friction is same for all pipes i.e., f1= f2= f3 = f , then above equation becomes

H = 4fL1V12 / 2gd1+ 4fL2V22/2gd2+ 4fL3V32/2gd3

= 4f / 2g [L1V12 / d1 + L2V22/d2+ L3V32/d3 ]

2) Parallel arrangement .
Consider a main pipe which divides into two or more branches as shown in fig and again join together
downstream to form a single pipe, then the branch pipes are said to be connected in parallel . The
discharge through the main can be increased by connecting pipes in parallel.

l V d1 f
11

l V d2f
2 2
Q
Q

l V d3 f
3 3

PIPES IN PARALLEL
The rate of flow in the main pipe is equal to the sum of rate of flow through branch pipes. Hence , we
have
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3

In this arrangement the loss of head in each pipe is same

 Loss of head for branch pipe 1 = Loss of head for branch pipe 2 = Loss of head for branch pipe 3
Or 4fL1V12 / 2gd1 = 4fL2V22/2gd2 = 4f3L3V32/2gd3
If f1 = f2 = f3 , then L1V12 / d1 = L2V22/d2 = L3V32/d3

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 46

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Hydraulic gradient line and total energy line :

Hydraulic gradient line: It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head (p/w) and
datum head (z) of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line or it is the line joining
the all the top of all vertical ordinates , showing the pressure head ( P/rg) of a flowing in a pipe from
the centre of pipe.
Total Energy line: It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head, datum head and
kinetic head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line. It is also defined as the
line which is obtained by joining the tops of all vertical ordinates showing the sum of pressure head,
kinetic head and potential from the centre of the pipe.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 47

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Consider a long pipe carrying liquid from a reservoir A to a reservoir B as shown in the figure. Let HA
an HB be the constant heights of the liquid surface in the reservoir A and B respectively above the
centre of the pipe. Further let ZA and ZB be the heights of the centres of the pipe ends connected to the
reservoirs A and B respectively. If V is the mean value of velocity of flow through the pipe then The
head due to friction hf = 4flV2/2gd .
The head loss at the entrance to the pipe = 0.5V2 / 2g
The head loss at the exit of the pipe = V2/2g
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at points 1 and 2 in the reservoir A and B respectively we obtain
HA + ZA = HB + ZB + 0.5 V2/2g + 4fLV2/2gd + V2/2g
(HA + ZA ) – (HB + ZB ) = V2/2g [ 1.5 + 4fL/d]
But (HA + ZA ) – (HB + ZB ) = H
Where H is the difference in the liquid surface in the reservoir A and B then,
H = V2/2g [ 1.5 + 4fL/d]
As shown in the figure for some distance from the entrance section of the pipe the hydraulic gradient
line is not very well defined. This is also because as the liquid from the reservoir enters the pipe the
vena contracta is formed and a sudden drop in pressure head takes place in this portion of the pipe.
The HGL in this portion of the pipe is therefore shown by dotted curved line. For the exit section of
the pipe being submerged, the pressure head at this section is equal to the height of the liquid surface
in the reservoir B and hence hydraulic gradient line. The exit section of the pipe will meet the liquid
surface in the reservoir B.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 48

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

( If the pressure heads at different section of the pipe are plotted to a scale as vertical ordinates above
the axis of the pipe and all these points are joined by straight line, a straight sloping line will be
obtained which is known as HGL.).
If at section of the pipe the total energy plotted to a scale as vertical ordinate above the assumed datum
and all these points are joined then a straight sloping line will be obtained which is known as total
energy line. TEL is parallel to the HGL with a vertical distance between them is equal to V2/2g. At
entrance section of the pipe there occurs some loss of energy called entrance loss is equal to h i =
0.5V2/2g. and hence the TGL at this section will lie at a vertical depth equal to 0.5V2/2g below the
liquid surface in the reservoir A. Similarly at the exit section of the since there occurs an exit loss
equal to ho = V2/2g the energy gradient line at this section will lie at a vertical distance equal to V2/2g
above the surface of the reservoir B.
If the liquid discharged in to the atmosphere at the exit end HGL at exit end of the pipe will pass
through the centre line of the pipe. The energy gradient line will again be parallel to the hydraulic
gradient line and it will be at a vertical distance of V2/2g above the HGL.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 49

