Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci.

19(1): 81–102, 2020

© The Biological Society of Ethiopia, 2020 ISSN: 1819-8678

RESEARCH ARTICLE
CHARACTERIZATION OF SALT AFFECTED SOILS AND IDENTIFICATION
OF SALINITY SOURCES IN IRRIGATED SOILS: THE CASE OF SMALL SCALE
IRRIGATION SCHEMES IN ADAMI TULU JIDO KOMBOLCHA AND ZIWAY
DUGDA DISTRICTS IN THE CENTRAL RIFT VALLEY OF ETHIOPIA

Engdasew Feleke1,*, Engdawork Assefa2, Tesfaye Zeleke2 and Alemu Beyene3

ABSTRACT: Soil salinity is an environmental threat that impedes

productivity of crops particularly in arid and semi-arid areas. This research
aimed to assess the status, causes, effects and ameliorative measures of soil
salinity in irrigated fields in Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia. A total of 40
composite soil samples were collected from groundwater and river irrigated
farm plots and corresponding rain-fed plots, and analyzed for pH, EC, TDS,
CEC, ESP, Exchangeable Na, bicarbonate, and sum of anions. Similarly, a
total of 12 composite water samples from the groundwater and rivers were
collected and analyzed for pH, EC, TDS, Na, K, Ca, Ma, Cl, B, SO 4 and CO3.
In addition, focus group discussion and interviews were conducted with
irrigation user farmers. The result showed that farm plots irrigated with
groundwater from sodic soil environment with Exchangeable Sodium
Percentage (ESP) >15 and areas irrigated with Bulbula River are becoming
sodic with an average ESP value of 13.5. Irrigation user farmers who
participated in the social survey indicated that soil salinity-sodicity adversely
affected growth of vegetables, land productivity and household economy.
The social survey also indicated that farmers lack knowledge, skills and
capital to apply various ameliorative measures of soil salinity and sodicity.
This requires monitoring of irrigation water, planting salt tolerant crops,
designing environmentally friendly irrigation practices and empowering
farmers on farming practices in order to mitigate and ameliorate soil salinity-
sodicity problems, and to enhance sustainability of irrigation farming in the
study areas.

Key words/phrases: Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP), Focus group,

Sodicity, Soil salinity.

1
Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, College of Social Sciences and Humanities, Hawassa
University, Hawassa, Ethiopia. E-mail: [email protected]
2
Centre for Environment and Development Studies, College of Development Studies, Addis Ababa University,
P.O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
3 Ethiopian Institute of Water Resources, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
*Author to whom all correspondence should be addressed
82 Engdasew Feleke et al.

INTRODUCTION
Soil salinity is one of the serious challenges facing irrigated agriculture,
especially in arid agro-ecosystems (Bouksila et al., 2013; Valipour, 2014).
Globally, about 831 million hectares of land is salt-affected (Martinez-
Beltran, 2005). The productivity of nearly 20–30 million hectares of
irrigated land has significantly decreased and about 250,000–500,000
hectares of land is lost each year (FAO, 2002). Soils can be saline due to
many factors such as weathering of parent materials, irrigation water,
fertilizer and shallow groundwater (Shahid, 2013). Salinity severely affects
crop production in irrigated regions of the world particularly in arid and
semiarid areas where evapotranspiration exceeds annual precipitation (Datta
and De Jong, 2002).
Irrigation is a vital tool to improve the subsistence-oriented farm
households’ economy to assure food security in Ethiopia (Fitsum Hagos et
al., 2009). In the study area, Central Rift Valley (CRV) of Ethiopia, extreme
rainfall variability has a serious impact on food security due to the
dependency of the population on climate-sensitive subsistence farming
(Pascual-Ferrer et al., 2014; Yenesew Mengiste, 2015; Alemayehu
Muluneh et al., 2017). Irrigation is known to play a crucial role to enhance
the adaptive capacity of farmers and expansion of farming areas (Seleshi
Bekele et al., 2010; Engdasew Feleke et al., 2020). For this purpose,
different water sources such as lakes, streams and river diversions,
groundwater, dams and perennial springs are used for small scale irrigation
schemes (SSIS) in the CRV of Ethiopia.
Soil salinization is among the critical environmental effects of irrigation,
which impede sustainability of production (Shegena Zewdu et al., 2017;
Kbrom Ambachew, 2018). The problem is more pronounced in the arid and
semi-arid areas like the CRV, especially with the use of groundwater for
irrigation (Datta and De Jong, 2002; Shegena Zewdu et al., 2017). Over the
last 30 years, intensive cultivation has increased land degradation in the
CRV (Derege Tsegaye et al., 2012). In Ethiopia, 11,033,000 hectares of
land are affected by salt. Most of this area is found in the Rift Valley zone
where groundwater is used for irrigation (Mohamed Seid and Tessema
Genanew, 2013). Mihret Dananto et al. (2013) also reported a decline in the
quality of the soil in irrigated farm plots at CRV of Ethiopia due to
continuous cultivation, and intensification of agricultural production through
irrigation.
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 19(1): 81–102, 2020 83

