Exp 6.
Thevenin’s Theorem
Aim: To verify Thevenin’s theorem.
Apparatus: RPS(0-30V, 1A), DMM, Resistors, Connecting wires.
Circuit diagram:
Procedure:
1. Rig up circuit as shown in circuit 1, note down the reading of ammeter that is Iexp.
2. Rig up the circuit as shown in circuit 2 and then as in circuit 3. Note down VTh & RTh
respectively.
3. Draw the equivalent circuit as in circuit 4
4. Note down ITH.
5. Compare Iexp and ITH.
Observations:
Iexp (A) VTh (V) RTh (Ω) ITH (A)
Conclusion: Any linear bilateral electric circuit may be represented by Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit, between the given load terminals.
Exp 7. Superposition Theorem
Aim: To verify superposition theorem.
Apparatus: Dual RPS(0-30V, 1A), Ammeter 0-100mA, DRB(01 No.), Connecting wires.
Circuit diagram:
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram 1.
2. Note down the ammeter reading which is current(I) due to both the sources.
3. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram 2, which allows voltage V1 to act
alone.
4. Note down the ammeter reading which is the current(I1) due to the source V1 alone.
5. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram 3, which allows voltage V2 to act
alone.
6. Note down the ammeter reading, which is the current(I2) due to the source V2 alone.
7. Superpose the currents due to source V1 & V2 .
8. Compare I and I1 + I2 , Which is the current due to both the source acting
simultaneously.
Observations:
Iexp (A) I1 (A) I2(A) I1+ I2 (A)
Conclusion: Any linear bilateral electric circuit having more than one energy sources,
current in any branch may be found by superposing the current due to each source acting
independently
Exp 8. Resonance in Series and Parallel Circuits
Aim: To study the resonance in series & parallel circuits.
Apparatus: AFO, DIB (1.4H), DCB (0.1µF), DRB (62Ω), DMM, Connecting wires.
Part-A
Circuit diagram:
Circuit 1
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per the circuit 1.
2. With the output voltage & frequency set to zero, switch on the supply.
3. Adjust the output voltage to maximum value.
4. Go on increasing the frequency and note down corresponding supply voltage V and
current readings and calculate Vr(voltage across resistance).
5. Plot the current versus frequency plot on a semi log graph sheet.
6. Vary L or C and repeat the above steps.
Observations:
V= 12V Volts
Sl. No F(Hz) I(A) Vr=I*R
Theoretical Calculation:
𝟏
𝒇𝒐 =
𝟐P√𝑳𝑪
Conclusion: In AC RLC series circuit at resonance voltage across resistor is equal to
source voltage and current is maximum.
Part-B
Circuit diagram:
Circuit 2
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram 2.
2. With the output voltage & frequency set to zero, switch on the supply.
3. Adjust the output voltage to a maximum value.
4. Go on increasing the frequency in steps and note down corresponding ammeter
reading.
5. Plot the current versus frequency plot on a semi log graph sheet.
6. Vary L or C and repeat the above steps.
Observations:
V= 12 Volts
Sl. No F(Hz) I(A) Vr=I*R
Theoretical Calculation:
𝟏
𝒇𝒐 =
𝟐P√𝑳𝑪
Conclusion: In AC RLC parallel circuit at resonance current supplied by the source is
minimum.
Exp 9. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Aim: To verify maximum power transfer theorem.
Apparatus: RPS(0-30V, 1A), DRB(2 nos.), Ammeter 0-50mA, DMM(1 no.), Resistors.
Circuit diagram:
Procedure:
1. Rig up the circuit as shown in circuit 2. Note down voltage across terminals ab(VTH)
and note it down in table(a).
2. Rig up the circuit as shown in circuit 3. Note down resistance between terminals
ab(RTH) with load open and note it down in table(a).
3. Rig up circuit as shown in circuit 4 by setting Set RL=RTH and note down ITH in table
(a)
4. Rig up circuit as shown in circuit 1. Note down the reading of ammeter (IL), for
RL < RTH, RL=RTH & RL > RTH in table (b)
5. Compare power consumed by RL in the circuit of circuit 4 and circuit 1.
Observations:
(a)
VTh (V) RTh (Ω) ITH(A) P= ITH2RTH
b)
Sl. No. RL I L(A) P=IL2* RL(w)
1 RL < RTH,
2 RL=RTH
3 RL > RTH
Conclusion:
Power consumed by load resistance is maximum when load resistance equals Thevenin’s
resistance.
Exp: 10 Time Response Characteristics of a Second Order System.
AIM: Determination of Time-Response characteristics of second order system.
THEORY: Type of a system, order of a system, Second order transient response,
Transient response specifications.
THEORY OF DESIGN: for RLC circuit.
𝑑𝑖 1
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
!
