GENERAL

BUILDING
AND
CONSTRUC
TION 1
 UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO CONSTRUCTION
Evolution to building environment.
Environment = surroundings which can be natural, man-made or
a combination of these.
Built Environment = created by man with or without the aid of the
natural environment.
EVOLUTION OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT
1) Pre- Historic dwellings:
When a man was a hunter & gathered their fruits, dwellings
were natural caves, with population increased man started
to curve other caves to accommodate large population &
and also he started constructing simple structures.
2) Traditional dwellings
These are development from simple shelters and caves as
population increased & as industrialization was adapted by
man.
3) Modern buildings
Where functional structural components i.e columns,
beams canopies and reinforced concrete slabs.

Stages involved in building progress

1) Inception -; is proper briefing of the concerned parties
2) Conception-; is communication among the designed
teams
 3) Select-;is identification of the place where the building has
to be constructed
4) Construction-; is the actual doing of the work to come up
with the required/proposed structure.

UNIT 2: SITE INVESTIGATION

Site investigation –are the activities that are supposed to be
carried out whose main purpose is to collect data systematically,
which is needed/required in designed & construction process of
the proposed work.
The data needed during site investigation
a) Site access i.e Roads, boundary lines and location of the site
b) Existing services i.e sewer line water drains
electricity ,telephone services
c) Adjoining structures i.e existing building on the the adjacent
site, trees on the adjacent site.
d) Soil conditions -;soil types and properties together with
ground water condition should be considered.

Site Investigation ~ this is an all-embracing term covering

every aspect of the site under investigation.
Soil Investigation ~ specifically related to the subsoil
beneath the site under investigation and could be part of or
separate from the site investigation.
Purpose of Soil Investigation ~
1 . Determine the suitability of the site for the proposed
project.
2. Determine an adequate and economic foundation design.
3. Determine the difficulties which may arise during the
construction process and period.
4. Determine the occurrence and/or cause of all changes in
subsoil conditions.
The above purposes can usually be assessed by establishing the
physical, chemical and general characteristics of the subsoil by
obtaining subsoil samples which should be taken from positions
on the site.
Soil Samples ~ these can be obtained as disturbed or as
undisturbed samples.
Disturbed Soil Samples ~ these are soil samples obtained from
boreholes and trial pits. The method of extraction disturbs the
natural structure of the subsoil but such samples are suitable for
visual grading, establishing the moisture content and some
laboratory tests.
Undisturbed Soil Samples ~ these are soil samples obtained
using boring tools which preserve the natural structure and
properties of the subsoil. The soil samples are labelled and laid in
wooden boxes for dispatch to a laboratory for testing. This
method of obtaining soil samples is suitable for rock and clay
subsoils but difficulties can be experienced in trying to obtain
undisturbed soil samples in other types of subsoil.
Factors to consider when selecting the method of soil
investigation
a) Size of the contract
b) Type of the proposed foundation
c) Type of sample required
d) Type of subsoil which may be required.
Methods of soil investigation
1 . Trial pits. Foundations up to 3„000mm deep
2. Borings. Foundations up to 30„000mm deep
3. Deep borings { in-situ examinations from tunnels and/or deep
pits} Foundations over 30„000mm deep
Advantages of site investigation
I. Saves the contractor from the legal tussle with local
authority
II. The contractor will be aware of the problems he will expect
during operation and this enables him to take the steps in
advance to solve them
III. Prevents unnecessary danger to work men through proper
planning of the operation
Activities done during site clearance.
I. Clearance of trees and bushes
II. Removal of vegetable soil (top soil)
III. Removal of termite nets
IV. Demolition of unwanted structures
Demolition
Demolition work require special skill to be accomplished
successful.It is divided into two endings -;
I. Taking down
II. Demolition

I. Taking down
Is care full removal of salvageable materials prior to
complete the destruction. This requires knowledge of load
bearing members so as not to cause destruction. It may
sometimes require propping strutting and shoring. taking
down only requires a tool like hammer.
II. Demolition
This is complete removal of structural members by any
suitable means
 A detail survey of the structure to be demolished and
neighbouring structures is carried out, photographs of such
are taken &and for any action this must be witnessed &
stored safely
Essential parts to be demolished
I. Roof and framed structures-ensure order of demolition
does not cause imbalance
II. Walls-check whether they are load bearing /cross walls and
their conditions is examined and their weakness examined
for those to be demolished & retained to be identified
III. Basements – there are carefully examined if they will
interfere with services, public and beyond boundary walls.
Factors determining the method of demolition
I. Type of structures
II. Location of the structure
III. Neighboring structure
Methods of demolition
I. Hand demolition-;
It involves operatives using hand tools, lifting appliances
may be used to host and lower members/materials
NB
Objects should not be left to freely drop to the ground if its
above.
II. Pusher arm-;
Is progressive demolition using machine fitted with steel
pusher arm exalting a horizontal thrush on a building
member.
The method is applicable if the machine is set on a firm base
with a clear operating base of at least 6 meters
NB
The height of the building should be reduced by hand
demolition to ensure the pusher arm does not exceed 6
meters that is desirable.
III. Deliberate demolition.
Involve removal of key structural member causing complete
collapse whole or part of the building. For this method to be
adopted expert advice should be attained
This method is suitable on detached buildings.

IV. Demolition by ball technique.

Is a method of progressive demolition carried out by
swinging a weight or demolition ball suspended by uplifting
machines. E.g crane against the fabric of a structure.
 UNIT 3: LEVELLING
LEVELLING -Is process of establishing heights, dimension relative
to fixed point of data.
Tools/ equipment used
I. Building line/string
II. Hammer /mallet
III. Pegs
IV. Jembes
V. Spade
VI. Construction plants e.g graders bulldozers, rollers
Methods of levelling
I. Cut and fill
Is the common methods since when properly done the amount of
cut is equal the amount of fill.

Soil from the upper part is cut & deposited on the lower part of
the slope
II. cut
This method has the advantages of giving undisturbed over
the whole of the site.
 But it has the disadvantage of cost of removing the soil from
the site.

III. Fill
This is not the best since the building is sited on the filled
area then dipper foundation would be needed or the risk of
settlement at latter stage would be experienced
UNIT 4: SETTING OUT
SETTING OUT- Is the establishment of marks and lines to
determine the position and level of the elements construction
project so that works may proceed with reference to them.
Or
Is the process of transferring the information from the working
drawings to the ground.
NB
This task is usually undertaken once the site has been cleared of
any debris or obstructions and any reduced-level excavation work
is finished.
The first task in setting out the building is to establish -;
I. baseline to which all the setting out can be related. The
baseline very often coincides with the building line which is a
line, whose position on site is given by the local authority in
front of which no development is permitted.
II. Site level/bench mark
This is fixed point on site to which all levels are related and
should be established at an early stage in the contract.it can
be any permanent feature such as drain cover or firmly
 driven post which will act as reference mark in fixing the
floor level and drainage level of building

Tools and equipment used for setting

Theodolites – for large complex buildings, theodolites
survey equipment are used to mark out building external
wall extents
Measuring tapes –for shorter distance the steel tape is
most appropriate e.g distance between two rooms thickness
of wall while setting out etc.
For larger distance e.g perimeter wall measurement
hexagonal check the flexible type is most appropriate.
Sprit level-is used to ensure that nylon strings used in
setting out are horizontal.
Nylon string- are used to demarcate the wall thickness and
building extent
Lime powder- used to mark the foundation wailing and
column footing position for further excavation till rock or
stable ground.
Builder square- used to check right angles and also to set
out others.

SETTING OUT METHODS

They are -:
I. 3-4-5 method
II. Using the builders square
III. Surveying instruments

I. 3-4-5 method
 This method uses the pythagarous theorem and has the
following procedure-;
a) Establish the base line and determine the point AB such
that the distance AB is equal to the length of one side
of the building.
b) Three people will be required to set out a triangle in the
ratio 3-4-5. The first person at point A holds together
between the thumb and finger the zero mark and 12
meter mark of the tape. The second holds the 3 meter
mark of the tape and the third person holds the 8 meter
mark.
When all sides of the tape are stretched a triangle with
length of 3m 4m and 5m is formed, and angle at person
1 is a right angle.
c) A string is extended from A through 4th mark upto D the
distance AD which is also equals to another length of
wall is established
d) Similar triangle is set up at point B and using the same
procedure.
e) Accuracy of setting out is finally checked by measuring
diagonals AC & DB which must be equal.
Advantages
a) Simple to use for it does not require any calculation
b) Can be applied to large buildings
c) Accuracy is self evident
 d) Adjustment in the event of error is simple.
Disadvantages
a) Two tapes measure are required which are difficult to
obtain in some areas
b) Effects of wind on tape and line may lead to inaccurate
work especially on long buildings.

II. Builders square method

a) Establish base line

b) Two points are then selected AB such that the distance
between them is equal to the length of the one side of the
building
c) The builders square is placed at A such that one of its
external edge lies with the base line of the square concides
at point A. a string is then extended along the other end and
length AD is measured
d) The procedure above is then repeated at point B
e) To check the accuracy of setting out the diagonal of AC and
DB are measured

Advantages
a) Simple to use
b) Does not require any calculation
c) Can be very accurate when used for small rectangular
buildings
Disadvantages
a) Unsuitable for large buildings
III. Using surveying instruments {site square/theodolite
method}
This survey instruments which are set by fixing their tripod
stand sighted through to obtain corners more accurately
than other methods.

Advantages
a) Can be used on large buildings with some accuracy
b) Transfer of line to profile boards is done easily
Disadvantages
a) Range of accuracy is limited to 33m only
b) Distance cannot be read off the instrument directly but to be
measured with a tape measure
PROFILE BOARDS
Once setting out has been done profile board are erected. They
are temporary frame work usually made from timber are dippen
into ground to act as guide during trench excavation and laying of
the foundation wall. The posts are sharped so that they will stay
in the ground should be 450-600mm deep and 600-1000mm
above the ground. Profile boards have at least 4 nails spaced such
that they outline the thickness of the wall and the width of the
trench excavated. Profile boards are always placed in pairs i.e
profile board at each end of the wall. Profile board is placed away
from where the trench is being excavated to minimize the
likelihood of interfering with accuracy of the profile board as the
trench is being excavated
Setting out a circular building
Circular buildings need profile that move {moving profile}
The two methods are used-:
 String and spike
 Trammel method
I. String and spike
Procedure of setting out

a) Find out the radius from the working drawing

b) Fix the peg at the Centre of building
c) Tie the string to the Centre with the spike and the end of the
string then move around ensuring the string is tight
d) The same procedure is repeated to mark the thickness of the
wall by varying the radius from the Centre peg

II. Trammel method

 The main advantages of trammer is that is not prone to
inaccuracy of untighten which the string and spike is the
disadvantages of

EXCAVATION AND TIMBERING

Excavation –is the removal of earth to form a cavity in the
ground for foundation or basements

Trench excavation- This is a narrow excavation primarily

for strip foundation.
Excavation can be done manually or mechanically.
Excavation can be battered faces or vertically straight faces.
 The advantage of battered faces is that no temporary
supports are required to the excavation site while the
disadvantage is that extra cost of excavation and extra
back filling
 The main advantage of straight face is that the
minimum amount of soil is removed hence minimum
amount of back filling while its disadvantage is that the
site require timbering.
Timbering
Is the temporary supports provided on the sides of trench to
avoid collapsing.
NB
The amount support required in an excavation depends on
the strength of the soil.

Reasons for timbering

I. To protect the operatives working in the excavation
II. To keep excavation open by acting as retaining wall to the
sides of the trench
Factors to consider when providing Timbering
I. Type of soil
II. Time the excavation will remain open
III. Depth of the excavation
IV. Load around the excavation
V. The vibration from nearby equipment
VI. Weather conditions i.e rain season will require a lot of
support
NB
Timbering is provided differently depending with the type of the
soil e.g
I. Timbering in hard dry soils
II. Timbering in dry loose soils
III. Timbering in loose wet soils
IV. Timbering in firm soils.

