CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO

COMMUNICATION STUDIE
Chapter Learning Outcomes
I

In this chapter you will:

1. Distinguish between varying language registers.

2. Identify the needs of a variety of professional audiences.
3. Select the right tone and diction for specific audiences and
professional situations.
4. Use positive/neutral, objective, and specific diction to respond to
readers’ needs.

As most of you already know, the origins of communication

studies are traced back thousands of years to ancient Greek
philosophers and teachers like Plato and Aristotle, who were the
first to systematically study and write about effective public
speaking. However, there is much more to the field of
communication. Communication students and scholars also study
basic communication processes like nonverbal communication,
perception, and listening, as well as communication in various
contexts, including interpersonal, group, intercultural, and media
communication. Our textbook attempts to cover all of these
aspects of communication with a focus on managerial and
leadership aspects.

Our approach will be audience-focused — that is, we will try to

learn the best communication strategies to use with specific
audiences in specific professional contexts. In addition, in order to
stimulate your development of managerial/leadership skills, we
will integrate a series of metacognitive aspects into our learning
— that is, we will prioritize learning aspects such asplanning,
monitoring, and assessing one’s understanding and performance.
Specifically, we will focus on understanding why certain strategies
may work better than others and we will practice applying them
repeatedly, while using self-monitoring to track progress.

Developing an awareness of these processes and engaging in

them conscientiously can make your selection and use of the best
communication strategies in any professional situation almost
automatic. That is because in time, the elements and structures
involved will become embedded into your ways of thinking and
acting as patterns and pathways that are always available to use.
The best communicators are those who train until such best
practices become second nature to them and through this course
you have the chance to train in this manner. As this and the
following chapters show, the professional and life benefits of
acquiring such skills are enormous.
Chapter Sections
 1.1 Communication: History and Forms
 1.2 The Communication Process
 1.3 Communication Principles
 1.4 Communication Competence
 1.5 Eight Essential Components of Communication
 1.6 Principles of Verbal Communication
 Chapter 1: Review

1.1: COMMUNICATION: HISTORY AND

FORMS
Learning Objectives
1. Define communication.
2. Discuss the history of communication from ancient to modern
times.
3. List the five forms of communication.
4. Distinguish among the five forms of communication.
5. Review the various career options for students who study
communication.

Since the systematic study of communication began in colleges

and universities a little over one hundred years ago, there have
been more than 126 published definitions of communication
(Dance & Larson, 1976, 23). For our purposes, we will define
communication as the process of generating meaning by sending
and receiving verbal and nonverbal symbols and signs that are
influenced by multiple contexts. As even this basic definition
reveals, a successful communication act involves careful crafting
and monitoring of our messages on multiple levels.

Let us start with a brief discussion of the history of the field and of
the types of communication on which we’ll be focusing in this
textbook and course.

A Brief History of Communication

All animals communicate and it is possible, for instance, to teach
a gorilla to use signs to designate words like food and baby.
However, humans’ ability to use symbols to communicate about
things outside their immediate temporal and spatial reality is
unique (Dance & Larson, 23).

How did this ability evolve? Humans’ first words may have
been strictly onomatopoetic (= words that sound like the
objects/phenomena to which they refer, such
as boing, drip, gurgle, swoosh, and whack). A prehistoric human
being might have used gurgle to alert others to the presence of
water or swoosh and whack to recount what happened on a hunt.
This primitive ability to communicate provided an evolutionary
advantage. Humans who could talk were able to cooperate, share
information, make better tools, impress mates, or warn others of
danger, which led them to have more offspring who were also
more predisposed to communicate (Poe, 2011, 27). This
eventually led to the development of a “Talking Culture” during
the “Talking Era” — a 150,000-year period of human existence
ranging from 180,000 BCE to 3500 BCE (Poe, 2011).

The beginning of the “Manuscript Era” (around 3500 BCE) marked

the turn from oral to written culture and paralleled a shift to a
more settled, agrarian way of life (Poe, 2011, 27). As hunter-
gatherers settled into small villages and began to plan ahead for
how to plant, store, protect, and trade or sell their food, they
needed accounting systems to keep track of their materials and
record transactions. While such transactions were initially tracked
with actual objects that symbolized an amount — for example,
five pebbles represented five measures of grain — symbols, likely
carved into clay, later served as the primary method of record
keeping. In this case, five dots might equal five measures of
grain.

During this period, villages also developed class systems as more

successful farmers prospered and took leadership positions.
Religion also became more complex and a new class of spiritual
leaders emerged. Soon, armies were needed to protect the
stockpiled resources from others who might want to steal it. The
emergence of elite classes and the rise of armies required records
and bookkeeping which furthered the spread of written symbols
and required them to become more complex. Still, literacy (the
ability to read and write) didn’t spread far beyond the most
privileged in society. In fact, it wasn’t until the 1800s that
widespread literacy existed in the world.
The end of the “Manuscript Era” marked a shift toward a rapid
increase in communication technologies. The “Print Era” extended
from 1450 to 1850 and was marked by the invention of the
printing press and the ability to mass-produce written texts. This
400-year period gave way to the “Audiovisual Era,” which only
lasted 140 years, from 1850 to 1990, and was marked by the
invention of radio, telegraph, telephone, and television. Our
current period, the “Internet Era,” has only lasted from 1990 until
the present. This period has featured the most rapid dispersion of
a new method of communication, as the spread of the Internet
and the expansion of digital and personal media signaled the
beginning of the digital age.

Much of the public

speaking in ancient Greece took place in courtrooms or in political
contexts. Karen Neoh – Courtroom– CC BY 2.0.

How about our understanding of communication? How did

that evolve, in relation to the evolution of communication media,
from speaking to digital technology?

Ancient Greek philosophers and scholars defined rhetoric as the

art of speaking well and persuasively. Today, we hear the
word rhetoricused in negative ways — politicians may dismiss
opponents’ statements as “pure rhetoric” — but the primary
meaning of the word is unrelated to making misleading, false, or
unethical statements. Rhetorical strategies are not in
themselves substantial or not, ethical or not. It all depends on the
speaker’s purpose and use of those strategies.
The study of rhetoric initially focused on public communication,
primarily oratory, used in discussions or debates regarding laws
and policy, speeches delivered in courts, and speeches intended
to praise or blame a public personality. The connections among
rhetoric, policy making, and legal proceedings show that
communication and citizenship have been connected since the
study of communication began. Throughout this book, we will
continue to make connections between communication, ethics,
and civic engagement.