"
∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒0
𝐸𝑜(𝑆) 1
∴ =
𝐸𝑖(𝑆) 𝐿𝐶𝑆 # + 𝑅𝐶𝑆 + 1
$%(') !/+,
$)(')
= " $ = Transfer function ------- 1
' ! - # '-#%
Comparing equation 1 with Closed loop transfer function of a second-order System.
,(') /!
= -------------------- 2
.(') ' ! -#0/& -/& !
Natural frequency 𝜔1 # =1/𝐿𝐶 → 𝜔1 =1/√𝐿𝐶 rad/sec ------ 3
. .
Damping Ratio, 2𝜀𝜔1 = + → 𝜀 = +#/
&
.√+, . ,
= #+
= # 9 + ------------- 4
(A) For UNDER DAMPED CASE : 0 < 𝜀 <1
Damped Natural Frequency, 𝜔3 = 𝜔1 √1 − 𝜀 # ------- 5
4 '()& * √!50!
C(t) = 1- Sin[𝜔3 𝑡 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛5! ] for t ≥ 0
√!50! 0
! /
Rise time, 𝑡6 = / 𝑡𝑎𝑛5! [50/+ ] sec -------- 6
+ &
8
Peak time, 𝑡7 = sec ---------- 7
/+
.):4 ;)<4 ;,
Delay time, 𝑡3 = sec = sec -------- 8
# #
=
Settling time, 𝑡: = 0/ for 5% tolerance criterion ----- 9
&
>
𝑡: = 0/ for 2% tolerance criterion ------ 10
&
! )8
Maximum Peak overshoot, 𝑀7 =𝑒 5(0/√!50
! )8
% 𝑀7 =𝑒 5(0/√!50 -------- 11
(B) FOR CRITICALLY DAMPED CASE : 𝜀 = 1
Value of 𝜀 = damping ratio = 1
=
𝑡: = 0/ & 𝜔1 = 1/√𝐿𝐶
&
(C) FOR OVER DAMPED CASE: 𝜀 > 1
Value of damping ratio 𝜀 > 1
=
𝑡: = 0/ & 𝜔1 = 1/√𝐿𝐶
&
ACTUAL DESIGN: Let the given transfer function be
,(') #?
= -------- 12
.(') ' ! -@'-#?
Comparing above equations with expression 2
𝜔1 # = 25 → 𝜔1 = 5 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝜀𝜔1 = 4 → 𝜀 = 0.4
And 𝜔1 = 1/√𝐿𝐶 = 5
. ,
𝜀 = # 9 + = 0.4
Value of Resistance R, Inductance L, and Capacitance C, be choosen as per
equations 13 & 14.
PROCEDURE:
1. Circuit connections are made with designed values of Resistance, Inductance
and Capacitance.
2. A step-input or square-wave voltage is impressed across the circuit.
3. Output transient-response behavior is observed on CRO.
4. For UNDERDAMPED system the analytical values and observed values of
transient-response are compared.
5. By increasing the value of resistance, the damping ratio (𝜀) is made equal to
ONE (1) & the waveform is observed, for CRITICALLY damped case.
6. By increasing the value of resistance, the damping ratio (𝜀) is made more than
ONE, the waveform is observed for OVER damped case.
7. Plot the waveforms on Graph sheet.
OBSERVATIONS:
(A) FOR UNDERDAMPED CASE:
Transient response Analytical Values Observed values
specifications
(B) FOR OVERDAMPED
(C) FOR CRITICALLY
DAMPED
CONCLUSION:
Additional exercises:
,(') !A
1. =
.(') ' ! -#'-!A
2. Obtain a unit-step response of a unity feedback system whose open-loop transfer
>
function is G(S) = '('-?)
I. EXAMPLE FOR UNDERDAMPED SYSTEM: exp 1, page no 3
Let 𝜀 = 0.123, L = 0.01H, C = 0.1µF
,
1. R = 2𝜀9 + ∴ 𝑅 = 134.71 ≈ 135Ω
2. 𝜔1 = 1/√𝐿𝐶 = 31622.77 rad/sec.
𝑓1 = 5032.9Hz.
√$'(!
85;B1'$ ( )
3. 𝑡6 = (
= 57.78µsec.
/& √!50!
8
4. 𝑡7 = / !
= 0.1016msec.
& √!50
>
5. 𝑡: = 0/ = 0.593msec.
&
!
6. 𝑀7 = 𝑒 5(0/√!50 )8 ∗ 100 = 0.50415
II. EXAMPLE FOR OVERDAMPED
Let 𝜀 = 1.47, L = 0.01H, C = 0.1µF
,
1. R = 2𝜀9+ R = 930Ω.
2. 𝜔1 = 1/√𝐿𝐶 = 31622.77 rad/sec.
√$'(!
85;B1'$ ( )
3. 𝑡6 = (
= 73.640µsec.
/& √!50!
III. FOR CRITICALLY DAMAPED SYSTEM
Let 𝜀 = 1, L = 0.01H, C = 0.1µF
,
R = 2𝜀9+ = 633Ω.
>
𝑡: = 0/ = 0.1264𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐
&
