Research Methodology :

Introduction
Meaning of Research
• Research is not merely gathering information
• Research is not merely rummaging around for hard-to-locate
information
• Research is not merely transporting facts from one location to another
What Research is ?
Research is a systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and
interpreting information—data—in order to increase our understanding
of a phenomenon about which we are interested or concerned.
We focus on formal research :
• research in which we intentionally set out to enhance our
understanding of a phenomenon and expect to communicate what we
discover to the larger scientific community
Although research projects vary in
complexity and duration, in general
research involves
seven distinct steps : Research Cycle
1. Consider unresolved situations that evoke these questions: What is such
and such a situation like? Why does such-and-such a phenomenon occur?
What does it all mean? With questions like these, research begins.
2. The ultimate goal of the research must be set forth in a grammatically
complete sentence that specifically and precisely answers the question,
“What problem do you intend to solve?”
3. What seems like a single question can be divided into several smaller
questions that must be addressed before the principal question can be
resolved.
4. A hypothesis is a logical supposition, a reasonable guess, an educated
conjecture. It provides a tentative explanation for a phenomenon under
investigation. Hypotheses hints at a strategy for acquiring information
that may resolve the problem. Good researchers always begin a project
with open minds about what they may—or may not—discover in their
data. Hypotheses—predictions—are an essential ingredient in certain
kinds of research, especially experimental research.
Whereas a hypothesis involves a prediction that may or may not be supported by the data,
an is a condition that is taken for granted, without which the research project would be
pointless. Careful researchers—certainly those conducting research in an academic
environment—set forth a statement of their assumptions as the bedrock upon which their
study rests.
5. It is, instead, a carefully planned itinerary of the route you intend to take in order to reach
your final destination—your research goal. Researchers plan their overall research design
and specific research methods in a purposeful way so that they can acquire data relevant to
their research problem and subproblems.
6. The data collected in research studies take one of two general forms.
• Quantitative research involves looking at amounts, or quantities, of one or more
variables of interest. A quantitative researcher typically tries to measure variables in some
numerical way.
• Qualitative research involves looking at characteristics, or qualities, that cannot be
entirely reduced to numerical values.
The two kinds of data—quantitative and qualitative—often require distinctly different
research methods and data analysis strategies. Many researchers collect both quantitative
and qualitative data in a single research project—an approach sometimes known as mixed-
methods research.
7. The significance of the data depends on how the researcher extracts meaning from them.
In research, uninterpreted data are worthless. Interpretation is inevitably a somewhat
subjective process that depends on the researcher’s hypotheses, assumptions, and logical
reasoning processes.
Characteristics of seven step Process
• The process is iterative
• The process is cyclic : interpretation of the data—is not really the final
step at all i.e even with the best of data, hypotheses in a research
project are rarely proved or disproved—and thus research questions
are rarely answered—beyond a shadow of a doubt. Hypothesis might
have to be changed if not supported by data.
Ultimately, then, most research studies don’t bring total closure to a
research problem
Philosophical Assumptions Underlying
Research Methodologies
• Philosophical assumptions act as the foundation for research methodology,
essentially dictating the choices a researcher makes regarding data
collection, analysis, and interpretation.
• Philosophical assumptions relate beliefs about ontology (the nature
of reality), epistemology (what counts as knowledge and how
knowledge claims are justified), axiology (the role of values and
ethics in research), and methodology (the process of research).
Different research approaches that differ in their views on objectivity,
the role of the researcher, and the use of quantitative and qualitative
methods.
• Positivist Philosophy : Positivism
• Postpositivism
• Constructivism
Positivism
Positivists believe that, with appropriate measurement tools, scientists
can objectively uncover absolute, undeniable truths about cause-and-
effect relationships within the physical world and human experience.