Throughout the Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Age of

Enlightenment, oratory and clear written communication
remained in focus primarily in connection with public speaking,
civic engagement, and academic development. However, distinct
communication studies departments began to be established very
late — communication studies as a distinct academic discipline
with departments at universities and colleges has only existed for
a little over one hundred years (Keith, 2008, p. 240). The
formalization of speech departments led to an expanded view of
the role of communication. Even though Aristotle and other
ancient rhetoricians and philosophers had theorized the
connection between rhetoric and citizenship, the role of the
communicator became the focus, instead of solely focusing on the
message. James A. Winans, one of the first modern speech
teachers and an advocate for teaching communication in higher
education, said there were “two motives for learning to speak.
Increasing one’s chance to succeed and increasing one’s power to
serve” (as cited in Keith, 2008, p. 253). Later, as social
psychology began to expand in academic institutions, speech
communication scholars saw places for connection to further
expand definitions of communication to include social and
psychological contexts.

What do scholars in communication departments study

today? Let’s use former U.S. President Obama as a case study.
Fairly traditional rhetoricians might study his public speeches in
comparison with other presidential rhetoric. Others may study
debates between presidential candidates, dissecting the
rhetorical strategies used, for example, by Barack Obama and his
opponent, Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney.
Expanding from messages to channels of communication,
scholars may study how different media outlets cover presidential
politics. At an interpersonal level, scholars may study what sorts
of conflicts emerge within families between liberal and
conservative family members. At a cultural level, communication
scholars could study how the election of an African American
president may influence our perception of race and of racial
relations.

How about our focus in this course? We will touch on such

larger socio-cultural issues insofar as they allow us to become
better communicators in specific professional situations. As you
will see, a broader understanding of various socio-cultural
phenomena may substantially improve our communication skills
in multiple ways — from allowing us to use a positive and
motivating tone even in the most challenging professional
situations to enhancing our intercultural communication and
social media expertise.

To further answer the last question, let us now move to a brief

discussion of the five main forms of communication, as they are
typically categorized in communication studies, so we can
understand to what extent and why we will focus more on some
than on others.

Forms of Communication
Forms of communication vary in terms of participants, channels
used, and contexts. The five main forms of communication are
intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and mass
communication. Let us quickly define them and discuss relevant
similarities and differences between them, especially in terms of
level of intentionality, goals, and contexts.

1. Intrapersonal communication is communication with

oneself using internal vocalization or reflective thinking. Like
other forms of communication, intrapersonal communication is
triggered by some internal or external stimulus. We may, for
example, communicate with ourselves about what we want to eat
due to the internal stimulus of hunger, or we may react
intrapersonally to events we witness. Intrapersonal
communication takes place only inside our heads — others do not
perceive it — yet it has multiple significant social functions:
 Intrapersonal
communication is communication with ourselves that takes place
in our heads. Sarah – Pondering – CC BY 2.0.

 achieving or maintaining social adjustment(Dance &

Larson, 1972, Part II) — e.g. using self-talk (internal
vocalization) to calm ourselves or to remind ourselves to
smile at key moments during a presentation.
 building and maintaining our self-concept — e.g.
internalizing certain qualities as part of our self-concept
because we noticed that we tend to be perceived that way
(this could be beneficial or not — we could, for instance,
become more confident this way or bring ourselves down…).
 processing emotions, thinking through something, or
rehearsing what we plan to say or do in the future —
e.g. processing feelings of anger in order to avoid expressing
them out loud, or planning what to say as we are waiting for
an important meeting to start.
As with the other forms of communication, competent
intrapersonal communication helps facilitate social interaction
and can enhance our well-being. Conversely, the breakdown in
the ability of a person to intrapersonally communicate is
associated with mental illness (Dance & Larson, 1972, p. 67).

Sometimes we intrapersonally communicate for the fun of it such

as when we think of something funny. Such communication is
typically unplanned and doesn’t include a clearly defined goal
(Dance & Larson, 1972, 99). We can, however, engage in more
intentional intrapersonal communication. In fact, deliberate self-
reflection can help us become more competent communicators as
we become more mindful of our own behaviors. In your everyday
experiences, your internal voice may praise or scold you based on
a thought or action. In our course, you are encouraged to use
intrapersonal communication to do the following:

 monitor and assess your communication acts based on

the way you would like to be treated by others in similar
situations;
 shift strategy if this monitoring and assessment work tells
you that you may have taken an ineffective approach; and
 reflect on any communication act in this way after the
fact, so you can learn from the experience.

The main distinction between intrapersonal communication and

the other four types is that it is not created with the intention that
another person will perceive it. For all the other types, the fact
that the communicator anticipates consumption of their message
is very important.
2. Interpersonal communication is communication between
people whose lives influence one another. Interpersonal
communication builds, maintains, and ends our relationships, and
we spend more time engaged in interpersonal communication
than the other forms of communication. Accordingly, it should
come as no surprise that this is the form of communication we will
focus on the most in this textbook and course. Interpersonal
communication occurs in various contexts and is addressed in
subfields of study within communication studies such as
intercultural communication, organizational communication,
social media communication, health communication, etc.
Since this form of communication plays a major role in building
and maintaining personal relationships and is the most common
form of communication, instances of miscommunication and
communication conflict most frequently occur here. Couples,
family members, and bosses and employees all have to engage in
complex interpersonal communication, and it doesn’t always go
well. A competent interpersonal communicator may need conflict
management skills and listening skills, among others, to maintain
positive relationships.

Since many
businesses and organizations are embracing team models,
learning about group communication can help these groups be
more effective. RSNY – Team – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

3. Group communicationis communication among three or

more people interacting to achieve a shared goal. You have likely
worked in groups in high school and college, and if you’re like
most students, you didn’t always enjoy it. Although sometimes
frustrating, group work in an academic setting provides useful
experience and critical preparation for group work in professional
settings.