According to Van Halsema et al. (2011), any strategy that targets to increase
irrigation efficiency in CRV should include interventions to improve crop
productivity and economic returns from small scale irrigation (SSI).
Therefore, it is imperative to investigate the status of soil salinity in irrigated
farmlands in the CRV area because of the long years of irrigation farming
and high prospect of irrigation expansion (Dejene Abera et al., 2018). Few
studies are already available related to assessing the soil salinity in irrigated
plots in Ethiopia (Kefyalew Assefa and Kibebew Kibret, 2016; Shegena
Zewdu et al., 2017; Kbrom Ambachew, 2018; Mulat Asmamaw et al.,
2018). Yet, there is a need for more information to address soil salinity
problem in irrigated farm plots incorporating laboratory analysis of soils and
irrigation water sources in the study sites.
Thus, we believed that understanding about the soil salinity status and
irrigation water quality plays a significant role to map the spatial
distribution of salt affected soils and to determine the type of salinity. Such
information is highly valuable for policy makers and development
practitioners to design better policies and development intervention that
targets sustainable irrigation based livelihood in drought prone areas, where
irrigation is mandatory to overcome the effects of recurrent, chronic
drought. Therefore, the aims of this research were to (1) determine the
salinity status of the soil; (2) identify the factors that affect soil salinity
development; and (3) explore the effects of salinity and ameliorative
measures in mitigating the problems of soil salinity.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Description of the study area
Central Rift Valley (CRV) of Ethiopia is located between, approximately
38°15′E to 39°25′E and 7°10′N to 8° 30′N (Fig. 1) covering an area of
approximately 10,000 km2. The altitude of the area ranges 1,500 m.a.s.l. in
the lowest part to about 4,000 m.a.s.l (Mount Kaka) (Fitsum Dechasa et al.,
2019). It is situated in Oromia regional state and the Southern Nations
Nationalities and Peoples Region (SNNPR) as shown in Fig. 1. The mean
annual rainfall is 900 mm, however, there is local variability of precipitation
depending on altitudinal variation (Bedru Sherefa, 2006; Pascual-Ferrer et
al., 2014). The rainfall amount varies from 600 mm in the central lowlands
to about 1600mm per year in the highlands in the CRV area (Mezegebu
Getnet et al., 2014). About 70% of the total rainfall is received during the
main rainy season (June to September), while the remaining is received
during the short rainy season (March to May) (Mezegebu Getnet et al.,
84 Engdasew Feleke et al.

2014). Most of the lowlands in the CRV is characterized with arid or semi-
arid climate situation, erratic rainfall, and frequent drought occurrence
(Derege Tsegaye et al., 2012).

Fig. 1. Map of the study area.

The temperature also varies based on altitude. It ranges from 11.9°C–29.5°C

in the lowland of CRV to 4.3°C–26°C in areas above 2500 m (Pascual-
Ferrer et al., 2014). According to Gizachew Legesse and Andualem
Shimeles (2014), all the districts in the CRV experienced severe drought
risks at different times in the past.
The CRV of Ethiopia has different soil types with varied infiltration and
runoff potential (Mezegebu Getnet et al., 2014). Coarse textured soils
having high infiltration rates are dominantly found in the eastern and
western highlands of the CRV of Ethiopia, and around the lakes in the
valley floors. Medium textured soils with moderate infiltration rates
dominate the eastern and western mid altitudes. Fine textured black soils
(vertisols) with low infiltration dominate the foothills of western highlands
and some areas in the central part of eastern CRV (Mezegebu Getnet et al.,
2014).
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 19(1): 81–102, 2020 85