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

VISCOUS FLOW

Introduction:

Fig
Consider a fluid flowing through a pipe at a low average velocity. The velocity across the section
shown in the figure. The velocities of fluid particles different at different radii. The velocity is zero at
the pipe surface and is maximum at the centre. The liquid body may be taken to consist of a number of
elemental shells one surrounding the other. Now these concentric shells or layers move with different
velocities. The velocity of outer most layer being zero. In the other wards the fluid does not slip at the
surface of the pipe. This type of flow where fluid body moves in layers is called laminar or viscous
flow.
Laminar flow can also exist as fluid flows over a surface. Consider the liquid flowing over the
horizontal boundary surface, at low velocity. The liquid body in this case also may be taken to consist
of a number of a horizontal layers one over the other. The various horizontal layers move with
different velocities, the velocity of the lower most layer which is in contact with solid boundary being
zero.

Reynolds experiment:

By the above experiment Reynolds established that when the velocity is below a certain limit the fluid
particles move in the stream lines in parallel layers or lamiae and the layers slide one over the other.
The velocity at which the flow changes from laminar to turbulent is called critical velocity. Critical

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 50

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

velocity was dependent on the ratio of the inertial to viscous forces. At low velocities viscous forces
are predominant and the flow becomes turbulent. The type of flow depends on the value of the
Reynolds number rVD/ Where D is the diameter of the pipe, V is the average velocity, r is the
density of the fluid and  is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. The lower critical velocity in pipes
occurs at the value of Reynolds number 2000. Transition from laminar to turbulent may occur at
some value of Reynolds number between 2000 and 4000. Transition velocity is the lowest velocity at
which the flow can change from laminar to turbulent.

Laminar incompressible flow in a circular pipe:

1 dx 2

R
R
r

1 2

r
LAMINAR INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN A CIRCULAR PIPE

Figure shows a horizontal circular pipe of radius r conveying a viscous incompressible fluid of
viscosity  . Consider section1-1 and 2-2 which are dx apart.
Let P1 and P2 be the pressure intensities at these sections. In this case the velocity of the fluid is
different at different distances from the axis of the pipe.
a) Determination of shear stress and velocity distribution
Under equilibrium condition viscous force is equal to net pressure force acting on the fluid element.
pr2 - (p+dp/dxdx) r2 = (2r.dx)
- r2 dp/dxdx = (2r.dx)
 =- (dp/dx) r/2 1
This shows that shear stress varies linearly along r-direction.
 r=0 = 0

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 51

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

And shear stress at r =R is maximum

max = - ( dp/dx) R/2 2
=- R/2 [(p2-p1)/ (x2-x1)]
= R/2 [(p1-p2)/ (x2-x1)]
= R/2 [(p1-p2)/ L] 3
The velocity gradient along the radial direction is –du/dr
(-ve sign indicates that u decreases with increasing r)

 =- du/dr
Using this relation of shear stress in equation1 we get
-du/dr = - (dp/dx) r/2
du = dp/dx.(r/2 )dr
u = 1/2 .dp/dx r.dr
As dp/dx is constant along the radial direction
u = (1/2).dp/dx (r2/2 ) + C
The boundary condition is u=0 at r = R
 C = -(1/2).dp/dx (R2/2 )
Substituting this in the above equation
u = (1/4).dp/dx(r2- R2)
= -(1/4).dp/dx R2 [1- (r / R)2] 4
This indicates that relation between u and r is parabolic.