Group communication is more intentional and formal than

interpersonal communication because group members are
typically placed within a group (they do not make that choice
themselves and might not know each other well) and because
group communication is often task-focused (members of the
group work together for an explicit purpose or goal that affects
each member of the group).

Working with several other communicators usually leads to more

complicated interactions. Some challenges of group
communication relate to task-oriented interactions (e.g., deciding
who will complete each part of a larger project) but many stem
from interpersonal conflict or misunderstandings among group
members. Since group members also communicate with and
relate to each other interpersonally and may have pre-existing
relationships or develop them during the course of group
interaction, elements of interpersonal communication also occur
within group communication.
4. Public communication is a sender-focused form of
communication in which one person is typically responsible for
conveying information to an audience. Public speaking is
something that many people fear, or at least don’t enjoy. But, just
like group communication, public speaking is an important part of
our academic, professional, and civic lives. When compared to
interpersonal and group communication, public communication is
the most consistently intentional, formal, and goal-oriented form
of communication discussed so far.

Although public speakers don’t necessarily develop individual

relationships with audience members, they are face-to-face with
them and can receive verbal and nonverbal feedback. In the part
of this textbook and course dedicated to presentations and
interviews, you will learn some strategies for managing potential
speaking anxiety. Public speaking is an important aspect of
professional communication because as you will engage in it in
multiple contexts at work — from routine meetings to more
formal presentations in front of colleagues, upper-management
employees, shareholders, clients, etc.

Technological
advances such as the printing press, television, and the more
recent digital revolution have made mass communication a
prominent feature of our daily lives. Savannah River Site
– Atmospheric Technology – CC BY 2.0.

5. Mass communication is a form of public communication that

is transmitted to many people through print or electronic media.
While print media such as newspapers and magazines continue to
be an important channel for mass communication, television,
websites, blogs, and social media are dominant mass
communication channels today. Additionally, radio, podcasts, and
books are other examples of mass media. The technology
required to send mass communication messages distinguishes it
from the other forms of communication. A certain amount of
intentionality goes into transmitting a mass communication
message since it usually requires one or more extra steps to
convey the message. This may involve pressing “Enter” to send a
Facebook message or involve an entire crew of camera people,
sound engineers, and production assistants to produce a
television show. Even though the messages must be intentionally
transmitted through technology, the intentionality and goals of
the person actually creating the message, such as the writer,
television host, or talk show guest, vary greatly. A Prime
Minister’s various speeches are mass communication messages
that are very formal, goal oriented, and intentional, but a Prime
Minister’s verbal gaffe during a news interview is not.

Even though creating the illusion of a personal connection is often

a goal of those who create mass communication messages, in
some contexts there is no immediate verbal and nonverbal
feedback loop in mass communication. For instance, readers
could write letters to the editor of a newspaper or send e-mails to
a television or radio broadcaster in response to a story where the
immediate feedback available in face-to-face interactions is not
present. However, with new media technologies such as Twitter,
blogs, and Facebook, feedback is becoming more immediate.
Individuals can now tweet directly “at” (@) someone and use
hashtags (#) to direct feedback to mass communication sources.
Many radio and television hosts and news organizations
specifically invite feedback from viewers/listeners via social media
and may even share the feedback on the air.

While there is potential for unethical communication with all

forms, the potential consequences of unethical mass
communication can be massive. Communication scholars who
focus on mass communication and media often take a critical
approach in order to examine how media shapes our culture and
who is included and excluded in various mediated messages.

Spotlight: “Getting Real”

What Can You Do with a Diploma or Degree in
Communication Studies?

You’re hopefully already beginning to see that communication

studies is a diverse and vibrant field of study in itself, as well as a
component of great importance for a wide variety of technical and
business fields. Communication courses offered in various
graduate certificate programs at Fanshawe may focus on aspects
of communication such as public relations, rhetoric, interpersonal
communication, electronic media production, corporate
communication, etc.

This textbook takes a broader approach to enhance your

communication competence and skills in interpersonal
communication, intercultural communication, group
communication, employment communication, and public
speaking, among others.

Exercises
The main career areas that communication majors go into are
business, public relations/advertising, media, nonprofit,
government/law, and education. Within each of these areas there
are multiple career paths, potential employers, and useful
strategies for success:

 Business. Sales, customer service, management, real

estate, human resources, training and development.
 Public relations/advertising. Public relations,
advertising/marketing, public opinion research,
development, event coordination.
  Media. Editing, copywriting, publishing, producing,
directing, media sales, broadcasting.
 Nonprofit. Administration, grant writing, fund-raising, public
relations, volunteer coordination.
 Government/law. City or town management, community
affairs, lobbying, conflict negotiation/mediation.
 Education. High school speech teacher, forensics/debate
coach, administration and student support services,
graduate school to further communication study.

1. In which of the areas listed above are you most interested

in studying in school or pursuing as a career? Why?
2. In what aspect(s) of communication studies does your
graduate certificate program specialize? What
concentrations/courses are offered?
3. Whether or not you plan to pursue a career as a
communication expert, how do you think you could use
what you have learned and will learn in this class to “sell”
yourself on the job market, or to get promoted faster at
work?

Source: What Can I Do with This Major? “Communication

Studies,” accessed May 18, 2012,
http://whatcanidowiththismajor.com/major/communication-
studies.

Key Takeaways
 Communication is a broad field that draws from many
academic disciplines. This interdisciplinary perspective
provides useful training and experience for students that
can translate into many career fields.
 Communication is the process of generating meaning by
sending and receiving symbolic cues that are influenced by
multiple contexts.
 Ancient Greeks like Aristotle and Plato started a rich
tradition of the study of rhetoric in the Western world more
than two thousand years ago. Communication did not
become a distinct field of study with academic
departments until the 1900s, but it is now a thriving
discipline with many subfields of study.
 There are five forms of communication: intrapersonal,
interpersonal, group, public, and mass communication.
 o Intrapersonal communicationis with oneself and
occurs only inside our heads.
o Interpersonal communicationis between people,
typically pairs, whose lives mutually influence one
another.
o Group communication is among three or more
people to achieve a shared goal.
o Public communication is sender-focused and
typically occurs when one person conveys
information to an audience.
o Mass communication is when messages are sent
to large audiences using print or electronic media.