Methods of protecting sides of trenches

a) Soils heaps-soil are heaped along the given height to
prevent accident

b) Side rail- rails are erected along the trench site on both
sides to prevent people from moving close to the trench

c) Drum filled with soils and having rail /ropes

 UNIT 5: FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATION- is the lower portion of the building usually
located below the ground level, which transmits the load of the
super structure to the sub soil.
Or
This is the part of building that is in direct contact with the ground
and it transverse all the loads to the ground safely.
It has to support and safely transmit the total load of the building
structure and such case the foundation is designed and
constructed to overcome the problems that may encountered
such as cracking, settling of building ,shrinkage and explosion of
both soil and foundation material
The total loading comprises- dead loads
Live loads
Live loads-are the movable loads introduced into the building
such as furniture, human beings.
While
Dead loads- comprises fixed loads which form component of
building such as walls, Roof, floors
Building code requirement {functional requirement of
foundations}
Building regulation require that-;
a) Foundation shall safely sustain and transmit to the ground
the combined dead and live loads so as not to cause any
settlement or any other movement in any part of the
building or adjoin building.
b) Be of such depth and be so constructed to avoid damage by
swelling or shrinkage of subsoil.
c) Be capable of resisting chemicals attack by sulphates or
other corrosive materials.
Function of foundation
a) Distribution of load
Soil cannot carry load intensity {load per unit area } as
much as the walls and columns, hence there is a need to
distribute the load of walls and columns over large area on
the soil.
Foundation are so designed that the load gets distributed
over sufficiently large area on the soil such that takes that
intensity of load safely.

b) Minimizing unequal settlement

all the walls /columns distribute the load so as to cause
equal settlement of the building there are no unwanted
additional forces on the building. The foundation does the
job of minimizing unequal settlement.
 c) Providing stability
The building should not move or over turn under action of
lateral forces. The foundation provides firm archourage to
the ground and stability to the building
d) Provide level surface
The foundation provides level surface to build the plinth and
superstructure

e) Safety against undermining

The foundation provides safety against undermining by
floods or borrowing by animals
f) Prevention of soil movement
It prevents movement of soil under the building due to water
flow or due to the expansion of soils
Factors to consider to consider in the selection of
foundation
a) Stability- the ability of artificial foundation to carry the
loadings without undue settlement / deformation
The major factors in determining the ability of the naturally
foundation to carry are the type of sub soil strata under
building and the amount of water present in there subsoil.
b) Loading-The ability of the artificial foundation to support
the weight of the structure together with all the imposed
load and to transmit all the forces to the natural foundation
c) The ability of the structure to sustain small
movements at foundation level without endangering
its overall load bearing capacity.
This can be achieved by designing buildings to be stiff and
rigid or designed to accommodate small movements at
foundation level.

Causes of ground movements

a) Subsidence due to underground mining
When tunnels are made underground for purposes such as
mining, supports to the ground above should be provided by
 use of props. The props may be provided on completion of
the working or the tunnels may be filled with waste products
and thus with time the props will corrode or rot the columns
will collapse and the strata above the tunnel will settle.
b) Overloading of the soils.
This will cause the sub soils in the region of the foundation to
be deformed
c) Lowering of the ground water table
When the water is removed from the subsoil the voids which
water previously occupied will become empty.
d) Increasing in water table
This may cause certain soils types to loose some of their
cohesion and therefore there load bearing capacity.
e) Freezing of moisture in the ground
During the frost period moisture in the ground above the
water table will freeze
Water expands as it freezes and this forces the soil particles
apart causing a condition known as frost heave
f) Settlement
If the weight of the building which rest upon the natural
foundation is more than the weight of the soil which
previously rested on that area a certain amount of
settlement can be expected and accepted as long it covers
the along foundation area.

SETTLEMENT
Types of settlement
a) Immediate settlement. This is the settlement that takes
place as the building is constructed and it occurs in non-
cohesive soils.
b) Consolidated settlement. This is settlement that occurs
gradually with time and may continue for years after
completion of the building. It mainly occur in cohesive soils
i.e clay
Causes of settlement
 a) Deformation of soil due to the imposed loads
b) Seasonal swelling and shrinkage of soils
c) Mass movement of ground in unstable areas
d) Vibrations due pile driving
e) Adjacent excavation
f) Earth-quakes
Effects of settlement on the building
a) Cracks in the building
b) Sinking of the building
c) Collapsing of the building
d) Sliding of the building
e) Overstressing of the building
TYPES OF FOUNDATION
Foundations can be classified in two categories
a) Shallow foundations
b) Deep foundations
Shallow foundations-
Shallow foundations are usually located no more than 2000mm
below the lowest finished floor. A shallow foundation system is
generally used when-;
 The soil close to the ground surface has sufficient bearing
capacity
 Underlying weaker strata do not result in undue settlement.
They include -;
a) Strip foundation
 Shallow /traditional strip foundation
 Reinforced /wide foundation
 Deep strip foundation
 Stepped strip foundation
b) Pad foundation
 Spread {isolated} footing
 Combined footing
 Strap footing
 c) Raft foundation
Deep foundations
a) Pile foundation
b) Pier foundation
1. STRIP FOUNDATIONS
a) Shallow/traditional strip foundations
They are used where the soil is of good bearing
capacity. It consist of continuous strip of plain concrete
designed to spread the load uniformly from the walls to
sufficient of subsoil.
The spread of the strip depends on the bearing capacity
of the soil and the shear strength of the soil.
NB
In all cases W must give adequate working place
which is usually 450-600mm minimum depending
on the depth of the excavation.

Design consideration
The principle design feature of strip foundation are
based on the fact that the load is transmitted at 45
from the base of the wall to the soil. Other design
consideration are-;
 The depth of strip foundation must be equal to or
greater than the overall width of the wall.
 The width of foundation must be three times the
width of the supported wall
 A compacted hardcore base of minimum 150mm
is installed to form platform for the subfloor and
subsequent loads of the dwellings.
 b) Reinforced /wide strip
Used to spread the load over large area of subsoil. It is used in
sub subsoil with poor/low bearing capacity such as soft sand,
clays, silt and build up soils/artificially ground. The wide strip
foundation is usually reinforced in both transverse and
longitudinal direction to increase its resistance to cracking. All
reinforcements should be lapped at the corners and foundations.

c) Deep Strip Foundation

Is when the deep of foundation is 900mm. it is used
especially in shrinkable clayely soil to counteract the
variation of soil condition at different seasons. i.e clay
soils usually shrink during dry season and swell during
the wet season. This behavior can adversely affect the
stability of the building. The deep strip foundation
therefore ensure the building remain stable during the
wet and dry season.
The deep strip foundation also provides greater
resistance to fracture from unequal settlement.
 d) Stepped strip foundations
Used on sloppy grounds /sites thus reducing the
amount of excavation, backfilling, surplus soil removal
& trench timbering.
The foundation is stepped to follow the line of the
ground /approximate the slope of the bearing strata
and the depth of Each step is usually 150mm-225mm.
The purpose is to avoid horizontal forces vectors that
cause sliding.
The lap of concrete at the steps must not be less than
the concrete foundation & in no case less than 300mm.
The DPC may also be stepped in a like manner.

2. RAFT FOUNDATION {FLOATING FOUNDATION}

This is a large continuous footing supporting all the columns
of the structure.it covers the entire area of building and may
extend beyond it.
It consist of concrete that is suitable reinforced and upto
300mm thick.
They are used for lightly loaded structure on soils with the
following problems
 Soils with poor bearing capacity
  Where variations in soils conditions necessities or
considerable spread of the load.
 For heavier loads in place of isolated foundation
 Where differential settlement are significant
Types of raft foundations
 Unreinforced solid –slab raft foundation
 Reinforced solid raft foundation
 Beam & slab raft foundation
 Cellular raft foundation
a) Solid slab raft foundation
Used under the following circumstance/used where;
 Pads should overlap or be too close to one another
 Weak subsoil extend to depth considered to
economically for bearing piles
 For braching over weak area of the site
 It is used on small buildings of load bearing wall
for light framed buildings
 Prevent weathering away of the soil under the
building down stand are incorporated.
 It economically up to thickness of 300mm thick

b) Beam and slab raft foundation

 It is used where the thickness of slab exceeds
300mm
 Designed mainly for supporting heavier loads of
walls and columns
  The beams takes the loads of walls /columns and
spread theme to the monolithically cast slab which
bears on natural soils
 Its suitable where a thin layer of step soils in
overlying a weak strata

c) Cellular raft foundation

Used where differential settlement is likely to occur and
where the foundation has to support considerable load.
Used where the stress in the raft are too high. Where
rigidity is required and where beams exceed 900mm
deep.

Advantages
 Can be used in car park in urban areas
 It can be used as a storage space
 It can accommodate services
 It can be used as supermarkets

General advantages of Raft foundation

  Distribution of load over entire area is uniform
 Overall settlement of the structure is reduced as the total
load of the structure is distributed over large area thus
intensity of pressure on the foundation soil is reduced to
minimum
 It is suitable in conditions when soils at sites of the proposed
structure is soft and marshy having a lot of compressible
lenses
 Its breaches the erratic deposits and eliminates the
possibility of differential settlement.
Disadvantages
 Expensive since large area is excavated and a lot of
construction materials are used
 Time consuming-it takes a lot of time to construct and too
much labour is used
 Requires highly skilled labourer

3. PAD FOUNDATION
This are isolated foundation to support column.
It is area is determined by dividing column plies weight of
foundation by the ground bearing pressure
The thickness of the foundation must not be less than the
projection from the column, unless reinforced and in no case
less than 150mm
The foundation is provided with steel reinforcement running in
both direction

Types of pad foundations

a) Spread {isolated}footing
These are footing whose base is extended or spread to
distribute the load of the structure over large area of
sub soil.

b) Combined footing
Sometimes two columns are located very near to each
other in structure. if separate footing these columns are
provided they may interfere with each other. Therefore
providing combined footing is essential. This means
they support two or more columns.
 c) Strap {cantilever}footing

These are similar to combined footings, except that the

footings under columns are built independently and are
joined by strap beam.it may be used where the
distance between the columns is so great. Each column
is provided with its independent footings and beam is
used to connect the two footings. This strap beam
restrains the tendency of the footing to overturn by
connecting it to nearby footings.

NB
A combined pad foundations may be recommended for the
following reasons
 When column is so close to the boundary of the
site, that a separate foundation should be
centrally loaded
 Where foundations of adjacent columns are linked
to resist uplift overturning forces

4. PILE FOUNDATIONS
 This foundations provides economical and satisfactory
foundation houses built on shrinkage clay
Types of pile foundations
Driven piles
Bored piles
a) Driven piles
These piles consists of precast components of steel,
concrete, timber and composite. It is driven to the
ground by hammering the head using hydraulic
hammer called a pile driver. The tip of this foundation
must be pointed to ensure maximum penetration to the
ground.

b) Bored piles
Bored piles is cast in situ concrete piles cast into drilled
holes used to transfer heavy loads to deeper competent
soil or rock strata
Advantages
 Speeds up constructions
 Reduced excavation leading to more economically
or low costly foundation
Disadvantages
 Cannot be used easily where the rock area is rock
or where tree roots are many

UNDERPINNING
This is the process of constructing a new foundation below an
existing foundation or strengthening an existing foundation
without disturbing the stability of the structure.
It may also be used to replace a weak foundation
Reasons for underpinning
a) To strengthen the shallow foundation of an existing
building when a building with deep foundation is to be
constructed next to it
b) To strengthen the existing foundation which have
settled causing cracks on walls or structural elements
c) To deepen the existing foundation on poor bearing
strata to deep strata of higher bearing capacity
d) If a basement is to be provided below an existing
building
NB
It is an expensive exercise thus it should be avoided where
possible
Precaution to be taken before underpinning
a) The structure should be completely strutted and shored to
withstand expected movement
b) All the cracks in the structure should be repaired and
grouted
c) Indicators should be fixed over cracks so that any
subsequent movement can be monitored
d) If settlement is the reason for underpinning investigation
should be carried out to establish the course and remedial
work done before underpinning is started
e) The loads in the building should be reduced as much as
possible
f) Services which are in the vicinity of the underpinning works
should be identified and protected as necessary.
Methods of underpinning
Traditional wall underpinning {pit method}
Jack pile underpinning
Needle and pile underpinning
Pynford stool underpinning
Root pile/angle underpinning
Cerfax hoof safe underpinning

a) Traditional wall

This is done by excavating in stages along and beneath

the existing foundation
New foundation is casted including door wear metal
bars for continuity. The wall is built up to the underside
of the existing foundation in concrete. Final pinning
between the old and the new work is done using a rich
dry morter .
 The process is done in process a definite sequence such
that no two consecutive base are worked on at the
same time.
The number and lengths of base will depend
upon the following factor
 Total length of the wall to be underpinned
 Width of the existing foundation
 General conditions of the substructure
 Super-imposed loading of the existing foundation
 Estimated spanning ability of the existing
foundation
 Subsoil condition encountered

b) Jack pile underpinning

Used in the following circumstance

  When the depth of a suitable bearing capacity of
the subsoil is too deep to be economically
 Where vibrations is required
 Where a system of flexible depth is required
The method consists of short pre- cast concrete pile of length
jacked into the ground until a suitable sub soil is reached. When
the jack pile has reached the required depth the space between
the top of the pile and underside of the existing foundation is
pinned with concrete cap.