Determination of u / U and Va / U
Where u is local velocity along radial direction r, U is the maximum velocity and Va is the average
velocity of flow.
From the equation 4
Velocity will be maximum when r = 0

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 52

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

U = -(1/4).dp/dxR2 5
From equation 4 and 5 we get
u/U = [1-(r/R)2]
The discharge through the section
Q = ½ base area x altitude of paraboloid
= ½ R2 U = ½ R2 [-(1/4).dp/dxR2]
= -(1/8) dp/dxR4
= (-1/128 ) dp/dx D4 6
This relation is known as Hagen Poiseuille equation

The average velocity of the fluid at the section is given by

Va = Q/A = (-1/128 ) dp/dx D4 x 4 /  D2
= -1/32 dp/dx D2
= -1/8 .dp/dx . R2 7
Now from equations 7 and 5 we get
Va /U = ½ 8
Determination of Head loss
As Va is given by
Va = -1/8 .dp/dx . R2
-dp/dx = 8Va / R2
= 32Va / D2 9
-(p2-p1) / (x2-x1)= (p1-p2 )/L = 32Va / D2 as x2-x1 =L
p1-p2 ) = 32Va L / D2
(p1-p2 ) / rg = hL = 32Va L / rg D2 10
2
But hL= 4fL Va / (2gD) 11
Equating 10 and 11
32Va L / rg D2 = 4fL Va2/ (2gD)
f = 16 / rDVa = 16/Re 12

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 53

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Viscous flow between two parallel plates.

l
A D

dy
C
B dx
y

FLOW OF VISCOUS FLUID BETWEEN TWO FIXED PARALLEL PLATES

Consider two parallel fixed plates kept at a distance ‘l’ apart as shown in the figure. A viscous fluid
is flowing between two plates from left to right. Consider a fluid element of length dx and thickness
dy at a distance y from the lower fixed plate. If p is the pressure intensity on the face AB of the fluid
element then intensity of pressure on the face CD will be [ p+(dp/dx ) dx] . Let  is the shear stress
acting on the face BC the shear stress on the face AD will be [ + (d / dy )dy] . If the width of the
element in the direction perpendicular to the paper is unity then the forces acting on the fluid element
are.
1. The pressure force , p x dy x 1 on face AB
2. The pressure force , [ p+(dp/dx ) dx] dy x 1 on face CD
3. The shear force ,  x dx 1 on face BC
4. The shear force , [ + (d / dy )dy ] dx x 1 on face AD
For equilibrium flow
p x dy x 1 -[ p+(dp/dx ) dx] dy x 1 =  x dx 1- [ + (d / dy )dy ] dx x 1
(dp/dx ) dx dy = (d / dy )dy dx
dp/dx = d / dy 1
Velocity distribution:
 =  du/dy
Using this in the above equation we get
dp/dx = d/ dy [ du/dy]

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 54

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Integrating the above equation twice we get

u = 1/ (dp/dx) y2/2 +C1y + C2 2
The boundary conditions for finding C1 and C2 are
u = 0 at y = 0 C2 = 0
 u = 0 at y = t
 C1 = -t/2 dp/dx
Substituiting these values in the above equation, we get
u = 1/ (dp/dx) y2/2 - ty/2 dp/dx
= 1/2 . (-dp/dx) [ty - y2] 3
= 1/2 . (-dp/dx) t2 [y/t - (y/t)2]
The above equation indicates that it is an equation of parabola between u and y as  ,dp/dx and l are
as constants.
The shear stress  = du/dy
Substituting the relation of u from equation 3 we get
 = d/dy [1/2 .(-dp/dx) (ty - y2)]
= ½. dp/dx (2y - t)
  = 0 at y = t/2
And  = max at y = 0
 max = -t /2 .dp/dx. 4