The CRV of Ethiopia encompasses a network of rivers and a chain of four

lakes (Ziway, Langano, Abyata and Shala), which are subdivided into seven
connected sub-basins such as Ketar, Ziway, Meki, Bulbula, Langano,
Horakelo and Abyata. The Meki and Ketar sub-basins drain to Lake Ziway
through Meki and Ketar rivers respectively. Lake Ziway has natural
overflow through the Bulbula River to Lake Abyata (Mezegebu Getnet et
al., 2014). The lakes are highly productive, harbouring an indigenous
population of edible fish and support a wide variety of other aquatic and
wildlife. They are globally significant freshwater ecosystems containing
important areas of both terrestrial and aquatic biological diversity (Tenalem
Ayenew, 2007). Lake Ziway and its tributary rivers are used for irrigation,
flower industry, soda abstraction, fish farming, domestic use and recreation
(Tenalem Ayenew, 2007; Fitsum Dechasa et al., 2019). There is high
competition for water resources among large- and small-scale irrigators,
commercial farmers, fishery, industrial water use, domestic water use,
nature and related eco-tourism (Jansen et al., 2007; Pascual-Ferrer et al.,
2014).
Agricultural production and its related activities are the major bases that
sustain the CRV economy; industry and service sectors have low
contribution for the economy. Irrigation development in the area is curbed to
the Lake Ziway sub-basin along Lake Ziway and between the discharge
gauging stations of Meki, Ketar and Bulbula Rivers (Hengsdijk and Jansen,
2006; Pascual-Ferrer et al., 2014). Most of the cultivated land is found in the
valley floor and the dominant field crops are teff, barley, maize, lentils,
horse beans, chickpeas and field peas. Common vegetables are grown under
irrigation and include haricot beans, tomato, onion, cabbage and broccoli
(Hengsdijk and Jansen, 2006).
The CRV of Ethiopia is a closed basin, thus, relatively small changes in land
use and ecosystem has significant adverse effect on the ecosystem (Tenalem
Ayenew, 2007). The rate of deforestation is growing every year due to poor
land management systems and conversion of naturally vegetated areas to
agricultural land as a result of rapidly growing population (Derege Tsegaye
et al., 2012). Acacia woodlands and savannas are the dominant vegetation
types in the CRV. Abundant livestock population has played its part in the
loss of vegetation and grass cover through overgrazing of range lands
(Tenalem Ayenew, 2007).
86 Engdasew Feleke et al.

Study area identification and sites selection

Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha (ATJK) and Ziway Dugda districts were
selected as study sites purposely due to their long-time experience in small
scale irrigation (SSI) practices. ATJK and Ziway Dugda (study sites) were
two of the districts among the worst hit by chronic drought and experienced
the highest frequency of droughts (5 times in 33 years) and had highest
probability of severe drought occurrence with 46 to 76% severity level in
East Shoa zone of Ethiopia (Gizachew Legesse and Andualem Shimeles,
2014). Such climate risk factors make irrigation essential. Sampling sites
were selected using google earth supported with field-based validation, and
the land use polygons were created by digitization technique. The polygon
of river water irrigated, groundwater irrigated, and rain-fed grid was saved
as KML and converted to layer in ArcGIS and then the polygon was
exported to shapefile. Soil sampling sites were selected depending on
agricultural land uses and farming practices that take place in the area after
discussing with the farmers in the study sites supported with GIS based field
assessment as shown in Fig. 2. The area irrigated by each water source are
40.2, 222.8, 75 hectares by groundwater at Bochesa, Bulbula river at
Bochesa and Dodicha and Ketar river at Sheled, respectively.

B
A

Fig. 2. Soil sampling sites (A1and B2).

Soil sample collection procedures

Soil samples were collected from the irrigated farms that use water from
rivers (Bulbula and Ketar rivers) and groundwater and from farms that has

A1 is the soil sampling site at Bulbula river and groundwater irrigated sites at Bochessa and Dodicha
B2 is the soil sampling site at Ketar river irrigated sites at Sheled
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 19(1): 81–102, 2020 87

grown crops only by rain (Bulbula farm and Ketar farm). They were
excavated from 0–15 cm and 15–30 cm (separated by depth) of the top
layer, composited and collected in one kilogram plastic bags and triplicated.
In general, a total of 40 soil samples were taken for laboratory analysis
(from farm plots irrigated using Bulbula river = 14 samples; Ketar River =
8; Groundwater = 11; Rain-fed = 7). Soil samples were collected during dry
season after crops were harvested.

Fig. 3. Soil sampling techniques at different depths.

Water sampling sites selection and sampling procedures

GIS-based water sampling sites were selected as shown in Fig. 4 and water
samples were collected from two types of sources involving the
groundwater and surface water from upper part of Ziway lake (Ketar river)
at Sheled and lower portion of the lake (Bulbula river) at Bochesa and
Dodicha sites. Groundwater was pumped out to the pond within ten minute
at different interval time from which one litre of homogenized sample from
each site was collected. River water samples were taken from the source and
the canal system. Eight litres of water was taken from each site and one litre
was taken from the homogenates. All water samples were collected in clean
plastic containers and transported to the laboratory using ice boxes. In
general, a total of 12 water samples; four water samples were collected from
Ketar river at diversion point and its canal systems, four water samples were
collected from Bulbula river at pumping sites and four water samples were
collected from groundwater at Bochesa site.
88 Engdasew Feleke et al.