c) Needle and pile underpinning

Used where the existing foundation is unsuitable for
traditional or jack pile underpinning techniques.
The brick wall above the existing foundation must be of
sound condition since this method rely on the arching effect
of the brick bending to transit the wall loads on the needle
and ultimately to the piles.
d) Pynford stool underpinning
This method is used where existing foundation is in poor
condition and needs to be underpinned in a conditions run
without the need for needs or shoring
The reinforced concrete beam formed by this method may be
adequate spread the load of existing wall and it may be used in
conjunction with other forms of underpinning.
Procedure of underpinning by pynford method
Holes formed to receive steel or precast concrete stool in the
brick work.
Stools are inserted and pinned to the soffit of the brick over the
opening
Brick between pinned stools are removed leaving completely
supported on stool
Reinforcements are fabricated and placed around the pinned
stools
Formwork is removed the beam is allowed to cure before being
pinned to the underside of the wall

e) Root pile underpinning /angle underpinning /billivant

double pilling
It is another low cost modern alternatives underpinning for
stability substructure wall and foundations
Reinforced concrete piles are installed in pairs by flusted rotary
percassion drill from inside and outside of the floor and
foundation piles are driven to firm strata.
The method is low distractive and cost effective since much
excavation is avoided.
Spacing and depth of the boring will depend on site conditions
such as the occurance of solid bearing and extend of structural
damage.

f) Cerfax heap safe underpinning

This is most appropriate as remedial treatment where
differential settlement can be identified
Limited excavation is needed to expose wall to depth just
above the foundation level.
An in situ concrete beam with purpose made longitudinal
voids created with plastic conducts is constructed around the
building periphery
The holes /voids accommodates steel tendons post
tensioning to bind the walls into solid unit. Continuity.
provided with tensional beam intergrates the substructure
wall and compensate for weaker areas of subsoil.
When areas of weakness /packets are identified it should be
first stabilized by granular consolidated material to
complement the remedial treatment.
It is a first method when applied to regular shaped plans i.e
square and rectangular
Methods of final underpinning
 Stiff dry morter fixed it into space between the new
underpinning work and existing
 Flat jacks
 Wedge bricks
Underpinning columns
This is more difficult task than wall underpinning
It can be carried out an brick or stone column by inserting series
of stools casting reinforced concrete base then underpinning by
the methods previously described.
The structural steel or reinforced concrete column must be
relieved of their loading before any underpinning can take place.
 DEWATERING
Surface water/ground water
Rain water unless it is collected for use will either stay on the
surface of ground as surface water or sip into ground as ground
water.
The permeability of the material /soil is then ease with which
water flows through it.
Materials e.g dense concrete are relatively impermeable while
granular materials soils are highly permeable.
Surface water
Water always flows to the lowest point therefore surface water
unless dealt with artificially it will get its way to the ground
Ground water
This flows downwards by gravity/capillary action through
pores/voids and cracks on the materials or soil below the surface
of the ground
 When water encounters are relatively impermeable
layer/stratum.it flows along its surface towards the lowest
point eventually the water builds up above the strata/ layer
circulating the overlying layer/stratum.
 The surface of this water is known as water table and its
level varies from place to place end with time.
Water in excavation
When excavation is done a low area is created in which water
may collect.
Sources of water in excavation
Rainwater / surface water
Ground water
Quantities of water
Quantity of water in an excavation depend on topography of the
area and permeability of the soil.
Effects of water in excavation
If the formation of an excavation is below the water level it is
obvious that they will be difficulties in carrying out construction
preparation works.
The effects include-;
 Weakening of the excavation walls causing fall down of walls
 Deteoroliation of concrete
 Reactions of chemicals that make up the materials.
Methods of dewatering
1. Land drainage
 Surface water drains usually on channel to improve the flow
of surface water, it will help the ground from weakening as a
result of seepage of water into it.
Reason for surface water drainage
 To improve the stability of the ground
 To avoid surface flooding
 To avoid dampness
 To reduce humidity in the immediate adjacent building
Systems of land drainage
I. Natural system
Pipes are laid open jointed to follow the natural depression
and valley of the land and are connected to main drain
The system is mainly used to drain the open land for
agriculture

II. Herling system

The pipes are laid in series of herling pattern with branches
not exceeding 30m .The branches discharges at an angle to
the main drain that follows the gradient of the soil, the small
regular system may be used with jointed pipes for land
rainage around buildings.

III. Grid system

 Branch and main drain are laid on the regular grids with
branches connecting to one side of main grid on the
boundary of the land.

IV. Fan shaped system

A fan of branches connects to main single main drain on the
boundary of the site

V. Moat/cut off system

Drains lie on one side or more side of the building to
intercept to the flow of water
 2. Ground water drainage

a) Sump method
I. Open sump
This method is suitable for most sub soil especially gravel
and course sand .when working in shallow excavation the
sump which is the water collection pitch should be
excavated below the formation level of the excavation and
preferably sited in a corner position to reduce to
minimum ,the soil must be due to settlement which the
possibility with this method.

II. Jetted sump

This is an alternative to open sump method which achieves
the same objectives and preventing soil at the same time. It
involves water jetting metal tubes into the ground and the
void created is filled with sand media thus disposal holes and
disposal strainer

b) Well point dewatering system

I. Ring system
Ring system is used in a non- cohesive soils and is suitable
to depth of 5-6m.
The basic principle of the system is the water jet into the
ground. A number of small diameter wells which are
 connected to a harder pipe which is then attached to a
vacuum pump. For a basement the well point is installed
with the header pipe acting as a ring enclosing the area to
be excavated.
The header pipe should be connected to two pipes one for
the actual pumping and the second on the stand by pump.

II. Progressive line well point system

Is an alternative system and is a progressive line
arrangement where the header pipe is placed alongside the
trench or similar excavation to one side or both side
according to the width of the excavation.
As the work including backfilling is completed the redundant
well point are removed the header pipes are moved forward,
c) Electro osmosis
This is an expensive method and is not suitable for cohesion
less soils but it has definite shape for removing pore water
from silts and clay which will not normally drain freely to any
solution. It involves creating an electrical circuit between an
earth rod driven into the soil to the required depth and
conductive sanction pipe of pump placed into the subsoil to
the same depth.
The electrical circuit creates negative charge into the
sanction pipe which causes the positively charged water
molecules in the soil to travel towards it.
As the water gathers is pumped away by the ground level
pump.

d) Freezing method
This is suitable for all type of sub soils with the moisture in
excess of 8% of voids.it involves inserting freezing tubes in
the ground and circulating a freezing solution around the
tube to form ice in the voids.
This in turn creates a wall of ice to act as impermeable
barrier. The circulating solution is usually a brine of
magnesium chloride or calcium chloride at temperature
 of between -15 to -25 which would take 10-17 days to form
an ice wall 1M thick.
For works of short duration liquid nitrogen is very effective
for freezing but is very expensive.

e) Bored wells
They are suitable for cohesion less soil but for water removal
well point. They relay on free transparent of subsoil water to
sanction points. The depths for shallow bored well ranges
from 5-6 m and it is operated with pump and surface level
for deep wells, the pump is below the ground at the well
bottom.
In deep bored well a steel tube of large enough diameter to
the pump is driven into the sub soil. A perforated linear is
then lowered inside the still tube and into this is lowered an
electrically submersible pump complete with
a supply cable.
The space between the steel tube and the perforated linear
filled with sand and gravel mixture as the tube is withdrawn
thus filling the annular space.
Ground water can now flow easily into the three drainage
around thus draw the perforated linear down the pump.
 UNIT 6: GROUND FLOORS
FLOOR
Is a horizontal or slating structural element where imposed and
super imposed loads rest in a building.
The purpose of floor is to provide a level surface capable of
supporting the loads of the building, furniture, equipment and
sometimes internal partitions.
They are classified -;
 Basement –one or more floors of building that are either
complete or partially below the ground.
  Ground floor- This floors which are directly supported by
the naturally ground
 Suspended floor- This are floors which are supported by
either bricks above the ground.
Functional requirements of ground floor
I. Strength and stability- it should be able to withstand the
imposed loads and safely transmit to the ground through
walls and the foundation.
II. Fire resistance- it should be constructed such way that it
can be able to resist spread of fire or even catch fire.
III. Sound insulation –materials used should provide good
sound properties i.e it should provide sound proof.
IV. Damp resistance – It should prevent damp penetration
from the ground by incorporation of DPM
V. Thermal insulation – It should not permit loss of heat to
the ground from the building by incorporation of thermal
insulator of mineral fiber slab 25mm between concrete and
floor screed.
VI. It should prevent growth of vegetation by provision of
hardcore and oversite concrete
VII. Floors must provide acceptable surface finish to suit the
needs of occupants such as comfort beauty etc.
Main functions of floors
I. To support the loads
II. To provide level surface for in a normal in a building
III. To provide level surface for any floor finish that are applied
IV. Prevent the growth of vegetation
V. Prevents termites from entering the building
VI. Provide a total barrier to dampness in the ground by use of
DPM

A. Solid Ground Floor

Building code requirement
Building requirement, requires that such part of the building as is
next to the ground shall have floor so as constructed as to
prevent the passage of moisture from the ground to the upper
surface of the floor.
This requirement can only be satisfied by the provision of
sufficient barrier in the form of dump proof membrane [DPM]. The
membrane should be turned at the edge to meet and blend with
dump proof course[DPC] in the wall so as to prevent any moisture
penetration at the base of the building.

Components of ground floor

It comprises the following elements-;
 Hardcore
 Blinding
 Dump-proof membrane
 Concrete slab
 Floor screed
1. Hardcore
This a clean broken bricks or similar inert material e.g quarry
waste. Often the hardcore material is supplied from crushing
demolished masonry that is already on site or from crushing
quarry stones.
Hardcore is laid in 100-150mm layer to the required depth
and each layer is well compacted to prevent any
unacceptable settlement beneath the solid floor.
The maximum depth allowed is 600mm, any depth greater
than this requires suspended ground floor to be specified.
Hardcore should not contain any water-soluble sulphates or
other harmful matters and should not swell upon
becoming/absorbing moisture.

Function of Hardcore
I. To fill the volume which was created during over site
excavation
 II. To provide firm base on which to place a concrete
ground slab
III. To spread any point load over greater/ larger area of
the ground
IV. To prevent movement of moisture from the ground up
the building.
V. Resist the growth of vegetation

2. Blinding
Blinding generally consists of a layer of sand 25-50mm thick
or 50-75mm layer of weak concrete if a true surface of
reinforced concrete is required
Its purpose is to-;
I. Even off/level the surface of hardcore if damp proof
membrane is to be placed under concrete slab.
II. To prevent the damp proof membrane from being
punctured by the hardcore
III. To provide true surface from which any reinforcement
be positioned.
3. Damp-proof membrane
The building code requires the ground slab to resist the
passage of moisture to the upper surface of the floor.
To resist moisture a damp proof membrane usually formed
using 0.3mm thick [1200 gauge] polythene sheet on the
blinding material minimum laps of 300mm.
The membrane should be turned up at the edges to meet
and lap with the damp proof course in the wall to prevent
any penetration of moisture by capillary action at the edge
of the bed.
The membrane also acts temporary barrier to stop cement
grout from placed wet concrete from draining away and
prevent the satisfactory curing of the concrete slab.

4. Concrete slab
Concrete is made from course aggregate [ballast] fine
aggregates [sand] cement and water. The concrete floor bed
 can be laid either as plain in situ concrete in stable soils or
reinforced concrete in weaker ground to prevent surface
cracking.
Concrete can be either cast in situ or precast. Cast in situ is
where the concrete is poured in place while wet and allowed
to dry after which is used at the same position. Precast is
where the slab is moulded and dried in factory then
transported to the site where it is assembled fixed then
used.

5. Floor screed
This is made of cement and sand [mortar] in ratio of 1:3
Its function-;
I. To provide a smooth surface on which to lay the floor
finish.
II. To accommodate service pipes and cables for electricity
III. To provide gradient for drainage purpose
IV. To give certain of sound & thermal insulation.