Determination of u/U and Va / U

The value of the u becomes maximum at y = t/2
Using this value of y in to the equation 3 we get
= 1/2 . (-dp/dx) [t2/2 - t2/4]
= -t2/8 . (dp/dx) 5

i) Velocity distribution
The shear stress  = du/dy
Using shear stress equation in the equation 1 we get
op/ox = o / oy (du/dy) =  o2u/ o2y
 o2u/ o2y = (op/ox ) / 

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 55

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Integrating the above equation w.r.t y we get

ou/ oy = (op/ox ) y /  + C1
Integrating again u = (op/ox ) y2 / 2 + C1y + C2 2
Where C1 and C2 are constants of integrations. Their values are obtained from the two boundary
conditions. i.e, i) at y =0 u =0 , ii) at y = t , u = 0
The substitution of at y = 0 , u =0 in equation 2
0 = 0 + C1 x 0 + C2 or C2 = 0
The substitution of at y = t , u=0
0 = (op/ox ) t2 / 2 + C1 t + 0
C1 = - (op/ox ) t2 / 2t = - (op/ox ) t / 2
Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in equation 2
u = (op/ox ) y2 / 2 + y [- (op/ox ) t / 2]
= -(op/ox )/2 [ty - y2] 3
In the above equation  , -(op/ox ) and t are constant . It means u varies with the square of y. Hence
equation 3 is a equation of a parabola. Hence velocity distribution across a section of the parallel plate
is parabolic. This velocity distribution is shown in the figure.

Fig
ii) Ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity. The velocity is maximum when y = t/2 .
Substituting this value in equation 3 we get
Umax = -(op/ox )/2 [t x t/2 – (t/2)2] = -(op/ox )/2 [t2/2 – t2/4]
= -(op/ox )/2 x t2/4

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 56

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

= -(op/ox ) t2/8 4
The average velocity V is obtained by dividing the discharge q across the section by the area of the
section (t x 1) . And the discharge Q is obtained by considering the rate of flow of fluid through the
strip of thickness dy and integrating it . The rate of flow through strip is
dQ = Velocity at a distance y x Area of strip = -(op/ox )/2 [ty - y2] dy x 1
t t

Q =  dQ =  -(op/ox )/2 [ty - y2] dy

0 0

= -(op/ox )/2 [ty2 / 2 – y3 / 3]

0

= -(op/ox )/2 [t3 / 2 – t3 / 3]

= -(op/ox )/2 x t3 / 6 = -(op/ox ) t3 / 12
V = Q / A = - [(op/ox ) t3 / 12] / (t x 1) = - (op/ox ) t2 / 12 5
Dividing equation 5 and 4 we get,
Umax / V = [-(op/ox ) t2/8 ] / - [(op/ox ) t2 / 12]
= 12/8 = 3/2
iii) Drop of pressure head for a given length from equation 3 we have

V = - (op/ox ) t2 / 12 or op/ox = 12  V / t2

Integrating this equation w.r.t. x we get
1 1

 dp =  - 12  V dx / t2
2 2

Or P1-P2 = - 12  V / t2[x1 – x2] = 12  V [x2 – x1] / t2 = 12  VL / t2

If hf is the drop of pressure head , then
hf = P1-P2 / rg = 12  VL /rg t2
iv) Shear stress distribution: It is obtained by substituting the value of u from equation 3
 =  ∂u/ ∂y =  ∂/ ∂y [-(∂p/∂x )/2 [ty - y2]
=  [-(∂p/∂x ) [t - 2y] /2
= -(∂p/∂x ) [t - 2y] /2 6