• Emphasizes objectivity and the development of general laws

• Researcher is an independent observer
• Emphasizes quantitative methods
• Uncovers universal laws or truths
Postpositivism
Post-positivism is a more nuanced approach that acknowledges
that reality can only be known imperfectly. Post-positivist
research methods accepts concepts to be relevant only if they
support action. While still valuing empirical evidence and
scientific methods, post-positivism recognizes the influence of
subjectivity, context, and interpretation in the research process.
• Acknowledges limitations of objectivity and incorporates
subjectivity
• Researcher's identity and values influence what is observed
• Uses both quantitative and qualitative methods
• Understands complex phenomena
Constructivism
• Constructivism is a philosophical paradigm in the Social Sciences that
emphasizes how individuals actively construct their own understanding of
reality through their cognitive processes.
• Constructivism is the theory that says learners construct knowledge rather
than just passively take in information. As people experience the world and
reflect upon those experiences, they build their own representations and
incorporate new information into their pre-existing knowledge (schemas).
• Constructivists not only acknowledge that they bring certain biases to their
research endeavors but also try to be as upfront as possible about
these biases.
• By and large, constructivists focus their inquiries on people’s perceptions
and interpretations of various phenomena, including individuals’ behaviors,
group processes, and practices.
• Still quantitative research and qualitative research are not mutually
exclusive. For instance, some quantitative researchers approach a
research problem from a constructivist framework, and some
qualitative researchers tend to think in a postpositivist manner. Many
researchers acknowledge both that
(a) absolute truths regarding various phenomena may actually exist—
even if they are exceedingly difficult to discover
(b) human beings’ self-constructed beliefs about those phenomena
are legitimate objects of study in their own right.
Tools of research
General tools of research that the great majority of researchers of all
disciplines need in order to collect data and derive meaningful
conclusions
A research tool is a specific mechanism or strategy the researcher uses
to collect, manipulate, or interpret data.
A research tool is different from methodology.
Six Tools
1. The library and its resources
2. Computer technology
3. Measurement
4. Statistics
5. Language
6. The human mind
Library and resources
• They have made use of many emerging technologies (e.g.,
microforms, CDs, DVDs, online databases) to store information in
more compact forms.
• They have provided increasingly fast and efficient means of locating
and accessing information on virtually any topic.
• Many of them have made catalogs of their holdings available on the
Internet.
The libraries of today—especially university libraries—extend far
beyond their local, physical boundaries.
Computer Technology
• Personal computers, iPads, laptops, workstations
• computer software packages and applications
Measurement
• For quantitative research, a researcher needs a systematic way of
measuring the phenomena under investigation. Some kind of
instrument
• In quantitative research, social and psychological phenomena require
measurement as well, even though they have no concrete, maybe some
index or questionare
Statistics
• More useful in some academic disciplines than others
• Statistics have two principal functions: to help a researcher
(a) describe quantitative data
and (b) draw inferences from these data.
Descriptive statistics summarize the general nature of the data obtained—for
instance, how certain measured characteristics appear to be “on average,”
how much variability exists within a data set, and how closely two or more
characteristics are associated with one another.
Inferential statistics help the researcher make decisions about the data. For
e.g comparison between two groups.
Statistics yield information about data but researchers are inquisitive about
meaning of this information
Language
• Words reduce the world’s complexity
• Words allow abstraction of the environment
• Words enhance the power of thought.
• Words facilitate generalization and inference drawing in new situations
• Learning the specialized terminology of your field is indispensable to
conducting a research study, grounding it in prior theories and research, and
communicating your results to others.
• Two outward manifestations of language usage are also helpful to the
researcher: (a) knowing two or more languages and (b) writing one’s
thoughts either on paper or in electronic form.
• If you wait until all your thoughts are clear before you start writing,
you may never begin. Thus, it is recommended that you start writing
parts of your research proposal or report as soon as possible. Begin
with a title and a purpose statement for your study. Commit your title
to paper; keep it in plain sight as you focus your ideas. Although you
may very well change the title later as your research proceeds, creating
a working title in the early stages can provide both focus and
direction. And when you can draft a clear and concise statement that
begins, “The purpose of this study is . . .,” you are well on your way to
planning a focused research study.
Guidelines to write a paper effectively
• Be specific and precise
• Continually keep in mind your primary objective in writing your paper, and
focus your discussion accordingly
• Provide an overview of what you will be talking about in upcoming pages.
Providing an overview of what topics you will discuss and in what order—
and possibly also showing how the various topics interrelate—is known as
an advance organizer.
• Organize your ideas into general and more specific categories, and use
headings and subheadings to guide your readers through your discussion of
these categories
• Use concrete examples to make abstract ideas more understandable
• Use figures and tables to help you more effectively present or organize
your ideas and findings.
• At the conclusion of a chapter or major section, summarize what you
have said
• Anticipate that you will almost certainly have to write multiple drafts
• Check to be sure that your final draft uses appropriate grammar and
punctuation, and check your spelling
Research Methods: Induction, Deduction & Formal
Approaches