Procedure of constructing a solid ground floor

After levelling of the grounding the following steps are adopted.
I. Spread hardcore and blinding in the measured area
II. Lay the DPM over the blinding
III. Build vertically form work on the struts along the
outside position of edge of the fresh concrete
IV. Lay the reinforcements or mesh as necessary
V. Place the space to provide cover of the at least 25mm
below the reinforcements
VI. Divide the area into 3x3m bays
VII. Seal dry point where leakage is likely to occur
VIII. Pour concrete on the bays in a changer board pattern
i.e do not concrete two adjacent bays at the same
time.
Curing the concrete
After complete construction of oversite concrete slab or raft
foundation the curing is done for 7 days
Curing is controlled process for keeping the newly laid concrete
moist enough to dry out without shrinking or cracking
After curing the floor can be-;
 Just left without any further treatment if the floor is for
garage or store room
 Laid with screed if it is to receive a different floor finish
 Built a base for honey comb sleeper walls to support a
timber floor.
B. Suspended Timber floor
This is a floor constructed on the oversite concrete with
some sleeper walls
Parts of timber floor
 Honey comb sleeper walls
 Air brick
 Damp proof course
 Wall plate
 Floor joist
 Floor boarding
I. Honey comb sleeper walls
 They are brick or block walls built over the oversite concrete
so that can circulate freely to all parts of the underfloor
Procedure of constructing
 set out area of stretcher bricks embedded in mortar on
the oversite concrete
 leave a leader space between each stretcher
 lay the next course so that each brick is centered over
the space below
 bond the ends of the courses into external
II. Air brick/ vent blocks
Are special bricks with holes in them that air to flow through.
They are built into external walls at opposite side of the
building with screens to keep out insects of 2.5 in diameter.
III. Damp proof course
Laid on sleeper walls in width of 102.5mm to prevent
dampness entering into the wall plate.
It is of bituminous felt.
IV. Wall plate
Timber piece of about 75x100mm laid carefully on the dpc
along the sleeper walls
Acts as a base for fixing floor joists.
V. Floor joists.
Pieces of timber that spans between the wall plates and
supports the floor base
The size depends on the spacing of the sleeper walls
They are attached to the wall plates by nailing through the
sides drain into the wall plate
Joists are not built into external walls because the ends
would be exposed to the moisture and can not.
The preferred fixing for external walls are
 Wall plate attached inside the external wall
 Galvanized joist hangers
 Brick or block piers
VI. Timber flooring
The type of timber flooring that can be used depends on
 Availability
  Preference
Standard choices are;
 Softwoods boards
 Plywood
 Block board
 Chip board

FLOOR FINISHES
This is top most cover of the concrete floor slab. Floor finishes are
also called flooring. The type of floor finish to be applied to floor
will depend on-;
  Type of base
 Function of the room
 The degree of comfort required
 Easy cleaning and maintenance
 Cost of finish
 Aesthetic value or appearance
 Safety and individual preference
 Durability.
Floor finish can be considered under the three main heading
1. In situ floor finish- Those finishes that are mixed on site,
laid in fluid state, allowed to dry and to form a hard joint less
surface
a) Granolithic
This involves a mixture of Portland cement and granite
chippings sand producing a finished extremely hard wearing
and ideal for high traffic areas
The mixture can be applied as granolithic screed or can be
applied to ‘green concrete’ subfloors or cured concrete
subfloors
The floor is noisy underfoot and cold to touch due to its due
to its density.
It is used mainly in situations where easy maintenance and
durability are paramount.
The floor to be applied is hacked to provide key for the
screed and brushed to remove all the lattice.
b) Terrazzo finish
This is made from mixture of sand cement and marble chips.
Its pleasant to look at and the marble chips appear to shine
the thickness is bout 12.5mm
The floor is usually divided into panels not exceeding 3.6 sq
m and sides panel should be of 3:1
The panel used should not be less than 3m
It is recommended that terrazzo should be left to dry slow for
approximate 4 weeks and water cement ration should be as
low as possible.
c) Sand cement screed
It is cement sand mortar mixed in the ratio 1:3
Procedure
 The floor to be screed should be prepared to receive
the screed by hacking
 Prepare the material by batching to appropriate 1:3
 Mix the material when dry and add enough clean water
 Mix the wet material
 Cast the cement water and compact thoroughly make
sure check the floor level.
 Trowel the surface well
 Prepare cement drought {Niro} and spread it
 After 2 hour re-trowel the surface leave the screed to
dry
 Curing should be done atleast 4 days

2. Applied floor finish- Those finishes that are supplied in tile

or sheet form and laid onto suitable prepared base.
a) Flexible PVC tiles and sheet.
Flexible PVC is hard wearing floor finish.
It is produced as 300x300mm square tile or in sheet form
upto 2400mm wide with range of thickness from 1.5 to
4.5mm.
These floor tiles are fixed with an adhesive and come in
variety of different colors
The PVC tiles are economical easily fixed easily repaired and
hard wearing floor finish.
The are widely used in hospitals and kitchen where high
standards of hygiene are required.
b) Quarry tiles
 Quarry tiles are made from ordinary or unrefined clays
worked into plastic form pressed into shape and hard burnt
This makes the finished product very hard wearing and with
good resistance to water but they tend to be noisy and cold
to touch
Quarry tiles come in size such as 100x100x20mm to
225x225x32mm
c) Plain clay or ceramic floor tiles
They are produced from refined natural clays
Plain clay tiles are denser and are made as smaller and
thinner units ranging from 50x50mm to 300x300mm in
thickness of 9.5 to 13mm.

3. Timber floor finish- Boards, sheets and blocks of timber

laid or attached to suitable structural frame or base
a) Timber boards
These are joined together by machine, tonqued and grooved
joints along their edges and are fixed by nailing to the
support joists attached to the solid floor.
The boards are butt-jointed in their running length, the joints
being positioned centrally over joists so that both edges are
supported joints should be staggered so that butt do not
occur in the same position in consecutive lengths which
would weaken the floor surface.
b) Timber strips
These are narrow boards being under 100mm wide to reduce
the amount of shrinkage and consequent opening.
Timber strips can be supplied in softwoods or hardwoods and
is considered to be superior floor finish to boards.
c) Wood blocks
These are small blocks of timber usually of hard wood which
are designed to be laid in set patterns producing decorative
finish to the completed floor.
Lengths range from 150 to 300mm with width upto 89mm
d) Wood veneer and laminate flooring
 This consists of series of strips generally 1200mm long that
interlock with each to provide finished floor surface.
The surface finish of the laminate is available in variety of
colours and design laminate contain snap lock system,
where each board clips into the other and is then pressed
down to finally secure it.

UNIT 7: WALLS
Walls are vertical elements of a building which enclose the space
within it, and may also divide that space.
Function of a wall
 Enclose / divide a space
 Provides barriers against entry
 Forms a screen of privacy and security
 Provide protection against elements e.g rain, wind
Functional requirements of walls
a) Strength and stability
Strength is measured in terms of resistance to stress set up
in it by its own weight by super- imposed loads and lateral
pressure such as it should be stable and should be
resistance to overturning by lateral forces and buckling
caused by excessive slender wall.
 Walls should be able to withstand dead and live loads, it
should be thick enough to keep the stress from the loads
within the stipulated limits of the safe compression stress of
the construction materials e.g bricks and natural stones
The thickness include
 200mm external
 150mm internal
 100mm partition
b) Weather resistance
The external wall of building are required to provide
adequate resistance to rain and wind penetration. Use an
impermeable wall material so that it forces the water to run
down the face of wall thickness.
Incase of cavity wall DPC should be used to avoid
penetration. In high buildings and sealants DPC may be used
to seal the joints between external panels. Damp penetration
is one of the most serious defect in the building because its
causes the following
 It damages wall finish e.g paints
 Deterioration of the structure
 Affects the health of the occupants.
c) Fire resistance
A degree of fire resistance is essential requirement in
respect wall. Walls are used as compartmentalize a building
so that a fire is conferred to given area.
Wall form safe escape route for occupants and also prevent
the spread of fire between the buildings
Internal walls are recommended to be painted using
asbestos paints to reduce internal fire spread.
NB
Fire resistance is in relation to elements and not the
construction material. It should not be confused with non-
combustibility. An element may be constructed by
combustible material but will exhibit a degree of fire
resistance.
d) Thermal insulation
 The external walls of building must provide a barrier to
passage of heat of the external air in order to maintain
satisfactory internal condition without wasteful use of the
heating system. It should prevent hot air from heating the
interior of the building and it should also prevent
condensation and reduce expansion and contraction of thre
building.
e) Sound insulation
Sound insulation is significant for designing internal walls.
Cavity walls may also be used.
External walls are usually thick enough that exclude any
sound. Windows however provide weak points in respect to
sound insulation to be treated as double wall. For timber
portioning walls sound proof boards are recommended.

Methods of wall construction

 Bricks
 Timber
 Blocks [ concrete or clay]
 Concrete [ mass or reinforced]
 Natural stones used for load bearing walls as
facing/cladding in form of thin stones.
Types of walls
a) Party walls- Is wall which separates a two adjoining
buildings
b) Load bearing walls- This are wall that separate beams,
joists, girders, floors, roof
c) Partitioning walls- Are walls that separate a building into
rooms
d) Retaining walls- These are walls built to hold position in
bank of earth. They are built to support and resist thrust of
soil and ground water. They may also resist vertical loads
imposed on them.
e) Parapet walls-This walls that extends up above the roof of
the building.
 Coping- Is coarse of concrete provided at the top of a wall
to prevent seepage of water through the joints of parapet
wall.
Throuting – Is a groove formed on the outside of a coping
used for throwing away run water from wall surface.

f) Curtain/panel walls- Are walls used to enclosed the

framework of steel or skeleton beams or columns.
Classification of walls based on loads
a) Load Bearing wall- It carries/supports loads imposed on it
from beams and slabs above in addition to its own weight
and transfer it to the foundation. It also resist side pressure
like wind. It can be exterior or interior
b) Non- loading wall-This only carry their own weight and
does not support any structural member such as beams and
column. These walls are just partitioning walls.
Classification based on function
 Party walls
 Partition walls
 Retaining walls
 Panel walls
Forms of wall construction
 Masonry wall construction
 Monolithic wall construction
 Framed wall construction
 Membrane wall construction
 Rubble wall construction

1. Masonry wall construction

This are walls made of small walling units laid on one
another usually with mortar as a binding material. These
walling units are either nature stones, bricks or stones. The
walling units are laid in horizontal layers called courses
Functions of mortar
 To bind the walling units together
 To distribute pressure evenly throughout the wall from unit
to unit
 To fill the joints between the unit in order to prevent
atmospheric factors from penetrating
 To maintain overall sound and thermal insulation
characteristics of the wall.
Bending of masonry wall
These walls can be constructed with units laid together or
horizontal along the wall. These in each course lie directly on the
course below. This is a limitation because if load is applied on the
block directly it will be distributed only those below the
foundation.
The force can be therefore l ead to an equal settlement in the wall
due to greater consolidated of the mortar joint on narrow load.
If lateral pressure is applied on one load it will tend to overturn. if
the units are laid to overlap those in the coarse below, then then
effect of loading is improved is load is distributed to two unit
below the top one thus reducing th chances of unequal
settlement and overturning.
NB
Masonry is general highly durable form of construction. However
the materials used, the quality of the mortar, workmanship and
pattern in which the units are assembled can substantially affect
the durability of the overall masonry construction.
 2. Monolithic wall construction
This are wall constructed using joint less medium. They require
support or shuttering in initial stages as material dry.
The traditional earth walls are example of this form. However
monolithic concrete walls i.e plain or reinforced concrete are
more common.

3. Framed wall construction

A solid wall is applied on the skeleton. This can be by use of
timber bricks glass etc. The skeleton frame consist of stud
[vertical members]. Framed between horizontal members of the
same section at top or bottom. The top member is called top hand
plate whereas the bottom member is called sole plate. The joints
of the frame are either done by nails or bolts. The frame is thus
not rigid and it requires some bracing to provide support
adequate stiffness.

Systems of framed wall construction

I. Platform frame
This accounts the physical behavior of timber for the whole
structure and load. This complicated in assembly
II. Balloon frame
It very similar to platform except that the frame/stud is full
length.

III. Modified frame

The wall is a storey with the upper one being erected directly
on the lower frame. The upper and ground floor
joists/horizontal member are fixed directly to the
stud/vertical member.

IV. Independent frame

It is like modified frame but upper floor structure is
supported by a continuous bearer fixed to the inner face of
stud
 4. Membrane wall construction
Is constructed as sandwich of two thin sheets of reinforced
plastic, metal, plywood, or asbestos cement or other material
bonded to a core of framed plastic or internal ribs to produce
relatively thin elements of height and strength and has weight.