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 57

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

In the above equation ∂p/∂x and t are constant. Hence  varies linearly with y. The shear stress
distribution is shown in fig. Shear stress is maximum when y = 0 or t that at walls of the plates. Shear
stress is zero when y = t/2 i.e., is at the centre line between the two plates. Max shear stress (o) is
given by. 0 = - (∂p/∂x) t /2
Numerical Problems on Viscous Flow
1) An oil of viscosity 4.25 poise flows in a 45 mm diameter pipe the discharge rate being 5.25 l/s. If
the specific gravity of the oil is 0.87 state whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
Soln:Data- d = 45 mm,  = 4.25 poise = 0.425 Ns /m2 , r = 0.87 x 1000 = 870 Kg /m3
Velocity of oil = Va= Q/A
= Q/( x d2/4)
= 5.55 x 10-3 / ( x 0.0452/4)
= 3.3 m/s.
Reynolds Number = rVad / 
= 870 x 3.3 x0.045 / 0.425
= 304
Reynold number is less than 2000 therefore flow is laminar.
2) An oil of specific weight 8930 N/m3 and kinematics viscosity 0.002 m2/s pumped through a 150
mm dia 300 m long pipe at the rate of 200 KN/hr . Show that flow is viscous and find the power
required.
Soln: Data- rg = 8930 N/m3  = 0.002 m2/s , d = 150 mm , m = 200 KN/hr
Mass flow rate = rQ
Q = m /(rg x 3600) = 200 x 1000 / (8930 x 3600) = 0.0062 m3/s
Va = Va = Q/A
= Q/( x d2/4)
= 0.0062 / ( x 0.152/4)
= 0.351 m/s.
Reynolds Number = rVad /  = Vad/ ( /r) = Vad / 
= 0.351 x0.15 /0.002
= 26.325
Reynold number is less than 2000 therefore flow is laminar.
Loss of head hf = 32Va L / rg D2
= 32 Va L / g D2

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 58

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

= 32 x 0.002 x 0.351x 300 / (9.81x 0.152 )

= 30.532 m
Power required = rgQ x hf = 0.0062 x 8930 x 30.532 1.69 KW
3) Glycerene of viscosity 0.88 Ns/m2 and specific gravity 1.256 is pumped through a horizontal pipe
of diameter 20 mm at flow rate of 4.5 l/m . Determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Find
also the pressure loss due to frictional resistance in a length of 10 m and the power required.
Soln: Data-  = 0.88 Ns/m2 , sp gr = 1.256 , D = 20 mm, q = 4.5l/m
Va = Q/A = Q/( x d2/4)
= 45 x 10-3 / (60 x  x 0.022/4)
= 2.387 m/s.
Re = rVaD / 
= 1256 x 2.387 x 0.02 /0.88
= 68.138
Reynold number is less than 2000 therefore flow is laminar.
Pressure loss = 32Va L / D2
= 32 Va L / D2
= 32 x 0.88 x 2.387 x 300 / ( 0.022 )
= 1680.448 KPa
hf = (P2-P1)/rg = 1680.448 x 1000 / 1256 x 9.81
= 136.38 m
Power required = rgQ x hf
= 1256 x 9.81 x 45 x 10-3 /60 x 136.38
= 1.26 KW

4) A pipe of 10 cm diameter and 10 m long carrying oil whose specific gravity is 0.85 and viscosity is
1.1 poise. If the oil flow is 3 Kg/s. Find out pressure loss a) whether flow comes out from the pipe b)
Shear stress at the wall.
Soln :Data- D= 10 cm, l = 10 m, sp gr = 0.85 ,  = 1.1 poise = 0.11 Ns/m2, m = 3 Kg/s ,
r = 850 Kg/m3
m= rxQ
= r x A x Va
Va = m / r x A