 Overview of research methods

 Importance of systematic reasoning in research
Introduction to Induction and Deduction

 Research aims to establish facts and theories

 Logical reasoning plays a crucial role
 Two major approaches: Induction & Deduction
Deductive Reasoning

 Starts from general principles and moves to specific conclusions

 Based on established theories, laws, or general understandings
 Example:
o General Proposition: All birds have wings
o Specific Proposition: A sparrow is a bird
o Conclusion: Therefore, a sparrow has wings
Inductive Reasoning

 Begins with specific observations and moves to general conclusions

 Based on empirical observations and patterns
 Example:
o Observing that multiple swans are white
o Generalizing that all swans might be white
o Risk: Conclusions may not always be true (black swans exist)

Deductive reasoning excelled in mathematics but fell short in exploring the universe and discovering
new facts. To address this, scientists turned to inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning enables
researchers to:
1. Derive general laws from specific observations
2. Discover new facts and relationships
By combining deductive and inductive approaches, scientists can advance our understanding of the
world.
 Comparison of Induction and Deduction

Feature Induction Deduction

Approach Specific to general General to specific

Basis Observations & patterns Theories & principles

Strengths Generates new knowledge Confirms established theories

May lead to incorrect

Weaknesses Does not create new theories
generalizations
Importance of Both Methods

 Research often combines both approaches

 Hypothetico-Deductive Method (Combines Induction & Deduction)
 Example: Scientific method (observations -> hypothesis -> testing -> conclusion)
Formal Approaches to Research

 Structured and systematic research methodologies

 Essential for scientific validation
 Different approaches for different research needs
Types of Research

• Basic Vs Applied Research

• Descriptive Vs Analytical Research
• Quantitative and Qualitative Research
• Conceptual Vs Empirical Research
• Experimental Vs Non-Experimental Research
• Prospective and Retrospective Research
Basic Vs Applied Research
• Basic research is primarily concerned with the development of theory.
• In basic research, we study the processes that are universal in their
application to scientific knowledge. For example, in biology, basic
research is conducted to increase the understanding of fundamental
life processes.
• Pure Basic Research : Experimental or theoretical works carried out
mainly to get new knowledge without a specific application at the
moment come under the purview of pure basic research.
• Strategic basic research: Strategic basic research also involves
experimental or theoretical works taken up mainly to obtain new
knowledge without a precise application in view; however, a major
difference is that it can be directed into particular broad areas in the
hope of useful discoveries or solving problems.
• Example of Basic research: Exploring properties of black holes
Basic Vs Applied Research
• Applied research is normally concerned with the application of theory
to the direct solution of various problems. Mainly, there are two types
of applied research.
• Evaluation research: In evaluation research, data are collected,
evaluated, and decisions are made based on the findings.
• Developmental research: It is also sometimes referred as research
and development(R&D) and has the major function of developing
effective products for use. E.g some products (new medicine) or novel
training material etc.
• Example of Applied Research : Creating AI systems for medical
diagnosis
 Descriptive and Analytical Research
• Descriptive or exploratory research aims to describe and document a phenomenon as it exists. It's
often used when little is known about a topic. E.g Market research, customer survey
Key Steps:
1. Observe and describe the phenomenon
2. Document findings through surveys or observations
Outcome: Descriptive research provides a foundation for further study, generating hypotheses that can
be tested through experiments.
• Analytical research aims to understand why something happens or how it came to be. E.g Effect of
price on sales, relationship between exercise and health
Goals:
1. Identify associations
2. Analyze cause and effect
Types:
1. Experimental studies
2. Quasi-experiments
3. Correlational studies
Approach: The researcher analyzes existing or generated data to provide answers.
Quantitative and Qualitative Research