A B

Fig. 4. Surface and ground water sampling sites (A1and B2).

Soil laboratory analysis methods

The laboratory analysis of soil and water was performed at the Ethiopian
Water Works and Supervision soil and water laboratory following all the
necessary procedures of standard laboratories and using different testing
methods. Prob method was using to test the pH-H2O and pH-KCL of the
soil samples. In testing the chemical characteristics of soil samples
ammonium acetate method was used for testing the parameters such as EC,
Exch.Na, Exch.Ca, Exch.Ma, CEC, and Exchangeable Sodium. Besides,
volumetric and instrumental testing methods were used to test the
parameters of soluble salts (Paste Extract) such as ECsat.Ext., Na, K, Ca,
Mg, CO-2, HCO3-1 CL-1, SO4-2 and Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR).
Irrigation water laboratory analysis methods
In the analysis of the quality of irrigation water, the concentrations of major
cations of Calcium (Ca2+), Magnesium (Mg2+), Na+, and K+ were measured
using a direct-current plasma spectrometer (DCP) calibrated using solutions
prepared from plasma-grade single-element standards. Major anions of
Chloride (Cl-), and Sulfate (SO42-) were analyzed using an ion
chromatograph (IC). Total alkalinity (TA) was measured using titration
techniques. The concentration of Boron (B) in the irrigation water was
tested using ammonium acetate method. Total dissolved solid (TDS) was
analyzed using Pocket Pro TDS Tester, low range.

1
A is water sampling sites at Bulbula river and groundwaters
2
B is water sampling sites at Ketar river and its canal systems
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 19(1): 81–102, 2020 89

Statistical analysis methods

SPSS and Excel software were used for analysis of the result such as
ANOVA and tested with least significant difference (LSD) test at an alpha
(α/2) of 0.05 (95% confidence interval) to differentiate the variables or the
parameters significantly different in terms of its composition and effect.
After the laboratory analysis of water sample, Sodium adsorption ratio
(SAR) and ESP was computed using the following equations:

Equation 1 (Hanson et al., 1993)

Equation 2 (Hanson et al., 1993)

Descriptive statistical techniques were applied to evaluate the relative
abundance of the salinity problem due to different irrigation water quality
status and between the rain-fed and irrigated component of the study area.
Methods of qualitative data collection
Qualitative data were collected using focus group discussion (FGD),
household interview, and key informant interview (KII). FGDs were used to
get data from irrigation users in particular about the condition of soil salinity
development, its driving forces, effects of salinity, and the types of
ameliorative measures practiced by farmers to ameliorate soil salinity.
Besides, household interviews were conducted to get deeper insights and
understandings of irrigation user farmers about the adverse effects of
salinity and soil salinity reclaiming measures practiced by the community.
The data collected from the development agents using KII is important to
know the situation of irrigation practices and existing soil problems
including salinity issues. The KII held with district level irrigation experts
and head of agriculture and natural resources offices provided valuable
information about irrigation practices and soil salinity. Household interview
and KII were conducted in Afan Oromo and Amharic language based on the
language skill of the household head, whereas FGDs were conducted in
Afan Oromo language. All the FGDs and interviews were recorded using
audio recorder and transcribed and translated into English.
90 Engdasew Feleke et al.

Sampling strategy for qualitative data

Purposive sampling techniques such as snowballing and convenience
sampling techniques were used to select participants for FGD, household
interview, and KII based on a judgmental basis until a saturation point was
reached. The farmers who participated in FGDs were irrigation users
including both male headed and female headed households, elderly and
youth. A total of 8 FGDs were conducted with 8–10 farmers having
participated in a single FGD. Four of these FGDs were conducted with
farmers from Bulbula river-based irrigation at Dodicha and Bochessa
irrigation sites (2 FGDs from each), 2 FGDs from Ketar River based
irrigators at Shelad site and 2 FGDs with farmers using groundwater for
irrigation at Bochassa site. We conducted household interview with 16
irrigation user farmers including youth, elderly, men, women and farmers
using different irrigation water sources. Besides, 10 KII were undertaken
with (2 heads of agriculture and natural resources, 4 irrigation experts, and 4
development agents from ATJK and Ziway Dugda districts).
Methods of analysis for the qualitative data
N-vivo11 software was used to analyze FGDs and interviews. The
interaction between irrigation water quality, soil situation (comparing
irrigated with rain-fed farmland) and their implication for agricultural
sustainability in the future in the study area were discussed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Soil chemical characteristics
Out of the 22 parameters including soil depth (0–15 cm and 15–30 cm),
eight parameters were selected based on correlation coefficient analysis. The
parameters were; pH-H2O, Exchangeable Na, EC, CEC, Bicarbonate, the
sum of anions, ESP, and SAR (Table 1). The result of the regression
analysis showed that that depth of soil did not have significant influence on
different parameters of the soil. The analysis of variance (ANOVA)
revealed that there was a highly significant difference between the groups of
different irrigation water sources and the parameters such as pH, EC, ESP,
and Exchangeable Na (Table 1).
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 19(1): 81–102, 2020 91

Table 1. Chemical composition of soils irrigated with different sources of water.