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 59

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

= m / (r x  x d2/4)
= 3 / (850 x  x 0.12/4)
= 0.45 m/s
Re = rVaD / 
= 850 x 0.45 x 0.1 /0.11
= 347.73
Reynold number is less than 2000 therefore flow is laminar
Pressure loss = 32Va L / D2
= 32 Va L / D2
= 32 x 0.11 x 0.45 x 10 / ( 0.12 )
(P1-P2) = 1.584 Kpa
 = - (dp/dx) r/2
At the wall of the pipe r =R
  = - (dp/dx) R/ 2
= (P1 – P2 / l) x R /2 = (1584 / 10 ) x (0.05 / 2)
= 3.96 N/m2
5) A lubricating oil is pumped through a pipe of 15 cm diameter and 300 m long at the rate of 20 l/s
calculate the following.a) Average shear stress at the wall of the pipe b) Power required to maintain
the flow if the pipe is horizontal inclined by an angle of 15 degree to the horizontal and vertical or
downward.Assume Specific gravity = 0.82 ,  = 0.12 Ns/ m2
Soln:Data- D = 0.15 m, l= 300 m , Q = 20 l/s , q = 150
Va = Q/A = Q/( x d2/4)
= 20 x 10-3 / (  x 0.152/4)
= 1.13 m/s.
Re = rVaD / 
= 820 x 1.13 x 0.15 /0.12
= 1158.25
Reynold number is less than 2000 therefore flow is laminar.
Pressure loss = 32Va L / D2
= 32 x 0.12 x 1.13 x 300 / ( 0.152 )
= 57856 Pa
Loss of Head hf = Pressure loss / rg
=57856 / (820 x 9.81)

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 60

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

= 7.2 m
  = - (dp/dx) R/ 2
= (P1 – P2 / l) x R /2 = (57856 / 300 ) x (0.15 / 4)
= 7.232 N/m2
Power required = rgQ x hf
= 820 x 9.81 x 20 x 10-3 x 7.2
= 1.16 KW
i) If the pipe is inclined and flow is upward.
(P1/rg +Z1) – (P2/rg+Z2) = 32Va L /rg D2 = hf
= 32 x 0.12 x1.13 x300/ ( 820 x 9.81x 0.152 )
= 7.2 m

l
Z2
15v

sinq= Z2 / l
sin15 = Z2/300
Z2 = 77.65 m
Z1 = 0
(P1/rg + 0) – (P2/rg+77.65) =7.2
(P1 – P2)/ rg = 7.2 +77.65 = 84.85 m
(P1 – P2) = rg x 84.85 = 820 x 9.81 x 84.85
= 682.52 KN/ m2
Power required = Q (P1-P2) = 0.02 x 682.52 = 13.65 KW

 In an inclined pipe shear stress is given by  = -rg (dh/dx) R/ 2

= 820 x 9.81 x 7.2 /300 x 0.15/4
= 7.24 N/m2
ii) If the pipe is inclined but the flow is downward
(P1/rg +Z1) – (P2/rg+Z2) = 32Va L /rg D2 = hf
= 32 x 0.12 x1.13 x300/ ( 820 x 9.81x 0.152 )
= 7.2 m
sinq= Z1 / l

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 61

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

sin15 = Z2/300
Z1 = 77.65 m
Z0 = 0
(P1/rg + 0) – (P2/rg+77.65) =7.2
(P1 – P2)/ rg = 7.2 -77.65 = 70.41 m
(P1 – P2) = rg x 70.41 = 820 x 9.81 x 70.41
= -566.4 KN/m2
- Ve sign indicates that Pressure increases along the flow direction
 In an inclined pipe shear stress is given by  = -rg (dh/dx) R/ 2
= 820 x 9.81 x 7.2 /300 x 0.15/4
= 7.24 N/m2

6) Crude oil of specific gravity 0.9 and dynamic viscosity 0.15 Ns/m2 through a 20 mm dia vertical
pipe. Two pressure gauges have been fixed at 20 m apart. The pressure gauge fixed at higher level
reads 200 Kpa and that the lower level reads 600 Kpa .Find the dirtection and the rate of flow.
Soln :Data- = 0.15 Ns/m2 , d = 20 mm, sp gr = 0.9 , Z1 = 0 , Z2 = 20 m