Exercises
1. Come up with your own definition of communication. How
does it differ from the definition in the book? Why did you
choose to define communication the way you did?
2. Over the course of a day, keep track of the forms of
communication that you use. Make a pie chart of how
much time you think you spend, on an average day,
engaging in each form of communication (intrapersonal,
interpersonal, group, public, and mass).

References
Dance, F. E. X., & Larson, C. E. (1976). The functions of human
communication: a theoretical approach. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Keith, W. (2008). On the Origins of Speech as a Discipline: James A.

Winans and Public Speaking as Practical Democracy. Rhetoric Society
Quarterly, 38(3), 239–258. DOI:10.1080/02773940801958446

Poe, M. T. (2011). A History of Communications: Media and Society from

the Evolution of Speech to the Internet. Cambridge University Press.

1.2: THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Learning Objectives
1. Identify and define the components of the transmission model of
communication.
2. Identify and define the components of the interaction model of
communication.
3. Identify and define the components of the transaction model of
communication.
 4. Compare and contrast the three models of communication.
5. Use the transaction model of communication to analyze a recent
communication encounter.

Models of communication simplify the process by providing a

visual representation of the various aspects of a communication
encounter. In so doing, while somewhat limiting, models allow us
to see specific aspects and steps of the process of
communication, define communication, and apply communication
concepts. When you become aware of how communication
functions, you can think more deliberately through your
communication encounters, which can help you better prepare for
future communication and learn from your previous
communication (something we previously defined as engaging in
metacognitive learning practices). The three models of
communication we will briefly discuss are the transmission,
interaction, and transaction models.

Although models of
communication provide a useful blueprint to see how the communication process works, they
are not complex enough to capture what communication is like as it is experienced. Chris
Searle – Blueprint – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

The transmissionmodel and the interactionmodel include the

following parts: participants(senders and/or
receivers), messages (verbal or nonverbal content being
conveyed), encoding, decoding, and channels. The internal
cognitive process that allows participants to send, receive, and
understand messages is the encoding and decoding process.
Encoding is the process of turning thoughts into communication.
As we will learn later, the level of conscious thought that goes
into encoding messages varies. Decoding is the process of turning
communication into thoughts (“understanding” the message —
but, again, the level of awareness and insight involved varies). Of
course, we don’t just communicate verbally—we have various
options, or channels for communication. Encoded messages are
sent through a channel, or a sensory route on which a message
travels, to the receiver for decoding. While communication can be
sent and received using any sensory route (sight, smell, touch,
taste, or sound), most communication occurs through visual
(sight) and/or auditory (sound) channels.

Transmission Model of Communication

The transmission model of communication
describes communication as a linear, one-way process in
which a sender intentionally transmits a message to a
receiver (Ellis & McClintock, 1990, p. 71). This model focuses on
the sender and the message within a communication encounter.
Although the receiver is included in the model, this role is viewed
as more of a target or end point rather than part of an ongoing
process. We are left to presume that the receiver either
successfully receives and understands the message or does not.
The scholars who designed this model extended on a linear model
proposed by Aristotle that included a speaker, a message, and a
hearer. They were also influenced by the advent and spread of
new communication technologies of the time such as telegraphy
and radio, and you can probably see these technical influences
within the model (Shannon & Weaver, 1949, p. 16). Think of how
a radio message is sent from a person in the radio studio to you
listening in your car. The sender is the radio announcer who
encodes a verbal message that is transmitted by a radio tower
through electromagnetic waves (the channel) and eventually
reaches your (the receiver’s) ears via an antenna and speakers in
order to be decoded. Radio announcers do not know with
certainty if you received their message, but if the equipment is
working and the channel is free of static, the message was (likely)
successfully received.
Figure 1.1 The Transmission Model of Communication

Since this model is sender and message focused, responsibility is

put on the sender to ensure the message is successfully
conveyed. This model emphasizes clarity and effectiveness, but it
also acknowledges that there are barriers to effective
communication, including noise. Noise is anything that interferes
with a message being sent between participants in a
communication encounter. Even if a speaker sends a clear
message, noise may interfere with a message being accurately
received and decoded.

The transmission model of communication accounts for

environmental and semantic noise:
  Environmental noise is any physical noise present in a
communication encounter. Other people talking in a
crowded diner could interfere with your ability to transmit a
message and have it successfully decoded.
 Semantic noise is any noise that occurs in the encoding
and decoding process when participants do not understand a
symbol. To use a technical example, FM antennae can’t
decode AM radio signals and vice versa. Likewise, most
French speakers can’t decode Swedish and vice versa.
Semantic noise can also interfere in communication between
people speaking the same language because many words
have multiple or unfamiliar meanings.

Although the transmission model may seem simple or even

underdeveloped to us today, the creation of this model allowed
scholars to examine the communication process in new ways,
which eventually led to more complex models and theories of
communication that we will discuss more later. This model is not
rich enough to fully capture dynamic face-to-face interactions, but
there are instances in which communication is one-way and linear
— especially computer-mediated communication (CMC). As the
following “Getting Plugged In” box explains, CMC is integrated
into many aspects of our lives. It has opened up new ways of
communicating and brought some new challenges. Think of text
messaging for example. The transmission model of
communication is well suited for describing the act of text
messaging since the sender isn’t sure that the meaning was
effectively conveyed or that the message was received. Noise can
also interfere with the transmission of a text. If you use an
abbreviation the receiver doesn’t know or the phone autocorrects
to something completely different than what you meant, then
semantic noise has interfered with the message transmission.

Spotlight: “Getting Plugged In”

Computer-Mediated Communication

Many of you reading this textbook probably can’t remember a

time without CMC. If that’s the case, then you’re what some
scholars have called “the digital generation.” CMC has changed
the way we teach and learn, communicate at work, stay in touch
with friends, initiate romantic relationships, search for jobs,
manage our money, get our news, and participate in our
democracy. But the increasing use of CMC has also raised some
questions and concerns, even among those of you who are of the
digital generation.

In all Professional Communication courses we teach, many of our

students choose to do their final research projects on social media
use in their industry/field. Many are interested in studying the
effects of CMC on employees’ personal and professional lives and
relationships.