Sampling pH- EC(ms/cm) CEC Exch.Na ESP SAR Bicarbonate Sum of
site H2O(1:2.) (1:2.5) (meq/100 (meq/100 anions
gm soil) gm of soil)
Soil sampled from irrigated part of the study area
Ground water 9.3 0.35 56.895 16.845 29.7 3.11 7.03 32.72
Bulbula river 8.515 0.1875 49.2925 6.415 13.5 1.37 7.1275 16.13
Ketar river 7.815 0.2975 67.365 3.25 4.9 2.16 1.5325 7.54
Soil sampled from rain-fed part of the study area
Bulbula 7.4275 0.0725 54.76 3.787 6.98 0.78 5.6925 13.24
Ketar 7.865 0.345 68.59 3.98 5.82 3.11 2.18 7.27

Based on the ANOVA result the difference in soil parameters was tested
with the least significant difference (LSD). With regard to pH-H2O,
Exchangeable Na, ESP and EC, soil samples irrigated with groundwater did
not show significant difference among areas irrigated with River Bulbula.
This similarity might be due to geographical proximity where the soil
samples irrigated by groundwater and Bulbula River found in the Lake
Ziway sub-basin. However, there was a highly significant difference in the
pH-H2O, Exchangeable Na, ESP and EC between soil plots irrigated with
groundwater and samples irrigated by Ketar and rain-fed farm plots. Yet, no
significant difference was found between these parameters among the soils
irrigated by Ketar and rain-fed farm plots.
Accordingly, the soils of the area irrigated with groundwater which has ESP
of 29.7, as shown in Table 1, is classified as sodic soil while the soil of the
area which is irrigated by Bulbula river has also been developing sodicity
because its ESP value is nearest to the upper limit (13.515 ≈ nearest to 15).
This implies that those areas irrigated by groundwater are sodic (alkaline)
soils and show the effect of groundwater on the development of sodicity in
the area with high ESP. The study indicated that the sodicity can be
expected in the long run in areas irrigated with the Bulbula River unless
prevention methods are introduced. According to Horneck et al. (2007) and
Mulat Asmamaw et al. (2018), soils with >15 ESP have a high sodicity risk
due to the effects of Na on soil structure and toxicity to crops. Gebremedhin
Gebremeskel et al. (2018) further noted sodicity problems to be apparent at
higher relative Na+ concentration and lead to degradation of soil structure.
Mohamed Seid and Tessema Genanew (2013) have a similar finding and
reported the existence of sodicity both in the soil and in irrigation water in
the study conducted at the Fursa SSI system in Awash River Basin. This
implies those areas with sodic hazards need urgent attention to awareness
creation and reclamation interventions.
92 Engdasew Feleke et al.

Understanding the type of sodicity has also a paramount importance for

proper reclamation activities. To this effect, the type of sodicity developed
due to the irrigation of groundwater was also determined based on Dierickx,
(2000). It is found that the type of salinization in the groundwater irrigated
portion has a Sodium-Calcium type, which is marked by Na/Mg ratio is >1,
Na/Ca ratio is <1 and Mg/Ca ratio is <1, indicating the presence of high
exchangeable sodium compared to calcium and magnesium (Horneck et al.,
2007).
Chemical characteristics of irrigation water sources
The current study revealed that the irrigation water with the value of SAR >
15 and Adjusted ESP >13 at EC< 4ds/m indicated the sodic nature of the
water (Table 2). Water with such high SAR of soil water at all sources could
create a hazardous condition to the osmotic potential of the plant which
influences plant nutrient and water uptake in the soil that in return affects
the productivity of the soil that initiates a search for the immediate solution
of all stakeholders (Getahun Kitila et al., 2014). Our soil and water
laboratory analysis showed that groundwater irrigated farm plots were found
to be under high risk of soil sodicity (ESP>15) development at Bochessa
site as can be seen in Table 3. Among the surface water sources, farm plots
irrigated by the Bulbula river showed a risk of sodicity development with
higher ESP greater than farm plots irrigated by Ketar and rain-fed plots
(having non-salt affected soils) as presented in Table 3. A study by Mihret
Dananto et al. (2013) showed that the source of salinity is not a natural
weathering process but rather soil salinity developed due to irrigation water.
Ragab et al. (2008) analyzed the effects of irrigation water qualities on
chemical properties of soil and identified that there was a significant
increase in soil salinity values as the salinity of irrigation water increased.
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 19(1): 81–102, 2020 93

Table 2. Chemical characteristics of irrigation water sources in the study area.