B
200KPa
20 m

A 600KPa
Velocity at A is equal to Velocity at B
Total energy at A = (P1/rg +Z1) = 600 x 103/900x 9.81 = 67.96 m
Total energy at B = (P2/rg +Z2) = 200 x 103/900x 9.81 = 42.65 m
Ea >Eb Flow direction is upward
Loss of head hf= 67.96-42.65 = 25.31 m
Hf = 32Va L /rg D2 = 32 x 0.15 x Va x 20 / 900 x 9.81 x 0.022 = 25.31
 Va = 0.9309 m/s
Q = AV =  x d2 /4 x Va =  x 0.022 /4 x 0.9309 = 0.29245 m3/s

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 62

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

7) A fluid of viscosity 0.7 Ns/ m2 and specific gravity1.3 flows through a circular pipe of diameter 100
mm. The maximum shear stress at the pipe wall is given as 196.2 N/m2 find a)The pressure gradient
b) The average velocity c) Reynolds No
Soln:Data-  = 0.7 Ns/ m2 , Sp gr = 1.3 , D = 0.1 m , max = 196.2 N/m2

max = - (dp/dx) R/ 2
196.2 = (dp/dx) 0.05/ 2
 dp/dx = 196.2 x 2 / 0.05 = 7848 N/m2 per meter length of pipe

Average Velocity Va = U max/2 = - 1/2{[(1/4).dp/dx R2]

= 1/8 [(-dp/dx) x R2]
= 1/(8 x 0.7) x 7848x 0.052
= 3.5 m/s
Reynold number = rVaD/ = 1300 x 3.5 x 0.1/0.7 = 650

8) A laminar flow is taking place in a pipe of diameter of 200 mm . The maximum velocity is 1.5 m/s.
Find the mean velocity and radius at which this occur. Also calculate the velocity at 4 cm from the
wall of the pipe.
Soln:Data- U max = 1.5 m/s, D = 0.2 m
i) Mean velocity
Va = Umax/2 Va = 1.5 /2 = 0.75 m/s
ii) Radius at which Va occurs
The velocity U at any radius r is given by
U = (1/4).dp/dx(r2- R2)
= - (1/4).dp/dx(R2- r2)
U max = - (1/4).dp/dx R2
 U = Umax (1- r2/ R2)
The radius at which U = Va = 0.75 m/s.
0.75 = 1.5 (1- r2/ 0.12)
= 1.5 – 150 r2
r2 = 0.75 / 150 = 0.005
r = 0.0707m

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 63

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

iii) The velocity at 4 cm from the wall

r = R – 4 = 10-4 = 6 cm = 0.06 m
The velocity at radius 0.06 m
U = Umax (1- r2/ R2)
= 1.5 (1- 0.062/ 0.12)
= 1.5 (1-0.36) 1.5 x 0.64 = 0.96 m/s
9) A liquid of spgr = 0.9 and  = 1 poise is filled between two horizontal plates 1 cm apart . If the
upper plate is moving with a velocity of 2 m/s . Determine the shear stress at the moving plate. The
pressure difference between the section 10 cm apart along the flow is 9000 N/m2.
Soln:Data- spgr = 0.9 ,  = 1 poise , t = 1 cm = 0.01 m
U = -(op/ox )/2 [ty - y2]
= (op/ox )/2 [ y2-ty]
du/dx = (op/ox )/2 [ 2y-y]
= 9000/(2 x0.1) [2y-t]
= 4500(2 x y - t)
 y=t =  du/dy| y=t
= 4500(2 x0.01 – 0.01) = 4.5 N/m2

10) Calculate a) Pressure gradient along the flow b) The aerage velocity c) The discharge for an oil
viscosity 0.02 N-s/m2 flowing between two stationary parallel plates 1 m wide maintained 10 mm
apart . The velocity midway between the plate is 2 m/s.
Soln:Data-  = 0.02 N-s/m2 , Width = 1 m , t = 10 mm , Umax = 2 m/s.
i) Pressure gradient (dp/dx)
Umax = -1/8 (dp/dx) t2
2 = -1/(8x 0.02) (dp/dx) x 0.012
dp/dx = -2 x 8 x 0.02 / 0.012
= 3200 N/m2
ii) Umax /Va = 3/2
Va = 2Umax / 3 = 2x2/3 = 1.33 m/s
iii) Discharge = area of flow x Va = b x t x Va = 1x 0.01 x 1.33 = 0.0133 m3/s