5. Rubble wall construction

This are walls constructed using natural stones of different
sizes. They are divided to-;

 Random rubble
This natural stones used are of random sizes random
sizes and shapes as they were obtained from the
quarry.
Large stones reasonably square are used as quoins and
also jambs of opening to obtain increased strength and
stability.
 Squared rubble
It is built using stones that are relatively square. The
squaring of stones has an effect of increased stability of
the wall and improved weather resistance for the
stones are bedded together more closely, the joints are
of the same thickness hence less shrinkage of the
bedding material.
Ways in which square rubble is made
I. Un coarse rubble
Stones are of various depth and are laid in various face
arrangement will no attempt to form courses
II. Snecked rubble
Long vertical joints in their laying are avoided by
incorporating snecks or [small stones] which permits the
stones to overlap and thus breaking the long vertical joints
III. Squared rubbles brought to course
Stones of various depths are laid in various face
arrangement but brought upto level bed to form course of
various depth
IV. Regular coursed rubble
Stones in one course are of the same depth usually varying
from 100mm to 300mm

6. Cavity walls
Is wall built with two leaves with a cavity in between. The
cavity is about 50mm. This form of wall has greater
resistance to rain penetration, thermal insulation and sound
insulation
The outer leaf is usually half brick in stretcher bond and the
inner wall the same or light weight concrete blocks 100mm
thick.
The inner and outer leaf is used for thermal insulation
The main purpose of cavity wall is to prevent the penetration
of moisture through the inner and outer surface.
Central air space in the wall is to prevent movement of
moisture and improve insulation of inner wall.
WALL TIES
They are used to hold the two leaves together and to enable each
leaf to support the other. They are spaced at a distance not
exceeding 90mm horizontal and must be staggered.
The wall ties must be strong to provide mutual stiffness in the
leaves i.e connecting the two leaves of walls and must be so
designed that water can’t pass from the outer to the inner leaf.
To achieve this each tie is formed with a drip of the Centre which
prevents water passing across

Construction requirement of cavity wall

 Gauged mortar of 1:2:4 should be used
  Construction units should be well jointed to avoid
straight joint.
 Leaves should be secured by use of wall ties
 Maximum for each leaf thickness should be 100mm.
Advantages
 Provide good thermal insulation
 Able to withstand a driving air penetrating inner surface
 Provide adequate sound insulation.
 Encourage the use of cheaper alternative materials for inner
wall
Disadvantages
 It is expensive to construct
 It requires high standard of design and workmanship
DIMENSIONAL CO-ORDINATION IN CONSTRUCTION
Dimensional co-ordination is a tool which can help to organize
different building components manufactured independently into
an integrated whole and to improve flexibility in the use of these
products.
The main purpose of dimensional co-ordination are-:
 Permit the assembly of components on site without cutting
or fitting
 To permit the inter changeability of different components
 To obtain maximum economy in the production of
components
 To reduce the need for the manufacture of special sizes and
increase standardization
Types of dimensional co-ordination/grid
a) Structural grid
Use to locate the structural components i.e beam and columns
b) Planning grid
Is best in any convenient modular multiple for regulating space
requirements such as rooms
c) Controlling grid
Is best in any convenient modular multiple for location of internal
wall, partition
d) Basic module grid
Used for detail location of components and fittings.
NB
All the above are best on basic grid and they are therefore
interrelated. This grids can be used in both horizontal and vertical
planes thus forming a 3-dimensional grid system.
If a first preference numerical value is given to M, then the
dimensional co-ordination is established.
In dimensional co-ordination is all about relating the component
to a grid if there are to fit in a space plan for them within a
building without the for trimming or cutting.
MOISTURE PENETRATION AND PREVENTION IN BUILDING
Damp proofing
One of the requirements of building is that it should be dry or free
from moisture travelling through walls roof or floors.
Dampness is the presences of hydroscopic/ gravitational
moisture.
Dampness gives rise to-;
 Unhygienic condition
 Reduction of strength of structural components of the
building
Causes of dampness in building
1. Moisture rising up the ground through the walls-
structures are founded on soils and substructures embedded
 on to it. Pervious soils allow the rise of moisture through wall
and floor by capillary action.
2. Rain travel from wall tops- if walls are not properly
protected from rain penetration rain will enter and travels
down
3. Rain beating external wall- heavy shower of rain may
beat the external faces of the wall and if walls are not
properly treated moisture will penetrate causing dampness
in the interior.
Balconies should always have proper slope to drain the
water outside and not to the wall which will allow water to
enter into walls.
4. Condensation
Due to condensation of atmospheric moisture water is
deposited on walls floors and ceilings which may cause
dampness.

5. Miscellaneous causes
Moisture may also penetrate due to
 Poor drainage at the building site
 Absorption if water from detective rain water pipes
 Imperfect roof slope.
 Imperfect orientation walls getting less sunlight and
heavy shower may remain dumpy
 Detective construction I.e. wall jointing roof joints.
Effects of dampness
 Cause corrosion and rusting of metal fittings
 Breathing of moisture may cause health issue
 Stiffing and crumbling of plaster especially lime plaster
 Wall decoration [painting] is damaged which is costly to
repair
 Efflorescent resulting in disintegrating of bricks, tiles
 Timber fittings when coming in contact with water warp
buckle and experience dry rot
 Electrical short circuits on electrical fittings
  Dampness accelerates and promotes growth of termites
Methods of damp proofing
1. Membrane damp proofing [use of dpc]
2. Integral damp proofing
3. Surface treatment
4. Cavity wall construction
5. Gunitng
6. Pressure grouting
1. Membrane damp proofing [use of DPC]
This is introduction of water repellant membrane or DPC
between the source of dampness and the part of the
building adjacent to it.
Damp proof can be-;
 Vertical DPC
Vertical DPC are required at position vulnerable to
horizontal penetration of moisture into the building
They are used in the following areas of the building
 Reveals of wall and window
 Retaining walls
 Basement walls
 Horizontal DPC
This checks the upward movement of moisture from
the ground. It is also below copings
It usually of 30mm thick i.e pitch polymer is supplied in
rolls and also be used at the jambs of the openings in
the wall cavity.
General principles/precautions when laying DPC
I. The DPC should cover the full wall thickness excluding
rendering.
II. The mortar bed supporting DPC should be even and free
from projections which damages it
III. DPC should be laid continuously at junctions and corners
IV. .It should not be kept exposed on the wall surface to avoid
damage during finishing work
V. When laying DPM [on foors]is continued on vertical wall face
concrete filled 75mm radius should be provided at the
junction.
Characteristics of DPC
I. The material should be perfectly impervious
II. The material should be durable with same life span as the
building
III. The material should be strong capable of resisting super
imposed loads
IV. It should be flexible to accommodate structural movements
without fracture
V. It should not be costly and should be easily available
VI. It should remain steady in its position once applied
2. Integral damp proofing
It is done by adding water proofing components materials to
concrete mix to make it impermeable

3. Surface treatment
The surface treatment consist of application of layer of
water repellant substance or compounds on surface through
which moisture enter.
Pointing and plastering of the exposed surface must be
done carefully using agents like sodium or potassium
silicate, aluminum or zinc sulphates
It is effective only when moisture is superficial and not
under pressure
Exposed stone or brick face may be sprayed with water
repellant solutions.

4. Cavity wall construction

Effective method in which main wall of building is shielded
by an outer skin leavin g cavity space between them.

5. Gunity
 This spraying of rich cement mortar over exposed surface
for water proofing over pipes or cisterns resisting water
pressure
Mortar of 1:3:3 shot on the surface at pressure of 2-3kN/m 3
at distance of 750-900mm from the surface and cured
properly for 10 days

6. Pressure grouting
Consists of forcing cement grout under pressure into cracks
voids and tissue present in structural components building
or in ground
The foundation is thus consolidated and made water
resistant. The method is effective in checking the seepage
of raised ground water through foundation and sub
structural of the building.
Damp proof materials
I. Hot bitumen-Flexible usually applied 3mm thickness while
hot
II. Mastic asphalt – Semi rigid material which is quite durable
and impervious obtained by heating sand and mineral fillers
III. Bituminous or asphaltic felt- flexible material available in
rolls of various wall thickness laid on mortar with an overlap
of 100mm
IV. Metal sheets- lead copper and aluminum flexible type.
V. Combination of sheet and bituminous felts- Lead foil
sand wicked between asphaltic or bituminous felt is effective
for damp proofing.
VI. Bricks- Special bricks with water absorption less than 4.5%
of their weight.
VII. Stones- Dense sound stones and slate laid in cement sand
mortar
VIII. Mortar- cement mortar 1:3 is used as DPC
IX. Cement concrete- concrete of 1:2:4 mix is normal used at
plinth level as DPC
X. Plastic sheets- These are black polythene of thickness as
to 1mm used on walling and as DPM on floors. They are
supplied in rolls.
OPENING IN WALLS
Doors and windows are the main openings in walls. The
allocations is shown on the working drawing with a seal and head
heights.
The seal does not need special treatment but at the end there are
alternatives to any brick work across/above the opening which
include.
 Lintels
 Arches
I. lintels
Is a beam that span across a horizontal opening and support
the load just above it. Lintels can be made of timber or
concrete.
Timber is good for short span but not durable. Therefore in
most cases reinforced concrete is used.
Constructing concrete lintels
Structural engineers design lintels for larger span buildings but
you can follow these basic guidelines to construct lintel fo
domestic scale construction.
Span Depth [mm] Reinforcement bar
diameter [mm]
900mm 150 10
1200mm 150 12
1500mm 215 12
1800mm 215 16

Requirements
 The bearing of lintels must be more than 150mm overlap.
  At least 25ml of concrete cover must be provided at the
bottom of the reinforcement bar
 At least 50ml of concrete cover must be provided at the
ends of the bar.
Casting a concrete lintel
A concrete lintel can be casted into
 Pre- cast
 Cast in situ
a) Pre cast
This is process of preparing a lintel separately from a
building i.e. it is done on or off site.
The advantages is that the lintel can be placed in position as
soon as the lintel is dry
You may need to employ a lifting equipment if the lintel is
heavy.

Procedure of pre-casting a lintel

 Make the formwork with an open top which is the same size
as the external dimension of the finished lintle.
 Apply mould oil to the inside of the mould to avoid a
concrete from sticking to the formwork
 Bend the ends of the reinforcement bars to right angle 90 0
and tie together using transverse bars.
 Insert space that hold the bars 25mm from the bottom of the
mould
 Place the reinforcement bars to the mould and check that
the bars are 50mm from each end of the mould.
 Mix the required amount of concrete
 Pour concrete into the mould and make sure it flows down
around and under the bars by compacting.
  Make smooth finish on the top using a wood float and write a
word TOP on wet concrete
 Cover the mould with a wet sack and leave it to set foe 7
days.
b) Casting in situ/monolithic concrete lintels
This process of pouring a concrete into the formwork across the
opening to make a lintle.
Procedure for casting am in situ concrete lintel
 Erect the timber the opening and support it from the flow
below.[use wedge] to level the support and formwork
 Seal all the joints with building paper or mastic between the
timber formwork and the brickwork to stop linkages
 Apply mould oil on the inside of the formwork
 Place the spacers in position i.e. 25mm spacers
 Place the reinforcement in the formwork
 Mix the required concrete
 Pour a concrete ensuring the cover of 25mm at the bottom
and 50mm at the sides then compact.
 Cover with wet sacks leave it for 7 days
 After it has hardened formwork is removed.
Classification of lintels according to materials
 Timber lintel
 Stone lintel
 Brick lintel
 Steel lintel
 Reinforced concrete lintel

II. Arches
Is structure comprising of a number of relatively small units
i.e. bricks or masonry blocks. Which are wedged, sharped
joint together with mortar and spanning an opening to
support the weight above it.
 Technical terms used in arches
I. Vourssoirs
These are wedged shaped bricks stones or blocks which
comprises an arch
II. Abitument
This is the point where the ends of an arch rest on the wall
and supports the weight of the structure above it
III. Center
This is the center of the circle that defines the segmental
arch
IV. Crown /key brick/ keystone
The heighest point of extrados i.e. the last brick to be laid at
the centre of the arch
V. Depth/height- distance between intrados and extrados
VI. Extrados/back- the external curve of the extrados
VII. Intrados – the inner curve of the arch
VIII. Skew back- the inclined surface of the abutment prepared
to receive an arch from the which the arch springs
IX. Soffit- the inner or undersurface of the arch [used at time to
mean the same with intrados]
X. Abutment – the portion of the wall which supports the arch.
XI. Springer- the first stone or brick laid on the skew back
XII. Springing line- the lines that join the springing points
XIII. Springing point-the points where the intrados meets the
skew back
XIV. Span- the horizontal distance between the reveals of the
supports
XV. Haunah- the lower half of the arch between the crown and
skew back
XVI. Ring rim or ring course- the circular course/courses
comprising the arch e.g. one two and three
Types of arches
 Segmental arch
 Semi-circular arches
Types of segmental arches
a) Gauged seg-mental arch- constructed of rubbers upon
temporary wood supports called centres
b) Purpose- made brick segmental arch
c) Axed brick segmental arch
d) Rough brick segmental arch
Marking a brick arch.
 Construct the centering-
centering/turning piece- this is timber shaped with the same
curvature of the completed arch to provide support to the arch
until the cement mortar is hard/ concrete.
They are supported on props with wedges inserted at the top of
centering to allow adjustment.
 Spanning the opening
  Placing the centering in position
 Building the arch out of brick on edge i.e starting from lower
part to the upper part
 Placing the key stone

Classification of arches
Arches are classified according
 Shape
 Number of centers
 Material and workmanship
Types of arch based on shape
Based on the shape of construction arches are classified into-
I. Flat arch
For flat arch the intrados is apparently flat and it acts as a
base of equilateral triangle which was formed by the
horizontal angle of 600 by skewbacks
Even though the intrados is flat but is given that a slight rise
of camber of about 10 to 15 mm per meter width of opening
is allowed for small settlement.
Extrados is also horizontal and flat. These flat aches are
general used for light loads end for span upto 1.5m

II. Segmental arch

 This is the basic type of arch is used for buildings in which
centre of arch lies below the springining line.
In segmental arch the thrust transferred in inclined direction
to the abutment

III. Semi- circular arch

The shape of arch curve looks like semi-circle and the thrust
transferred to the abutments is perfectly vertical direction
since skewback is horizontal. In this type of arch the centre
lies exactly on the springing line.