• In quantitative research, the knowledge generated is based on

collection of numerical data and analysis. It is is confirmatory and
deductive in nature. Data analysis is mainly statistical. Quantitative
designs are about quantifying relationships between the independent
variable and the dependent variables.
• Qualitative research involves the collection of data in narrative form to
understand the particular phenomenon or process. Qualitative research
relies primarily on qualitative measures, which include any measure
where the data are not recorded in numerical form. They are
exploratory and inductive in nature, and begin with the assumption
that reality is subjective and not objective.
 Conceptual and Empirical Research
Conceptual research explores abstract concepts, ideas, and theories. It involves:
1. Breaking down complex concepts into smaller components
2. Analyzing these components to understand deeper issues
Key Points:
1. Conceptual analysis is most effective when combined with other methods
2. Commonly used in social sciences and philosophy
Goal: To gain a deeper understanding of abstract concepts and theories.
Empirical research involves collecting data through Observations and Experiments
Steps:
1. Form a hypothesis based on observed facts
2. Collect data to prove or disprove the hypothesis
3. Use a suitable design and manipulate variables as needed
Purpose: To prove or disprove the relationship between variables.
 Experimental and Non-experimental Research
• If a quantitative study can be conducted starting from the cause to the effects,
it is called experimental research, whereas, if we start from the effects to
trace the cause, it is non-experimental research.
• Non-experimental research is a common term where independent variables
cannot be manipulated, and therefore, cannot be experimentally studied.
Non-experimental designs can be classified based on the timing of data
collection as cross-sectional or longitudinal.
• In a cross-sectional study, data on the recognized variables are collected one
point in time, and the relationships between them are decided. In a
longitudinal study, however, data are collected at different points over time.
• Sometimes, non-experimental studies are classified based on the timing of
the event being studied as prospective or retrospective.
Experimental and Non-experimental
Research
• In a typical retrospective study, an incident, event, or phenomenon
recognized at the present is linked to causes or variables in the past. At the
same time, in a prospective study, the causes and variables related to some
phenomenon or events identified in the present are linked to possible
outcomes in the future.
• Experimental research involves: Manipulating an independent variable and
Keeping other variables constant, Testing cause-and-effect relationships
Key Goal: Isolate and eliminate other factors to test a single variable.
Semi-Experimental/Quasi-Experimental Research
• Combines elements of experimental and non-experimental designs:
1. Part of the study is experimental 2. Part of the study is non-experimental
Prospective and Retrospective Research

• If the researcher gathers data at a particular time in the present and

traces the differences into the past, it is a ‘retrospective’ study.
• if the investigator starts to observe in the present and wait for the
results in the future, it is a ‘prospective’ study. A prospective study
looks forward in time.
Importance of Research Design

 Choosing the right approach is crucial for credible results

 Considerations: Objective, methodology, data type, analysis
Summary & Conclusion

 Meaning and significance of research

 Research Cycle : 7 steps
 Induction and Deduction are foundational research reasoning methods
 Formal research approaches ensure structured and reliable findings
 Selecting the right research type depends on the question being explored