This desire to study and question CMC may stem from a

perception regarding the seeming loss or devaluing of face-to-
face (FtF) communication. Additionally, CMC also raises concerns
about privacy, cyberbullying, and lack of civility in online
interactions. We will continue to explore such issues in the
“Getting Plugged In” feature box in each chapter. The following
questions emphasize the influence CMC has in your daily
communication:

1. In a typical day, what types of CMC do you use?

2. What are some ways that CMC reduces stress in your life?
What are some ways that CMC increases stress in your life?
Overall, which of these do you experience more?
3. Do you think that today’s society sees less value in FtF
communication than we used to? Why/ why not?

Exercises
Getting integrated: Let us examine the following message from
a first-year student to a professor:

“Hi there,

I won’t be able to make it to class today. Could you let me

know if I’ll be missing anything important?

Kimmie”
The student probably wants to show concern for the missed class.
(Otherwise, the students wouldn’t email the professor.) Is that
what the message expresses, though?

 Analyze the message and identify any aspects that should

be revised.
 Rewrite the message to make it more effective as an
expression of the sender’s true intentions.

Interaction Model of Communication

The interaction model of communication describes
communication as a process in which participants alternate
positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by
sending messages and receiving feedback within physical
and psychological contexts(Schramm, 1997). Rather than
illustrating communication as a linear, one-way process, the
interaction model incorporates feedback, which makes
communication a more interactive, two-way process. Feedback
includes messages sent in response to other messages. For
example, your instructor may respond to a point you raise during
class discussion or you may point to the filing cabinet when your
coworker asks you where the client file is. The inclusion of a
feedback loop also leads to a more complex understanding of the
roles of participants in a communication encounter. Rather than
having one sender, one message, and one receiver, this model
has two sender-receivers who exchange messages. Each
participant alternates roles as sender and receiver — sometimes
in a deliberate and fully conscious manner, but often very quickly
and without full conscious control.

The interaction model is less message-focused and more

interaction-focused. While the transmission model focused on how
a message was transmitted and whether or not it was received,
the interaction model is more concerned with the communication
process itself. This model acknowledges that some messages may
not be received due to overload (several messages received
simultaneously), that some messages are unintentionally sent,
etc. Communication isn’t judged effective or ineffective based on
whether or not one message was successfully transmitted and
received.
Figure 1.2 The Interaction Model of Communication

The interaction model takes physical and psychological context

into account.
  Physical context includes the environmental factors in a
communication encounter. The size, layout, temperature,
and lighting of a space influence our communication.
Imagine being interviewed in a comfortable office by three
people vs. in a cold room with uncomfortable chairs by 10
people; having optimal lighting or a source of light in your
face; being on a stage as opposed to being in a relatively
small meeting room; etc.
 Psychological context includes the mental and emotional
factors in a communication encounter. Stress, anxiety, and
emotions are just some examples of psychological influences
that can affect our communication. Consider contexts such
as having to deliver a presentation an hour after receiving
some troubling personal news — or how likely you are to
disregard a person’s otherwise unacceptable behaviours
when you are “love struck.”

Feedback and context help make the interaction model a more

useful illustration of the communication process, whereas the
next model, the transaction model, views communication as a
powerful tool that shapes our realities beyond individual
communication encounters.

Transaction Model of Communication

The transaction model differs from the transmission and
interaction models in significant ways, including the
conceptualization of communication, the role of sender and
receiver, and the role of context (Barnlund, 1970). This model
describes communication as a process in which
communicators generate social realities within social,
relational, and cultural contexts. In this model, we don’t just
communicate to exchange messages; we communicate to create
relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-
concepts, and engage with others in dialogue to create
communities. In short, we don’t communicate about our realities;
communication helps to construct our realities.

Instead of labeling participants as senders and receivers, the

people in a communication encounter are referred to
as communicators. Unlike the interaction model, which suggests
that participants alternate positions as sender and receiver, the
transaction model suggests that we are simultaneously senders
and receivers. For example, on an interview, as you send verbal
messages about your interests and background, the employer
reacts nonverbally. You don’t wait until you are done sending your
verbal message to start receiving and decoding the nonverbal
messages of the employer. Instead, you are simultaneously
sending your verbal message and receiving the employer’s
nonverbal messages. This is an important addition to the model
because it allows us to understand how we are able to adapt our
communication—for example, a verbal message—in the middle of
sending it based on the communication we are simultaneously
receiving from our communication partner.

Figure 1.3 The Transaction Model of Communication

The transaction model also includes a more complex

understanding of context. The interaction model portrays context
as physical and psychological influences that enhance or impede
communication. While these contexts are important, they focus
on message transmission and reception. The transaction model
considers how social, relational, and cultural contexts frame and
influence our communication encounters.

1. Social context refers to the stated rules or unstated

norms that guide communication. As we are socialized into
our various communities, we learn rules and implicitly pick up on
norms for communicating (e.g., don’t lie to people, don’t interrupt
people, don’t pass people in line, greet people when they greet
you, thank people when they pay you a compliment, etc.).
Parents and teachers often explicitly convey these rules to their
children or students. Rules may be stated over and over, and
there may be punishment for not following them.

Norms are social conventions that we internalize (or at least

learn to recognize) through observation, practice, and trial and
error. We may not even know we are breaking a social norm until
we notice people looking at us strangely or someone corrects or
teases us. For example, as a new employee you may over- or
underdress for the company’s holiday party because you don’t
know the norm for formality. Although there probably isn’t a
stated rule about how to dress at the holiday party, you will notice
your error without someone having to point it out, and you will
likely not deviate from the norm again in order to save yourself
any further embarrassment.

Even though breaking social norms doesn’t result in the formal

punishment that might be a consequence of breaking a social
rule, the social awkwardness we feel when we violate social
norms is usually enough to teach us that these norms are
powerful even though they aren’t made explicit like rules. Norms
even have the power to override social rules in some situations.
To go back to the examples of common social rules mentioned
before, we may break the rule about not lying if the lie is meant
to save someone from feeling hurt. We often interrupt close
friends when we’re having an exciting conversation, but we
wouldn’t be as likely to interrupt a professor while they are
lecturing. Since norms and rules vary among people and cultures,
relational and cultural contexts are also included in the
transaction model in order to help us understand the multiple
contexts that influence our communication.