IV. Horse shoe arch

Horse shoe is in the shape of the horse shoe which curves
more than semi-circle.
This is generally considered for architectural provision.

V. Pointed arch
 The other name of pointed arch is Gothic arch.in this type of
arch two arcs of circle are met at the apex hence at triangle
is formed. This may be either isosceles or equilateral.

VI. Venetian arch

Venetian arch is also pointed arch but its crown is deeper
than springings. It contains four centers all located on the
springing line.

VII. Florentine arch

Intrados of arch is in the shape of semi -circular and the of
the arch is similar to venetian arch. It has three centre
located on the springing line

VIII. Relieving arch

Relieving arch is constructed above a flat arch or on a
wooded lintel to provide greater strength. Incase of relieving
arch we can replace the decayed wooden lintel easily
without disturbing the stability of structure.
The ends of this arch should be carried sufficiently into the
abutments.
IX. Stilted arch
Stilted arch consist of semi-circular with two vertical portions
at the springs the centre of arch lies on the horizontal line
through the tops of vertical position.

X. Semi-elliptical arch
This is type of arch of semi-ellipse shape and having three or five
Centre’s
Types of arches based on number of centers
I. One –centered arches
Segmental, semi-circular, flat, horse-shoe arches
II. Two centered arches
Pointed or gothic or lancet arches are generally come under
this type
III. Three centered arches
Semi elliptical and Florentine arches are generally having
three number of centers
IV. Four centered arches
Venetian arch is typical example
V. Five centered arches
A good semi-elliptical shape arch contains five centers
Types of arches based on workmanship and construction
materials
I. Stone arches- based on workmanship, these are sub
divided into two types. They are
 Rubble arches- are very weak and used only for
inferior work. These are used of 1m
 Ashlar arches- in this the stone are cut to proper
shape of voussoirs and fully dressed joined with cement
mortar.
II. Brick arches- brick arches are also subdivided into-;
 Rough brick arches-these are constructed with
ordinary bricks without cutting to the shape voussoirs.
The arch curve is provided by forming wedge shaped
joints with greater thickness at extrados and smaller
thickness at intrados.
 Axed brick arches- the bricks are cut into wedge with
the help of brick axe. So these are roughly dressed in
shape and size
 Gauged brick arches- in this type arch brick are cut
to exact shape and size of required voussoir with help
of wire saw. The bricks are finely dressed and these
 bricks are joined by lime putty, but for gauged bricks
arches only soft bricks are used.
 Purpose made brick arches- the bricks are
manufactured ,matching with the exact shape and size
of voussoirs to get a fine workmanship
III. Concrete arches- concrete arches are of two types
 Precast concrete block arches- the blocks cast in
molds to the exact shape and size of voussoirs. For
keystone and skewbacks special molds are prepared.
These wil give good appearance because of exact
shape and size .cement 1:2:4 is used.
 Monolithic concrete block arches- this are suitable
for larger span. These are constructed form cast in situ
concrete. These may be either plain or reinforced
depending upon the span and magnitude of loading.
Formwork is used for casting the arch. The curing is
done for 2 to 4 weeks.

TERMITE CONTROL/PROOFING
Introduction
Termites popularly known as white ants cause considerable
damage to wood work finishing etc of a building.
They cause upto 10% of the capital outley of the building hence
the need to use anti-termite treatment to either reduce or stop
them all together.
Types of termites
 Dry wood termites
 Sub- terranean termites
I. Dry wood termites
They live in dry wood in small colonies without maintaining any
connection with the soil.
They are generally found in humid coastal areas.
II. Sub- terrannean termites
These termites have their main colonies in soil underground. They
don’t service without maintaining any connection with their prime
colonies in the soil.
They require both moisture as well as darkness for their survival.
They have five castles.
 Queen
 King
 Soldiers
 Sexual winged male and female adults
 Workers
Anti-termite treatment
May be divided into 2 categories
 Pre-construction treatment
 Post construction treatment

1. PRE- CONSTRUCTION TREATMENT

This treatment starts right at the initial stage of construction of
building and is divided into 3 operation
 Site preparation
 Soil treatment
  Structural barriers

I. Site preparation
This operation consist removal of stumps roots logs waste wood
and other fibrous matter from the soil at the construction site.
The operation is essential since termites thrive on this materials.
If termites moulds are detected they should be destroyed by use
of insectsides solution consist of any of the following chemicals.
chemical Concentration by weight
DDT 5%
BHC 0.5%
Aldine 0.25%
Heptachlor 0.25%
Chlordane 0.5%

Hole are made in the termite mould at several places and four
litres of the above emulsion in water is used.
II. Soil treatment
The best and only reliable method to protect building against
termites is to apply chemical treatment to the soil at the fine of
construction of the building
This should be done in such away that complete chemical barriers
is created between the ground from where the termites come and
damage wood work in the building.
An insectside solution consisting of any of the following chemicals
in water solution is used.
chemical Concentration by weight
Aldine 0.56%
Heptachlor 0.56%
Chlordane 1%
Aldrex emulsion contect has proved to be the best effectiveness.
Advantages of aldrex emulsion content
 It highly toxic to termites
 It can easily be applied after dilution with water
 It is insoluble in water i.e. it will not dissolve in sub soil water
and disappear quickly.
 It is effective even many years after application.
 One part of aldrex 30 emulsion contect is diluted with 5%
parts of water to provide emulsion containing 0.5% aldine
 The emulsion is applied with a sprayer evenly at the
following stages.
a) Stage one
In the foundation pits to treat the bottom and sides
upto a height of about 300mm at the rate of 5L per
square metre.
b) Stage two
The refill earth on both sides of all built up wall for
width of 500mm and depth of 450mm approximately at
the rate of 5L per square metre.
c) Stage three
Before laying the floor entire levelled surface is to be
tested at the rate of 5 L of emulsion per M2
III. Physical structural barriers
Continuous Impenetiatable physical structural barrier may be
provided continuously at plinth level to present entry of termites
through walls.
These barriers may be in form of concrete layer and metal layer.
It is preferable to keep the layer of cement concrete projecting 50
to 75 mm internally and externally
Metal barriers may consist of non-corrodible sheets of copper is
galvanized iron of 8mm thick.
The sheets are likely to be damaged and become in effective.

2. POST TREATMENT TREATMENT

This is a maintenance treatment for those buildings which are
already under attack of termites.
Termites maintain their contact with their nest or colony in the
ground through shelter tubes or tunnels lined with soil this fact is
utilized in the anti-termite treatment
It is essential to carry out inspection to estmate the magnitude of
magnitude of special of termites in the building and detect their
entry routes.
The entry may be near the columns basements staircase
bathrooms leaking pipes and drains etc the pace where woodwork
is embedded on the ground.
In building entry points may be lift walls electric conducts water
supply pipes
If the attack is severe the soil around the building and under the
floor may be injected with termite emulsion which is applied upto
a depth of 300mm below ground level.
To prevent entry through voids in masonry a 12mm diameter
holes are drilled at 300mm centre at an angle of 45 0 from both
sides of the wall at plinth level chemical injected and sea bed.
The treatment of drilling out at critical locations such as walls
corners, column bases places of doors and window.
The method can be applied even in damaged wood work.

UNIT 8; DOORS AND WINDOWS

A door is a movable barrier that separates internal and external
space or space used to seal an opening into building or between
rooms.
DOOR FRAMES
Door frame is an assembly of horizontal and vertical members
forming an enclosure to which the door shutter are fixed.
The size of the door frame is determined by allowing a clearance
of 5mm to both sides and the top of the opening.
The cross-sectional area of the jambs and the head is generally
kept the same all through.
A rebate is provided all round to receive the door shutter.
TERMINOLOGIES
1. Head – Top horizontal member of the frame
2. Jamp- Vertical member/ post of the frame which is fixed to
wall
3. Sill- horizontal bottom member of frame of the door. The
door frame may have a sill or not, sills are commonly fixed
to external door and usually stopped outwards to shed rain
away from the building.
4. Rebate- Outer vertical piece of the shutter
5. Door stop- Thin member of timber which is fixed to the
head and jamb of door lining to form a planted rebate
6. Lining- Timber frame inserted into an opening of internal
walls
7. Water Bar- metallic plate which is fitted into seal of
external door to prevent water from flowing into the house
8. Weather board- Horizontal piece of timber fixed to
horizontal bottom edge of door shutter to shield away water
from the building
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENT OF DOOR
1. Sound insulation- Doors should be heavier to provide
better sound insulation
2. Weather resistance- Doors gaps should be sealed with
suitable draught and water excludes to make the doors
weather resistant
3. Security- externally doors need to be constructed to high
specification and fitted with high security locks
4. Fire resistance- Internal doors that separate space should
be made of material that rapid spread of fire and they should
be heavy enough to be self-closing.
5. Privacy- Doors should provide maximum privacy such as in
toilets and bathrooms.
 6. Durability- doors are in constant use therefore-
 There construction should be strong enough to
withstand considerable activities
 Should not fall of the edge fixed to frame under its own
weight.
 External door should be able to resist climatic extremes
which cause the shape to warp.
FUNCTION OF DOOR
 Provide security to the occupants
 Provide privacy to the occupants
 Ventilation purposes
 To provide lighting into building
 To provide thermal insulation
 Top provide sound insulation
 To provide weather resistance
 To provide fire resistance
 Provide access into and out of the building

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING DOOR

 The purpose of the door in the building.
 The appearance of the door that is required
 The position of the door in the building.
 The size of the door
 The cost of the door
 Fire resistance of the door
 And any other general requirement that may apply to
specific conditions such as durability strength etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF DOORS
 There are two types of doors based on their position the
building.
 External doors
 Internal doors
External doors- Door which closes entrance to interior of the
building. External doors are therefore subjected to elements of
weather such as rain wind pressure and therefore must be strong
and durable so as to resist this elements. General external doors
are bigger than internal in order to allow convenient passage of
people and goods through that opening.
Internal door- closes the access through the internal walls and
should therefore have the same functional requirement as those
of the walls on which they are fixed.
TYPES OF DOOR FRAMES
The type of door frame is based on material used i.e. timber
frames steel section aluminum sections concrete and stone.
Timber is commonly used in domestic dwellings out steel frames
are used in factories workshop and other industries.
With increasing cost of timber and termite attack concrete frames
are now becoming popular in urban areas
Stones frame are used in village where good quality stones are
available in required size.
The jambs head and seal of the stone door frame/window frame
are finely dressed and jointed proper holes and cross ponding
projection.

TIMBER DOOR FRAMES

It is generally preferred because they look much better than
others and it can polished if desired.
The thickness vary from 60-75mm by 100mm in width depending
on the door opening and the type of timber used but in most
occation it is taken as 75mm by 100mm for both jambs and head.
If shutter are to be provided on both sides of the frame the sizes
is usually 75mm by 125mm
The frame is rebated on both sides externally to receive plaster
wall a rebate of 10mm all round.
The rebate to receive shutter vary from 12.5-15mm in width and
kept to the thickness of shutter and it should be alone on both
sides of the door, if the shutter are of both sides.
METHODS OF FIXING TIMBER DOOR FRAMES
Before fixing the door frame all the portions which will be in
contact with masonry are painted with coal tar mixed with addrex
[anti-termite solution] or with an approved primer.
The hold fast [metal cramps] are fixed to the frame at the back
and well embedded in masonry and its surrounding filled with
concrete or rich mortar
In case the frame is to be fixed later, the wooded pegs/ planes are
embedded in the masonry with their ends flashing with the phase
of the opening.
The door frame is later screwed to those pegs/planes with iron
wood screws or nails.