Source of sample Groundwater Bulbula Ketar
pH 7.92 7.515 6.68
T.Dissolved Solid 105°C (mg/l) 1338 367 132
Sodium(mg/l Na+) 520 83 20
Potassium (mg/l K+) 44 36.5 10
Total Hardness (mg/l CaCO3) 124 135 60
Calcium (mg/l Ca2+) 25.6 23.2 16
Magnesium (mg/l Mg2+) 14.4 18.18 4.8
Alkalinity (mg/l CaCO3) 1035.54 250.27 100.98
Bicarbonate (mg/l Bicarbonate) 1263.36 305.58 123.2
Chloride(mg/l Cl-) 82.05 17.13 4.69
Sulphate (mg/l Sulphate) 20.87 23.315 8.5
ESP 63.3 21.22 8.4
SAR 116.28 18.255 6.2
Boron (mg/l B) Trace Trace Trace
Carbonate (mg/l Carbonate) Nil Nil Nil
HCO3/Ca 49.35 13.48 7.7
EC(ds/m) 1.973 0.5305 0.19
Equilibrium Ca concentration 0.22 0.385 0.5
Adjusted SAR 272 38.75 17.4
Adjusted ESP 80.27 37.31 20.41

The salinity status of the soil in the study area is summarized and discussed
based on the criteria presented by O’Geen (2015) and Horneck et al. (2007)
as shown in Table 3. The current study revealed three categories of farm
plots irrigated by different water sources based on Exchangeable sodium
(Na). In the first category, groundwater irrigated areas showed significant
and highly significant differences from other areas irrigated with other water
sources. The second category farm plots irrigated by the Bulbula River
indicated a significant difference between groundwater irrigated areas and
areas irrigated by River Ketar and rain-fed farm plots. In the third case River
Ketar, irrigated areas, and areas under rain-fed showed a similar pattern
showing a significant difference from the other categories.
Hence, high salinity/sodicity development is expected in those first and
second categories for the exchangeable sodium (16.845 meq/100 gm of soil)
in areas irrigated with groundwater followed by areas irrigated by Bulbula
river with exchangeable sodium (6.735 meq/100 gm of soil) while it is quite
low in other sampling areas which are supported by scholars (Edossa Etissa
et al., 2014). It can be concluded that the main sources of soil salinity and
sodicity development are groundwater based irrigation. The driving force
for upward movement of water and salts is evaporation from the soil plus
plant transpiration (Gebremedhin Gebremeskel et al., 2018).
94 Engdasew Feleke et al.

Table 3. Properties used to classify salt-affected soils.

Profile code Groundwater Bulbula river Ketar river Rain-fed Rain-fed

irrigated irrigated irrigated (around Bulbula) (around Ketar)
pH-H2O (1:2.5) >8.5 >8.5 <8.5 <8.5 <8.5
EC(ms/cm) <4 <4 <4 <4 <4
(1:2.5)
ESP >15 <15 <15 <15 <15
Soil-salinity Sodic soil Non-ssalt Non-salt Non-salt Non-salt
classification affected affected affected affected
Source: O’Geen (2015) and Horneck et al. (2007)

Some previous studies showed the specific limitations of irrigation water

quality from various sources in central rift valley (Koka Lake, Groundwater
around Ziway, Ziway Lake). Edossa Etissa et al. (2014) stated that sample
of groundwater from Dugda Borra district was not fit for irrigation as it did
not meet water quality standard for irrigation purpose due to high salt
contents, chloride toxicity, too high pH, and high content of bicarbonate and
calcium ions.
Sources of soil sodicity: Community view
The development agents (DAs) interviewed in the KII at Bochessa site
confirmed that the sodicity of the soil has been increasing from time to time
due to intensive irrigation. According to the KII with the head of agriculture
and rural development office at ATJK district, the sodic nature of
groundwater and Bulbula River has been aggravated due to release of
wastewater from private large scale floriculture and horticulture irrigation
farms that are found around Bulbula and Lake Ziway, and consequently
affecting soils irrigated from such water.
On the other hand, the KII conducted with irrigation expert at Ziway Dugda
district confirmed that the main cause for waterlogging and soil salinity
development is related to the type of the soil being Vertisol. The expert also
indicated that irrigation has a long history of more than 44 years in Shelad
site. In the area the earthen canal was constructed using soil, which was
brought from other areas. So, after a long time the soil was removed from
the canal during cleaning the canal and the Vertisol soil appeared. This
caused waterlogging due to the swelling and shrinkage nature of the soil
which causes the water to percolate under the canal through cracks and
returned to the surface through capillary action. The process of returning to
the surface during dry season creates unnecessary waterlogging in the farm
and causes loss of the land and development of salinity as a leftover when
the land is dry as shown in Fig. 5. The KII participant also underlined that
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 19(1): 81–102, 2020 95