2. Relational context includes the previous interpersonal

history and type of relationship we have with a person. We
communicate differently with someone we just met versus
someone we’ve known for a long time. Initial interactions with
people tend to be more highly scripted and governed by
established norms and rules, but when we have an established
relational context, we may be able to bend or break social norms
and rules more easily. For example, you would likely follow social
norms of politeness and attentiveness and might spend the whole
day cleaning the house for the first time you invite your new
neighbors to visit. Once the neighbors are in your house, you may
also make them the center of your attention during their visit. If
you end up becoming friends with your neighbors and
establishing a relational context, you might not think as much
about having everything cleaned and prepared or even giving
them your whole attention during later visits.

Communication norms and rules also vary based on the type of

relationship people have. For example, there are certain
communication rules and norms that apply to a supervisor-
supervisee relationship that don’t apply to a brother-sister
relationship and vice versa. (Given the managerial/ leadership
focus of our textbook and course, such considerations will be
explored in detail in several future chapters.)

Cultural context is
influenced by numerous aspects of our identities and is not
limited to race or ethnicity. Wikimedia Commons – public domain.

3. Cultural context includes various aspects of identities

such as race, gender, nationality, ethnicity, sexual
orientation, class, and ability. It is important for us to
understand that whether we are aware of it or not, we all have
multiple cultural identities that influence our communication.
Typically, people whose identities have been historically
marginalized are regularly aware of how their cultural identities
influence their communication and how others communicate with
them. Conversely, people with identities that are dominant or in
the majority may rarely, if ever, think about the role their cultural
identities play in their communication.
When cultural context comes to the forefront of a communication
encounter, it can be difficult to manage. Since intercultural
communication creates uncertainty, it can deter people from
communicating across cultures or lead people to view
intercultural communication as negative. But if you avoid
communicating across cultural identities, you will likely not get
more comfortable or competent as a communicator. Intercultural
communication has the potential to enrich various aspects of our
lives. In order to communicate well within various cultural
contexts, it is important to keep an open mind and avoid making
assumptions about others’ cultural identities. While you may be
able to identify some aspects of the cultural context within a
communication encounter, there may also be cultural influences
that you can’t see. A competent communicator shouldn’t assume
to know all the cultural contexts a person brings to an encounter,
since not all cultural identities are visible. As with the other
contexts, it requires skills to adapt to shifting contexts, and the
best way to develop these skills is through practice and reflection.
Key Takeaways
 Communication models are not complex enough to
truly capture all that takes place in a communication
encounter, but they can help us examine the various
steps in the process in order to better understand our
communication and the communication of others.
 The transmission model of communication describes
communication as a one-way, linear process in which
a sender encodes a message and transmits it through a
channel to a receiver who decodes it. The transmission of
the message many be disrupted by environmental or
semantic noise. This model is usually too simple to capture
FtF interactions but can be usefully applied to computer-
mediated communication.
 The interaction model of communication describes
communication as a two-way process in which
participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and
generate meaning by sending and receiving feedback
within physical and psychological contexts. This model
captures the interactive aspects of communication but still
doesn’t account for how communication constructs our
realities and is influenced by social and cultural contexts.
 The transaction model of communication describes
communication as a process in which communicators
generate social realities within social, relational, and
 cultural contexts. This model includes participants who
are simultaneously senders and receivers and accounts for
how communication constructs our realities, relationships,
and communities.

Exercises
1. Getting integrated: How might knowing the various
components of the communication process help you in your
academic life, your professional life, and your civic life?
2. What communication situations does the transmission
model best represent? The interaction model? The
transaction model?
3. Use the transaction model of communication to analyze a
recent communication encounter you had. Sketch out the
communication encounter and make sure to label each
part of the model (communicators; message; channel;
feedback; and physical, psychological, social, relational,
and cultural contexts).

References
Barnlund, D. C. (1970). A transactional model of communication. In
Kenneth K. Sereno and C. David Mortensen (Eds.), Foundations of
communication theory (83-92). Harper and Row.

Ellis, R. and McClintock, A.. (1990). You take my meaning: Theory into
practice in human communication. Edward Arnold.

Schramm, W. (1997). The beginnings of communication study in

America. Sage.

Shannon, C. and Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of

communication.University of Illinois Press, 1949.

1.3: COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES

Learning Objectives
1. Discuss how communication is integrated in various aspects of
modern life.
2. Explain how communication meets physical, instrumental,
relational, and identity needs.
3. Explain how the notion of a “process” fits into communication.
4. Discuss the ways in which communication is guided by culture and
context.
Becoming more aware of how you communicate can be
informative and have many positive effects in your personal and
professional life. Your main purpose in taking this course is,
obviously, to enhance your professional communication skills and
this is will be our main focus in our course content and
assignments. However, personal relationships have much to gain
from effective communication, too, as you must be aware and the
two categories are not necessarily fully disjunctive. For instance,
a friend who is aware of our skills could recommend us for a job,
and at work, employees who are well-liked tend to be promoted
faster. As we examine several important principles of
communication in this section, I encourage you to take note of
aspects of communication that you haven’t thought about before
and begin to apply the principles of communication to as many
parts of your personal and professional life as possible

Communication Is Integrated into All Parts

of Our Lives
To facilitate our exploration of the ways in which communication
is integrated into all parts of our lives, let us divide our
experiential space into four areas: academic, professional,
personal, and civic. Of course, there is significant overlap
between these areas. For instance, many of your classroom
experiences directly correlate to workplace situations, and the
classroom has long been seen as a place to prepare students to
become active and responsible citizens in their civic lives. The
philosophy behind this approach is called integrative learning,
which encourages students to reflect on how the content they are
learning connects to their other classes they have taken or are
taking, their professional goals, and their civic responsibilities.

1. Academic
 Good communication
skills can help you succeed in academic settings and set you up
for success post-graduation. Benjamin Darfler – Graduation – CC
BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Improving your communication skills by studying the content

presented here can help you maximize your grades in this class
and there are other academic advantages of achieving this.