STEEL DOOR FRAMES

They are made of any of the following sections
 Single angle iron
 Double angle iron
 T-sections
 Channel sections [formed from pressing steel plates]
METHODS OF FIXING STEEL DOOR FRAME
Steel hold fast or lugs are welded to the frame
Chases are cut in brick masonry along the bed joints to
accommodate the lugs which are then grouted with cement
mortar
The vertical jars and the head of the frame are welded together.
The inches of the shutter are also welded to the frame.
In the case of storey masonry or reinforced concrete where it is
difficult to cut chases wood and plugs are embedded at
appropriate places in the jar during wall construction and later the
frame is fixed to the plugs using bid size galvanized iron wood
screws

GENERALLY METHODS OF FIXING DOOR FRAME DOOR

FRAME.
 Wall pass [hoop iron]
 Wood pallets
 Wood lugs
 Steel lugs
 Metal crumps
Wood pallets
This is a piece of timber build into the bed joint of wall to
reasonable depth into it.
After inserting into the bed joints it is cut flash to the jar. Timber
frame is screwed or nailed through to the wood pallets for it to
firmly fit into the position.
NB
The wood pallets are fixed at regular intervals on both sides of the
jar for fixing the wood frame on both sides of the opening.
Wood lugs
This are fixed as wood pallets and are in circular in their shape
built into the bed joints.

Metal cramps/ anchor

This are L or Z shaped metals which are fish tailed at the end.
They are fixed to the back of door frame with screws or nails at
regular intervals
These are then built into the bed joints and the end fish tail is
fitted to the perpends.

Metal lugs
They are welded onto the frame of the steel door at the exact
height of the bed joints.
The steel doors frame are then fixed into the position ensuring
that the lugs are well inserted into the bed joints
Rich mortar is used to fix it onto the bed joints and ensure its
stability.
NB
Jointing mortar is chiseled out at the position of securing the lugs
and after fixing the rich mortar is used finally.
Wall pass/hoop iron
Wall pass are used to fix the frame by fixing it to the back of the
frame then built into the bed joint as metal cramps.
NB
Door frames can be fixed in two ways
 As the wall construction progress
 After the completion of the wall
 Fixing of window and door frames is known as first fixing

Procedure for fixing a door frame as construction

proceeds
I. Brace the frame or lining to keep it square
II. Paint [prime] the back of the frame to prevent the entry of
moisture from the masonry
III. Screw galvanized metal fastening to the back of the frame or
lining which match the masonry courses.
IV. Stand the frame into position level and support it with struts
V. Build the fastenings into the masonry joints to secure the
frame or lining in position permanently
Procedure of fixing a door frame after construction
I. Leave an opening larger by 3-4mm than the frame
II. Insert wood plugs into masonry joints that faces the opening
during construction
III. Put the frame in position after the wall and lintel/ ring beam
is built
IV. Level the frame with small timber pieces
V. Drill holes in the frame or lining for screw to the plugs in
masonry
VI. Counter sink the screw and fill the holes
Purpose of door frames
I. Defines opening
II. Reduce the gap between a door and wall
III. Provide fixing for hinges and recess for the lock and latch
IV. Provide a finish between the door and the wall.
NB
Timber frames are made with rebate to accommodate the door.
Door linings are usually fitted to the internal doors where they are
of full width of internal wall
Timber steps are nailed to the lining to provide rebate for door to
close against.
Functional requirements / workmanship for door frame
I. All members shall be exactly at right angles- the squareness
shall be checked from the inside surface of the members
II. All members shall b straight without warps bowing and shall
be smooth well planned an three sides exposed at right
angles to each other. The surface touching the wall is not
planed.
III. Members of frame shall be of same species of timber except
in case of soft wood frames where bottom sill of the window
and ventilation shall be of hard wood.
IV. The contact surface of tenons and mortice shall be treated
with adhesive before together.
V. A minimum of three hold fast[ metal cramps] shall be fixed
on each side of the door frames one at the centre and two at
300mm from top and bottom of frame. Metal cramps should
be of Z form and be of 50mm x6mm x 230mm long fixed
with specified screws
VI. The frames shall be clamped together so as to be square and
flat at the time of delivery with temporary supports at the
four corners
VII. The frames shall be well planned on three sides exposed at
right angles to each other and finished smooth.
VIII. Hold fast and other parts which go into or against masonry
and are not accessible for maintenance shall be protected
against moisture and decay with coating of coal for or others
suitable protective material.
FRAME SCHEDULE
Members constituting to a frame are usually out in a workshop
and list of members sizes numbers and their type are shown in
frame schedule or below
S.NO MEMBER SIZE [mm] FINISHED NO TYPE
SIZE [mm]
1 Jamp 100x75x240 95x70x2400 2 cypress
0
2 Head 100x75 95x70 1 cypress
3 Threshol 100x75 95x70 1 cypress
d
4 Sill 100x75 95x70 1 cypress
5 Dowels 12 - 2 steel
6 Metal 50x6x230 - 3 steel
cramps

NB
If steel is used then sizes will vary and are welded together in the
workshop.
TYPES OF TIMBER DOOR
They consist of -;
 Match boarded doors
 Flush doors
 Panel doors
 Louvered doors
 Fire resistance doors.
 1. Match boarded doors
This are cheap doors used as both external and internal
doors in situation beauty is not significant factor.
They consist of the following
 Ledged and braces
 Frame ledge and brace
Ledge and brace
This is very simple door for internal or external use which is cheap
to make. The face of the door is made from tongued and grooved
boarding that has edge chamfers to one or both faces.
This form V-joint between the consecutive boards, three
horizontal members called ledge clamp the boards together and
strength them against sinking.

Framed ledge and brace

This door is stronger than ledge and braced because the batterns
are set inside timber frame.
This door consists of –
  Batterns thst form the surface of the door
 Frame with head form the surface of the door
 Ledge
 Braces

Note
The match boarded are named according to the members
present. The frame and the ledge are joined together using
mortice and tenon joint.
2. Flush doors
Flush doors have no projection or recess on their surface of the
joint. These doors are usually made large sheets of plywood or
hardboard. Flush doors may have panels to allow in some light
 Core- This is the inner part of the door. The external boards
or sheets of plwood are fixed to it and it can be made from-
Soft wood framework of horizontal and vertical piece joined
together in recessed joints
Cellular centre of paper or card board strips glued together
in lattice pattern
Solid centre of timber strips glued together. This type of
core makes very heavy door with good sound insulation that
can be used external doors and fire doors
  Flush panel- This 3mm plywood or hard board sheets which
are fixed onto the core material
 Lipping –This a thin wooden strip that protects the edges of
flush door panel
 Lock block- A piece fitted into the internal frame work of
the door to make the recess for the lock.

They are several types of flush as shown below.

a) Hollow core flush doors
This is flush door empty inner core. Its widely used for
internal door due to its lightness.

b) Skeleton core flush door

This door consist of timber rails which are placed horizontal
in the core at not more than 125mm spacing this door is also
known as timber rail flush door
c) Semi-solid flush
This is similar to the skeleton core flush door except that the
horizontal rails are spaced at the 63mm apart. It is therefore
stronger than the skeleton core flush door.

d) Laminated [solid] flush

This is the strongest of all the flush and is constructed using
thin piece of timber called laminates which are glued
together under high pressure. It is more expensive than
other flush doors and is of good quality. It is able to
withstand heavy use and provide high quality degree of
sound insulation.

3. Panel doors
This doors are suitable for internal and external use. They are
made from solid timber frames with either solid timber or glazed
panels.
It consist of-;
a) Stiles- which are grooved on the inside edge to receive the
panels
b) Intermediate rails- This are cross-pieces that divided the
door into panels horizontal
c) Mutins- This are central vertical pieces
d) Bottom rails-This are bottom horizontal framing pieces
e) Panels- this are the filling between the framing pieces. They
can be-
 Thin solid timber
 6mm plywood
 Clear or obscure glass
4. Louvered door
This are used in machine room or rooms where air
circulation is necessary.
 5. Fire resistant door
This is made from fire resistant material such as asbestos sheets
on either side of the door. In addition to this they intumescent
strips all around the circumference of the door.
When this material come into contact with fire or heat they form a
foam to block and space around the door and prevent any smoke
from passing from one side to another.
Every fire resistant door must have glazed portion. The glass used
must be reinforced with thin steel wire mesh. The joint between
the glass and door should have intumescent strips.

IRON MONGER
Includes all fittings which enable components such as doors and
windows to close and open. Iron monger can be broadly divided
into 2 categories-;
 Those fittings which allow movement of components e.g
hinges
 Those fittings which provide security to occupants e.g locks
bolts
a) Hinges
This are fittings which allow horizontal or vertical movement of
the building components such as doors and window. Mainly made
from wrought iron steel, brass.
Types of hinges.
 b) Locks and latches
Latch is catch for the door which is lifted by labour.it is fitted in
recess to the door. It operation is such that when the door is
realized so as to close the door spring forces the latch out or the
edge of the door.
A lock is security device in a building or room. When the lock is
engaged in the recess of the door frame it can only be opened
using a key. This is because a lock does not have a spring
mechanism as that of latch. In most cases the lock and latch is
placed in one unit which engages easily into the recess of door
frame.
 c) Bolts
This metal bars that slides across to fasten the door security bolts
often fitted to the inside of an external door as an additional
safety measure against intruders. Another type of bolt is fitted on
double door to hold them closed position.
d) Handles
These are knobs or lever handles that operate latches. They are
screwed to the surface of the door. Square spindles that pass
through the latches fit into sockets in the base of the handles.
e) Kicker plates
Kicker plates are designed to protects the bottom from daily wear
and tear. They are made of metal or plastic strips.

DOOR SCHEDULE
A door schedule is a table showing the specification of doors
which will be required for construction project. This schedule will
be required for supply of doors.
Example
The following will be required for the construction of houses in
Estate A and B
Estate A
2 skeleton core flush doors of size [2100mmx900mm]
2 solid core flush of size [2100mmx900mm]
2 match boarded doors of size [2100mmx900mm]
1 solid core flush of size [2100mmx1200mm]
3 double leaf match boarded door [2100mmx900mm]
2 six panel door solid timer door of size [2100mmx900]
3 six panel [glass panel] door of size [2100mmx900mm]
1 two panel [glass panel] door of size [2100mmx900mm]
3 skeleton core flush door of size [2200mmx900mm]
Estate B
2 skeleton core flush door of size [2100mmx900mm]
3 solid core flush door of size [2100mmx 900mm]
4 match boarded door of size [2100mmx900mm]
1 double leaf match boarded door [2100mmx900mm]
3 six panel [glass panel] door of size [2100mmx900mm]
4 six panel solid timber door of size [2100mmx900mm]

DESIGNA TYPE SIZE [mm ] QUANTI REMARKS

TE NO TY
D1 Flush 2100x900 2 Skeleton
D2 Flush 2100x900 5 Solid core
D3 Match 2100x900 6
boarded
D4 Flush 2100x900 1 Solid core
D5 Match 2100x1200 4 Double leaf
boarded
D6 Panel 2100x900 6 Six panel solid
timber
D7 Panel 2100x900 6 Six panel glass
D8 Panel 2100x900 1 Two panel
glass
D9 Flush 2100x900 3 Skeleton core
WINDOWS
The primary function of windows are to provide adequate natural
ventilation and natural light.
The area of window is related to total area of room on which is
placed.
Factors to consider in selection of size shape location and
NO of windows
 The size of the room to be lit
 Location of the room and its utility
 Architectural treatment to be given to the room
 Direction of the wind and its speed
 Climatic conditions such as humidity temperature variation
Following the above factors the following general
guidelines are as follows
 To provide sufficient ventilation; the building regulation
stipulates that the minimum of ventilating of the ventilating
open part of window shall be 1/20 of the room.
 For the window to provide adequate natural the window area
has to be at least ¼ of floor area
 Total area covered by glass on window should be at least
10% of the floor area of the room
 In case of public buildings like schools hospitals and offices
the minimum area of the window should be 20% of the floor
area.
Factors to consider when designing window for room
 The size and number of windows should be sufficient to
provide adequate light and ventilation
 The windows should be located opposite each other
whenever possible.
 The window sill should be placed at 750-1000mm above the
floor level. It is considered the reasonable height for inmates
to have convenient look outside. In case of bathroom and
washroom and on other situation where privacy is desired
window sill should be kept at 1750mm above the floor level.
 The shutters/sash of windows in external side should open
outside this checks entry of rain water inside room
 Windows on external walls should be provided with window
sill projecting toward the external phase of the wall to block
the entry of rain water in the room. The sill should be
weathered and throated to throw the rain water off the
phase of the wall.