the irrigation system is not good in its outlet to return the water into the river
and the water remains in the farm field (Fig. 5). Gebremedhin Gebremeskel
et al. (2018) also reported that the main factors that control sodicity
problems are soil type.

Fig. 5. Waterlogged areas, which were previously farm lands at Shelad site.

Effect of soil sodicity

The laboratory result of soil sodicity in groundwater irrigated farm plots
were verified by the interview results in which farmers used some indicators
to justify sodicity. The indicators include changing in the colour of the soil
into a dark, deposition of white salt looking surface on the soil, reduction in
water holding capacity of the soil, and increasing demand of irrigated plots
for frequent watering. According to farmers’ view, sodicity affects yield in
irrigated fields through hindering the appropriate growth of vegetables and
seedlings, reducing the productivity of land and water and negatively
affecting the economy, as farming in lands affected by sodicity demands
high human labour, chemical fertilizers and frequent irrigation (Table 4).
The result was similar to the finding of Gebremedhin Gebremeskel et al.
(2018) who showed that high levels of sodium in groundwater result in an
increase of soil sodium levels, which affects soil structural stability,
infiltration rates, drainage rates, and crop growth potential. In addition,
farmers pointed out that cabbage and tomato were less tolerant to the effects
of soil sodicity than other plants. Qureshi and Al-Falahi (2015) indicated
that farmers perceived the loss of farmland due to salinity as a challenge for
their agricultural productivity. The effects of sodicity-salinity on the
96 Engdasew Feleke et al.

physical and hydraulic properties of the soil are very complicated processes
that can be influenced by many factors (Gebremedhin Gebremeskel et al.,
2018). The interrelation between sodicity and salinity levels in irrigation
water or water coming through capillary flux from groundwater introduces a
dual problem in terms of crop response, soil structure degradation, and
irrigation management (Gebremedhin Gebremeskel et al., 2018).
The current study showed that the adverse effects of sodicity were further
aggravated due to declining trend of soil fertility. Household interview
participants in all sites indicated in the past they used to apply 25 kg of
chemical fertilizer for 0.25 ha of land, but now they are using 100 kg or 150
kg of fertilizer for 0.25 ha of land. Mihret Dananto et al. (2013) supported
this finding. To this end, Mwamakamba et al. (2017) reported the high cost
of fertilizer is a challenge of irrigators in Sub-Saharan Africa due to
deterioration of soil quality. Besides, based on KII with an agronomist at
Shelad site about 12 ha of land, which was the property of 50 households
were lost due to water logging and salinity as well. The effects of sodicity in
the study area was much diverse and persistent which influenced soil
quality, vegetable growth, and maturity (Fig. 6), water quantity, the yield of
crops and economic cost (Table 4).
From the information gathered, the irrigated areas showed reduction in
yields, early drying of seedlings, an increase in the irrigation water
requirement for the same yield, and crop failure due to low salt tolerance.
According to Bauder et al. (2014), sodicity causes a decrease in the
downward movement of water into and through the soil, and actively
growing plant roots may not get adequate water, despite pooling of water on
the soil surface after irrigation. Sodicity lowers the permeability of the soil
to air and water, lowering the availability of some essential plant nutrients
due to the osmotic effect of the salt and causes specific ion toxicity (Abrol et
al., 1988). Soil salinization is one of the major constraints in achieving food
security in Ethiopia (Qureshi et al., 2018).
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 19(1): 81–102, 2020 97

Fig. 6. Effect of sodic water on soil and vegetation growth.

Table 4. Effects of soil sodicity: Farmers’ views.