 Better communicators typically prepare better written

documents and presentations in other courses.
 As better communicators, you will likely be able to enhance
your relationships with colleagues and professors — that is,
to network more effectively while in school. This may lead to
employment opportunities or opportunities for advancement
in the future.
 Students who take communication courses typically have
higher grade point averages and are less likely to drop out of
school. This significant correlation is one of the main reasons
that most college and university programs make taking at
least one communication course a requirement for
graduation.

2. Professional
The National Association of Colleges and Employers has found
that employers most desire good communication skills in the
college graduates they may hire (National Association of Colleges
and Employers, 2010, p. 25). Countless studies and articles
published since confirm this, as do the focus group meetings
organized each year at Fanshawe College (see the Introduction to
this textbook for more information on the latter). Desired
communication skills vary from career to career and this textbook
provides a foundation onto which you can build communication
skills specific to your industry/field.

Employers appreciate good listening skills and the ability to

communicate concisely because efficiency and clarity are often
directly tied to productivity and success in terms of profit or
task/project completion. In our competitive job market, being able
to document that you have received advanced communication
instruction and training from communication professionals can
give you the edge needed to stand out from other applicants or
employees.
Examples
Other articles on employers’ view of communication skills

 Brower, Tracy. (2020, Mar. 16). Communication is more

important now than ever before: 9 tips for communication
that reassures and reengages people. Forbes. Retrieved
from https://www.forbes.com/sites/tracybrower/2020/03/16
/the-coronavirus-makes-communication-more-important-
than-ever-9-tips-for-communication-that-reassures-and-
reengages-people/?sh=5b3e4d38140c
 Kohut, T. (2015, Aug. 26). New study reveals top 10 skills
Canadian employers are looking for. Global News.
Retrieved from http://globalnews.ca/news/2187705/new-
study-reveals-top-10-skills-canadian-employers-are-
looking-for/
 Lewington, J. (2014, Aug. 26). Recruiters put premium on
communication skills. The Globe and Mail. Retrieved
from http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/c
areers/career-advice/recruiters-put-premium-on-
communication-skills/article20206416/#dashboard/follows/
 Strauss, V. (2017, Dec. 20). The surprising thing Google
learned about its employees — and what it means for
today’s students. The Washington Post. Retrieved
from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-
sheet/wp/2017/12/20/the-surprising-thing-google-learned-
about-its-employees-and-what-it-means-for-todays-
students/

3. Personal
While many students know, from personal experience and from
the prevalence of communication counseling on television talk
shows and in self-help books, that communication forms,
maintains, and ends our interpersonal relationships, they do not
know the extent to which that occurs. They may lack the tools to
examine that phenomenon analytically and to make sure they
apply what they discover to future interactions.

Those tools can be acquired by developing a foundational

knowledge of communication concepts and theories, so we can
master the vocabulary needed to name the communication
phenomena we experience, to then note their prevalence, and to
take a systematic approach to improving them. This is, again, part
of engaging in metacognitive learning which is an approach to
these phenomena that increases our ability to consciously alter
our communication to achieve our goals, avoid
miscommunication, and analyze and learn from our inevitable
mistakes. Once we get further into our course content, the
personal implications of advanced communication strategies and
techniques will become increasingly clear.

4. Civic

Voting is one way to

stay civically engaged, but you can also participate in decision
making in nonpolitical contexts. Government of Canada
Website – Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages.
2020-10-27.

Civic engagement refers to working to make a difference in our

communities by improving the quality of life of community
members, by raising awareness about social, cultural, or political
issues or by participating in a wide variety of political and
nonpolitical processes (Ehrlich, 2000, vi). The civic part of our
lives is developed through engagement with the decision making
that goes on in our society at the small-group, local, state,
regional, national, or international levels. Such involvement
ranges from serving on a neighborhood advisory board to sending
an e-mail to our MP, to the Premier of our province, or to the
Prime Minister. Discussions and decisions that affect our
communities happen around us all the time, but it takes time and
effort to become a part of that process. Doing so, however, allows
us to become a part of groups or causes that are meaningful to
us, which enables us to work for the common good. This type of
civic engagement is crucial to the functioning of a democratic
society.

Although younger people have tended not to be as politically

engaged in terms of voting as other age groups, the current
generation of sixteen to twenty-nine-year-olds, known as the
millennial generation, is known to be very engaged in
volunteerism and community service. In addition, some research
has indicated that college students are eager for civic
engagement but do not always find the resources they need on
their campuses (Jaschik, 2012). The American Association of
Colleges and Universities has launched several initiatives and
compiled many resources for students and faculty regarding civic
engagement. Whether you are part of the millennial generation or
you are over thirty, I encourage you to explore their website and
try to identify some ways in which you can productively integrate
what you are learning in this class into a civic context.

Communication Meets Needs

As this discussion shows, communication is far more than the
transmission of information — it can also help us achieve certain
physical and instrumental needs while also also feeding into our
identities and relationships in complex ways. How does that work?

1. Physical Needs
Physical needs include needs that keep our bodies and minds
functioning; communication has substantial effects on our
physical body and well-being:
  At the most basic level, communication can alert others that
our physical needs are not being met (e.g., babies cry when
they are hungry or sick to alert their caregiver of these
physical needs; we might ask our friends if we can stay at
their house if something happens and our former residence
can no longer meet our physical needs for shelter).
 There are strong ties between the social function of
communication and our physical and psychological health.
Human beings are social creatures, which makes
communication important for our survival. In fact, prolonged
isolation has been shown to severely damage a human
(Williams & Zadro, 2001). The social isolation rules we all
had to follow as a consequence of the Covid-19 pandemic
have made this need for communication much more
obvious.
 People with good interpersonal communication skills are
better able to adapt to stress and have less depression and
anxiety (Hargie, 2011, p. 2).
 Communication can also be therapeutic, which can lessen or
prevent physical problems. A research study found that
spouses of suicide or accidental death victims who did not
communicate about the death with their friends were more
likely to have health problems such as weight change and
headaches than those who did talk with friends (Greene,
Derlega, & Mathews, 2006, p. 421).

Satisfying physical needs is essential for our physical functioning

and survival. But, in order to socially function and thrive, we must
also meet instrumental, relational, and identity needs.

2. Instrumental Needs
 Communicating for
instrumental needs helps us get things done. Think about how
much instrumental communication is required to build a house.
Sandia Labs – Habitat for Humanity Build-A-Thon – CC BY-NC-ND
2.0.