Functional requirements of window

1. Ventilation
Amount of ventilation must suited to the use of the room or space
served by the window as this may require a large amount of
opening to give a very rapid of air or small opening which gives a
regulated and controls slow change of air
2. Lighting
Window must light room efficiently by providing the right amount
of day light. The shape and position of window affects the
distribution of light in the room.
3. Appearance.
Pattern of widow on the face also matters
4. Thermal insulation
Windows have areas of high heat loss and to conserve heat in the
building the total number of windows must be considered.
5. Sound insulation
Is done by use of thick size of glasses double glazing or triple
glazing.

Construction of windows
A window includes a frame and one or more sashes which may be
glazed. The frame of window can be made from a variety of
material such as timber metal or plastic.
Window can be classified according to-;
a) Material
 Timber windows
 Metal windows [ steel or aluminum]
 Plastic windows
b) According mode of opening of sash
Sash is openable part of window
 Casement window- The sash is hung on hinges
 Sliding windows- The sash by horizontal or vertical
 Pivoted widows- The sash is supported on pivots on
either direction
c) Special windows
 Doomer windows
 Sky windows
 Dome windows
  Bay windows
 Latern windows

Classification of window
STEEL WINDOWS
It also consist of frame and sash. Frames used are Z sections
made from basic wrought steel section shaped and welded at the
corners to form angles. The Z section is the frame top rail bottom
rail mullion and transom. The T- section is for glazing bars.
Internal steel section are welded to the outer frame and to each
other.
The complete frame is provided with protective coat of primer to
prevent rusting
Steel windows are fixed into the opening by either direct fixing
into the structure.
Steel window are cheaper in initial cost than aluminum alloy but
have higher maintenance cost over their anticipated life. Both can
be obtained fitted into timber frames. Generally they are given
large glasses area for any given opening size than similar timber
windows but they can give rise to condensation on the metal
components.
SLIDING SASH WINDOWS
These are an alternative format to the conventional side hung
casement windows and can be constructed as vertical or double
hung sash windows or as horizontal slinding window in timber
metal plastic or in any combination of these materials.
Double hung sash windows- These vertical sliding sash
windows come in two formats when constructed in timber.
Horizontal sliding sash windows- these are alternatives
format to the vertical sliding or double hung sash windows and
can be constructed in timber metal plastic or combination of
these materials with single or double glazing. A wide range of
arrangements are available with two or more sliding sashes which
can have vent light incorporated into outer sliding sash.
Pivot windows- They can be constructed with the centre jamp
pivots enabling the sash to pivot or rotate in the horizontal plane
or alternatively the pivots can be fixed in the head and sill of the
frame so that the sash rotates in the vertical plane.
Bay windows- These can be defined as any window with side
lights which projects in front of the external wall and is supported
by sill height wall. Bay windows that are not supported by sill
height wall are called oriel windows. They can be of any window
type constructed from any of the usual windows materials and are
available in three plan formats namely square splay and
circular or segmental. Timber corner posts can be boxed solid
or jointed.

WINDOWS SCHEDULE
The main function of schedule is to collect together all the
necessary information. There is no standard format for schedule
but they should be easy to read accurate and contain all
necessary information.
WINDOW SCHEDULE – Drawn By Date
sheet 1 of 1
Contract Title Number Drawing No.
Numb Type Materi Overal Glass Iron Sill
er al l size mong
WxH er
Extern intern
al al
2 213CV Hardw 1200x Sealed Suppli 2 150x1
ood 1350 units ed course 50x15
as with Plain Quarr
suppli casem tiles y tile
ed ent sub
with sill
frame
s
2 309CV Ditto 1770x Ditto Ditto Ditto 25
900 mm
thick
softwo
od
4 313CV Ditto 1770x Ditto Ditto Sill ditto
1350 frame

KEY
3 = width divided in three [3] units
13= first two dimension of standard height= 1350
C= casement
V= ventlight.
GLAZING
This is act of fixing glass into frame or surround. I domestic work
this is usually achieved by locating the glass in rebate and
securing it with putty or beading.
Glazing for buildings
a) Timber surrounds- linseed oil putty is the traditional
material for sealing retaing glass in wooden frame.
It’s a composite of crushed chalk and linseed oil [whiting]
Construction
Rebate to be clean dry and primed before glazing is carried out
putty should be protected with paint two weeks of application.
b) Metal surrounds- metal casement putty is metal surround
is to be painted – if surround is not painted a non-setting
compound should be used.
Type of glazing.
I. Double glazing-This is where two layers of glass are used
instead of the traditional single layer.
The method is used to-;
 Reduce the rate of heat loss through window and
glazed door.
 Reduce the sound transmission through windows
In the case of thermal insulation a small space with the range of 6
to 20 mm between the two layers of glass. If metal frames are
used these should have a thermal break incorporated into their
design.
All opening sashes in double glazing system should be fitted with
adequate weather seals to reduce the rate of heat loss through
opening clearance gap.
Incase of sound insulation three factors affect the performance.
 Good installation to ensure air tightness
 The weight of glass used
 The size of air space between the layers of glass.
NB
The heavier the glass used the better the sound insulation and
the air space needs to be within the range of 50 to 300mm

II. Triple glazing

This type of curtaining is used to control solar radiation and heat
gain. Glass specification and thickness may also vary depending
on thermal and sound insulation requirements.
 UNIT 9: FIRE PLACES AND FLUES
The fire place provide a safe fire proof location to burn fuel for
heat or cooking. It is connected to the flue which conducts the
product of combustion outside the house in safe manner.
 TECHNICAL TERMS FOR PARTS OF FIRE PLACES AND FLUES
I. Back – A vertical brick work surface that provides the
opening for the construction of the fire place.
II. Breast- The brickwork that forms the part of the fire place
and flue structure that projects into the room.
III. Chimney- The brickwork structure that carries the flue
above the roof.
IV. Fireback- Heat resistant material that lines the brick
opening for the fireplace.
V. Flue- The opening inside the chimney that takes hot air
smoke or flames outside or flue can also be separate pipe
that links to the chimney in self-contained appliances such
as boilers.
VI. Gathering- The opening in the fire place where the hearth
narrows to the size of the flue.
VII. Head- The top of fire place opening which is formed by
concrete or stone lintel or brick arch.
VIII. Hearth- The fireproof horizontal base of the fire place. Any
combustible material such as timber joists must be
separated from the hearth by 50mm air gap.
IX. Jambs- Usually projecting brickwork at each side of the fire
and fireplace opening that can provide adequate depth fire
place construction.
X. Rendering- The cement and sand flue lining that seals the
brickwork from leaking flue gases.
XI. Throat- Restrictor at the head of the fireplace that increase
the velocity of the gases in the fire and air flow to the
burning fuel.
Dimensions of brick fire place and flues
Part of the structure Minimum dimension [mm]
Opening for the flue 215x215
Flue surround To 2.5 brick around it
Brick chimney 425x425
Chimney stack projection into 317.5
the room on external wall [215+102.5]
[width of wall +0.5 skin of
brick]
Fire opening [where burning 900
takes place]
Jamb 215 [each side of opening]
Hearth 500 projection 150 each side of
opening 125- thickness

Requirements Of Fire Place And Flue.

 To secure maximum heat for the benefit of the occupants.
 To take adequate precautions against spread of fire.
 To ensure effective of removal of smoke and avoidance of
down draught.
Conditions that can prevent chimney from operating
satisfactorily.
  Insufficient air entering the room to replace that passing up
the chimney
 Adverse flow condition resulting from the poor design of
passage through which the smoke passes [ throat gathering
and flue]
 Down drought caused by the build-up of pressure at the
chimney top influenced by type of building, neighbouring
buildings trees and topography of the site.
 Blaked flues.
Requirements for chimney stacks and flue outlets.
 It should be 1M above the highest point of contact between
the chimney or flue pipe and the roof when it is 600mm
below the ridge.
 It should be 1M above the top of the openable part of
window or skylight or any ventilation or air inlet to ventilator
system situated in any roof or external wall of a building and
is not more than 2.30m measured horizontal from the top of
the chimney or flue pipe.
 Should be 1M above the top of any part of a building [other
than a roof parapet wall or another chimney or flue pipe]
which is not more than 2.30M measured horizontally from
the top of the chimney or flue pipe.
CHIMNEY FAULTS
 The most common problem encountered in chimney is the
chimney being smokey
 A normal open fire require 110 to 170m3 of air per hour for
its combustion.
 There are many factors or combination of them which
prevent chimney from functioning well.
Causes of Smokey chimney
I. Blockage of the flue by soots or debries
Remedy-Ensure the chimney has been swept
Use suitable fuel which accumulate less soot
Check on the size of throat shape and position of
lintel
II. Air starvation – insufficient air supply to carry the smoke
into the flue.
Remedy – Open the room and window if smoke ceases then
the trouble was due to air starvation.
-Provision of ventilation or underfloor ducts are
likely to use the problem.
III. Adverse flow condition resulting from poor design of the fire
place through the smoke passes.
 Large throat which reduce upward velocity of
smoke
 Too large fire place in relation to the flue size
which restrict the free flow of smoke and gases.
 Too high fire place opening which allow the smoke
to come into the room.
Remedy – reduce the throat by using a thin sheet of
metal of about 100x250mm and if it produces the results a
variable throat restrictor can be fitted.
Where the fire place opening is too high place a
thin pieces of metal of about 75 to 100 mm high across the
 top opening to reduce its height to 510 to 560 mm if smoke
ceases a permanent canopy can be installed.
IV. Unsuitable flue size- flue larger than 230mm square may
cause smokies because they never get warm.
Remedy –excessive large bricks flue can be lined with fire
clay or clay refractory concrete pipes with spigot and socket
or related joints or other suitable linning.
V. Air leaks into the flue through defective brick joints and
crocked parging cooling gases and reducing drought.
Remedy- a flame of unlighted candle will be drown in by air
leak in a flue and defect can be located by smoke test.
Defective joints are made good with asbestos rope dressed
with fine cement..

VI. Poorly constructed flue. Too low off set bend too abrupt or
transversing length too long resulting in poor chimney
drought and Smokey fire.
Remedy- The run of flue can be checked with chimney
sweeps rod and in bad cases the chimney breast is opened
up at the faulty section rebuild.
VII. Unsuitable chimney pot;- possibly round base pot on a
square flue causing obstruction to flow.
Remedy- replace the round base with square base pot.
VIII. Steady down drought due to chimney top being in high
pressure zone e.g. chimney pot being lower than lower than
nearby ridge and on the windward side.
Remedy- open door or window on the windward side to
balance the pressure restore up drought.
The chimney can be extended temporally with sheet metal
and if satisfactory the chimney stack can be raised.
IX. Down draught due to doors windows or ventilators being in
law pressure zone-;
This occurs in short chimney serving inset open fire in
bungalow and two storey of block of flats.
 Remedy- Draught inducing cowl a throat restrictor on
openable room heater or free standing conveyor fire.
X. Intermittent down draught caused by downward striking
wind currents near chimney tops where there are higher
buildings trees or hill side nearby;-
Remedy;- filt a draught inducing cowl derogate consisting of
concrete copping at the top of the chimney supported by
small piers at each corney and gaps in between.

Procedure of inspecting a smokey chimney

I. Ensure that the chimney is swept excessive quantities of
soot may be due to use of unsuitable fuel.
 Check on the size of throat shape and position of
lintel.
II. Open windows and doors of the room in which the fire is
located
 If smoking ceases then the fire is starred of air
and there is a need for ventilators or underfloor
ducts.
III. Determine the effect of reducing the height of the fire place
opening with a strip of sheet metal.
 If the results improve then there is a need for a
permanent canopy to solve the problem.
IV. On occasion the streamlining of entrances and restrictions of
the throat with a pieces of bent metal may produce some
improvement.
 Available throat restrictor could be built into the
fire place.
V. Determine the effect of increasing the height of the chimney
stack with piece of sheet pipe of varying length with throat
restrictor in position in the fire place.
 Where good results are secured it is advisable to
fit longer pipe with longer pit to increase the
stack height.
Types of fire place.
a) Fire place on external walls.

b) Fire places on internal walls

c) Back to back [ internal walls]

Building regulations concerning the hearths
 It should not be less than 125mm thick
 Not lower than the surface of any floor of combustible
materials
 Extend within the recess to the brick and jambs of the
recess and projected not less than 50mm infront of the
jambs
 Not less than 840mm square if the earth is not
constructed within a recess