Effects of salinity No. of household interviews
Soil The soil gets dry 12
Cracking forms on the farmland
The farmland become very black and hard to plow
Plowing land affected by salinity is difficult
Deposition of ash type of salt looking surface on the
soil
Vegetables Seedlings dry 15
Wilting of crops or vegetables before flowering
Poor growth of vegetation (yellow color of
vegetable leaves like tomato)
Water High irrigation water consumption due to sodicity 8
which increases the frequency of irrigation
Agricultural yield Yield of irrigated vegetables declines though the 16
fertilizer amount applied is increasing from time to
time
Economic cost Demands much human labor for frequent plowing 13
rise (Labour and irrigation
demand increase Demands high financial capital for additional
and household chemical fertilizer
economy Needs plowing using a tractor or needs frequent
negatively plowing by oxen
affected) The land affected by sodicity was left to be open
and the farmer rents the land from other farmers
whose land is not affected by sodicity

Qureshi and Al-Falahi (2015) also emphasized that low land productivity in
irrigation fields resulted in low farm income, food insecurity, and the
prevalence of poverty. However, according to Mwamakamba et al. (2017),
low productivity in irrigation fields might be also related to low-quality
inputs such as seeds and others. This implies that many factors might
98 Engdasew Feleke et al.

impede the productivity of irrigation in addition to the decline in soil

fertility due to sodicity. Therefore, considering many factors of production
weighs more than focusing on single factors to enhance irrigated agricultural
production on a sustainable basis.
Remedial measures to ameliorate soil sodicity
Reclamation of sodic soils is mandatory in the study area which requires
removal of the exchangeable sodium and its replacement by calcium ions in
the root zone (Abrol et al., 1988). Sodic soils usually are the most expensive
to reclaim (Horneck et al., 2007; O’Geen, 2015). The choice of an
amendment and its relative effectiveness is judged from improvement of soil
properties and crop growth and the relative costs involved (Abrol et al.,
1988; Kefyalew Assefa and Kibebew Kibret, 2016). To be successful in the
reclamation of sodic soils cropping must be preceded by the application of
chemical soil amendments followed by leaching for removal of salts (Abrol
et al., 1988; Horneck et al., 2007; O’Geen, 2015).
Farmers used different land reclamation techniques to recover soils affected
by sodicity in the study sites. Some of the techniques include adjusting
farming system involving plowing the land using a tractor (applicable for
economically better smallholders), apply more irrigation water frequently,
use compost, plough the land before the coming of the rainy season, fallow
the land, apply chemical fertilizer, crop rotation, use the irrigable land for
rain-fed farming and renting another land which is not affected by salinity
for irrigation. The KII participants at Shelad site noted the need to use lined
canal to overcome waterlogging, salinity and associated loss of farmland.
Mohamed Seid and Tessema Genanew (2013) also noted on the need to
design appropriate irrigation techniques to overcome the adverse effects of
irrigation on soil salinity development. An agronomist who participated in
the KII at Shelad site noted gypsum application to reclaim salt-affected
soils, however, the interviewee claimed that farmers couldn’t afford its cost
and some have low awareness about sodicity and its amendment. This
implies future research is imperative to examine to what extent gypsum is
suitable to ameliorate sodic soils, and to design strategies on how the
government can intervene. Mwamakamba et al. (2017) underlined the role
of national governments to ameliorate soil salinity by supporting farmers to
practice basic land reclamation and water monitoring.
Based on FGDs and KIIs there are trials of amendments and improvement
of the farm field through the application of compost though farmers have
negative attitude towards using compost because of its labour-intensive
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 19(1): 81–102, 2020 99

nature and communities’ believe that compost preparation might bring

illness (Michi1) due to effect of methane gas. This implies that farmers
should be technically supported with some trainings and demonstrations at
the farm field on how to reclaim soil salinity using indigenous techniques.
CONCLUSION
The result revealed that sodic nature of groundwater in Bochassa SSI site
was the main factor for sodic soil development in irrigated plots, and
Bulbula River irrigated plots also showed indication of soil sodicity. In the
view of the community farming practices, inappropriate drainage system
and intensive application of agro-chemicals were also factors for soil
salinity in Shelad site. This implies the need to design management options
to manage water, land, and irrigation farming practices that are
environmentally friendly in an integrated manner to mitigate the adverse
effect of sodicity and to enhance agricultural sustainability. Besides, farmers
have to be technically supported by well-trained development agents to
practice farming techniques that don’t harness natural capitals. Future
research investigations are worthwhile to quantify the effect of precipitation
and evapotranspiration on soil salinity-sodicity development and its effect
on crop growth under different seasons.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Addis Ababa University and the Hawassa
University NORAD project for the research fund. We are thankful to the
farmers and experts for their willingness to spend their precious time to
participate in the FGDs and interviews. The authors are also grateful to
Addisu Dametew, a Ph.D. candidate at Addis Ababa University for his role
in Afan Oromo-Amharic translation during data collection.
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