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 64

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

11) Determine a ) Pressure gradient b) The shear stress at the two horizontal parallel plates and c) The
discharge/ meter width for the laminar flow of oil with a maximum velocity of 2 m/s between two
horizontal parallel fixed plates which are 100 mm apart given  = 2.4525 N-s/m2 .
Soln:Data- Umax = 2 m/s, t = 100 mm = 0.1 m ,  = 2.4525 N-s/m2 .
i) Pressure gradient
Umax = -1/8 (dp/dx) t2
2 = -1/(8x 2.4525) (dp/dx) x 0.012
dp/dx = -2 x 8 x 2.4525 / 0.012
= 3924 N/m2 /m
ii) Shear stress at the wall
 = -1/2 x dp/dx x t = -1/2 (3924 x 0.1 = 196.2 N/m2

ii) Discharge /m/width

= Mean velocity x area = 2/3Umax x (tx1) = 2/3 x 2x 0.1 x 1= 0.133 m3/s

12) An oil of viscosity 10 poise flows between two parallel fixed plates which are kept at a distance of
50 mm apart. Find the rate of flow of oil between the plates. If the drop of pressure in a length of 1.2
m be 3 N/cm2. the width of the plate is 200 mm.
Soln:Data- = 1 N-s/m2 , t = 0.05m Q =
P1-P2 = 0.3x 104 N/m2 L = 1.2 m , b = 0.2 m, t = 0.05 m,
The pressure difference is given by
P1-P2 = 12VaL/t2
0.3x 104 = 12 x 1 x Va x 1.2/ 0.052
Va = 0.52 m/s
Rate of flow = Va x area
= 0.52 x (B xt)
= 0.52 x 0.2 x 0.05 = 0.0052 m3/s
13) Water at 150C flows between two large plates at a distance of 1.6 mm apart. Determine a) The
maximum velocity b) Pressure drop / unit length and c) The shear stress at the wall of the plates if the
average velocity is 0.2 m/s . The viscosity of water at 150C is given as 0.01 Poise.
Soln:Data- t = 1.6 mm , Va = 0.2 m/s,  = 0.001 N-s/m2

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 65

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

i) Maximu velocity Umax = 3/2 Va

= 3/2 x 0.2
= 0.3 m/s
ii) Pressure drop = P1-P2 = 12VaL/t2
= 12 x 0.001 x 0.2 / 0.00162
= 937.44 N/m2/m
iii) Shear stress at the wall is given by
0 = -1/2 x dp/dx x t
= -1/2 (937.44 x 0.0016)
= 0.749 N/m2

14) The radial clearance between a hydraulic plunger and the cylinder wall is 0.1 mm, the length of the
plunger is 300 mm and diameter is 100 mm. Find the velocity of leakage and the rate of leakage past
the plunger at an instant when the difference of pressure between the two ends of plunger is 9 m of
water take  = 0.0127 Poise
Soln:Data- t = 0.1 mm , l = 300 mm , d = 0.1 m , dp = 9 m of water ,  = 0.00127 N-s/m2
Pressure difference = P1-P2 /rg = 9
= 9 x 9810
= 88290 N/m2
Va = -1/12 x dp/dx t2
= - 88290 x0.00012/ (12 x 0.00127x0.3)
= 0.193 m/s
Rate of flow Q = Va x area of flow
= 0.193 x  x d x t
= 0.193 x  x 0.1 x 0.0001
= 6.06 x 10-3 l/s

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 66

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 3 - 67