Instrumental needs include needs that help us get things done in

our day-to-day lives and achieve short- and long-term goals.
Common instrumental needs include influencing others, getting
information we need, or getting support (Burleson, Metts, & Kirch,
2000, p. 247).

To meet instrumental needs, we often use communication

strategically. Politicians, parents, bosses, and friends use
communication to influence others in order to accomplish goals
and meet needs. There is a research area within communication
that examines compliance-gaining communication, or
communication aimed at getting people to do something or act in
a particular way (Gass & Seiter, 1999, p. 205). Compliance
gaining and communicating for instrumental needs is different
from coercion, which forces or manipulates people into doing
what you want. Open communication, free from constraint and
pressure, is an important part of an ethical society. Compliance-
gaining communication is different from persuasion, however.
While research on persuasion typically focuses on public speaking
and how a speaker persuades a group, compliance-gaining
research focuses on our daily interpersonal interactions.
Researchers have identified many tactics that people typically use
in compliance-gaining communication (Gass & Seiter, 1999, p.
205). As you read through the following list, I am sure many of
these tactics will be familiar to you.
Common Tactics Used for Compliance
Gaining
 Offering rewards. Seeks compliance in a positive way by
promising returns, rewards, or generally positive outcomes.
 Threatening punishment. Seeks compliance in a negative
way by threatening negative consequences such as loss of
privileges, grounding, or legal action.
 Using expertise. Seeks compliance by implying that one
person “knows better” than the other based on experience,
age, education, or intelligence.
 Liking. Seeks compliance by acting friendly and helpful to
get the other person into a good mood before asking them
to do something.
 Debt. Seeks compliance by calling in past favors and
indicating that one person “owes” the other.
 Altruism. Seeks compliance by claiming that one person
only wants “what is best” for the other and he or she is
looking out for the other person’s “best interests.”
 Esteem. Seeks compliance by claiming that other people
will think more highly of the person if they comply or thinks
less of the person if they do not comply.

3. Relational Needs
Relational needs include needs that help us build, maintain, and
(if needed) end social bonds and interpersonal relationships:

 To develop a relationship, we may use nonverbal

communication to assess whether someone is interested in
talking to us or not, then use verbal communication to strike
up a conversation.
 Next, through the mutual process of self-disclosure, a
relationship forms over time.
 Once relationships form, they need to be maintain through
positive communication and behaviors that communicate
our investment in the relationship (spending time together,
frequent engagement through texts, celebrating
accomplishments, etc.).
 Finally, communication or the lack of it helps us end
relationships. We may communicate our deteriorating
commitment to a relationship by avoiding communication
 with others, verbally criticizing them, or explicitly ending a
relationship.

Communicating for relational needs isn’t always positive, though.

Some people’s “relational needs” are negative, unethical, or even
illegal. Although we may feel the “need” to be passive aggressive
or controlling, these communicative patterns are not positive and
can hurt our relationships.

4. Identity Needs
Identity needs include our need to present ourselves to others
and be thought of in particular and desired ways. What adjectives
would you use to describe yourself? Are you funny, smart, loyal,
or quirky? Your answer isn’t just based on who you think you are
as much of how we think of ourselves is based on our
communication with other people.

Just as many companies, celebrities, and politicians create a

public image, we desire to present different faces in different
contexts. Goffman compared self-presentation to a performance
and suggested we all perform different roles in different contexts
(Goffman, 1959). Indeed, competent communicators can
successfully manage how others perceive them by adapting to
situations and contexts. A parent may perform the role of stern
head of household, supportive shoulder to cry on, or hip and
culturally aware friend based on the situation they are in with
their child. A newly hired employee may initially perform the role
of motivated and agreeable coworker but later perform more
leadership behaviors after being promoted.

Communication Is a Process
Communication is a process that involves an interchange of
verbal and/or nonverbal messages within a continuous and
dynamic sequence of events (Hargie, 2011, p. 2). When we refer
to communication as a process, we imply that it doesn’t have a
distinct beginning and end or follow a predetermined sequence of
events.

It can be difficult to trace the origin of a communication

encounter, since communication doesn’t always follow a neat and
discernible format, which makes studying communication
interactions or phenomena difficult. Any time we pull one part of
the process out for study or closer examination, we artificially
“freeze” the process in order to examine it, which is not
something that is possible when communicating in real life.
Sometimes scholars want to isolate a particular stage in the
process in order to gain insight by studying, for example,
feedback or eye contact. Doing that changes the very process
itself, and by the time you have examined a particular stage or
component of the process, the entire process may have changed.
However, these snapshots are useful for scholarly interrogation of
the communication process, and they can also help us evaluate
our own communication practices, troubleshoot a problematic
encounter we had, or slow things down to account for various
contexts before we engage in communication (Dance & Larson,
1976, 28).

We have already learned, in the transaction model of

communication, that we communicate using multiple channels
and send and receive messages simultaneously. There are also
messages and other stimuli around us that we never actually
perceive because we can only attend to so much information at
one time. The dynamic nature of communication allows us to
examine some principles of communication that are related to its
processual nature. Next, we will learn that communication
messages vary in terms of their level of conscious thought and
intention, that communication is irreversible, and that
communication is unrepeatable.
Since communication is such a dynamic process, it is difficult to determine where
communication begins and ends. Mathieu Plourde – Instructor to Groups – CC BY 2.0.

Intention. Some scholars have put forth definitions of

communication stating that messages must be intended for
others to perceive them in order for a message to “count” as
communication. This narrow definition only includes messages
that are tailored or at least targeted to a particular person or
group and excludes any communication that is involuntary
(Dance & Larson, 1976, 28). Involuntary intention may occur
when we “read into” involuntary gestures others might make, or
mistake intrapersonal communication as being always
intentionally; communication occurs in both instances, yet not
always intentionally.

Degree of conscious thought. Communication messages also

vary in terms of the amount of conscious thought that goes into
their creation. In general, we can say that intentional
communication usually includes more conscious thought and
unintentional communication usually includes less. For example,
some communication is reactionary and almost completely
involuntary. We often scream when we are frightened, say
“ouch!” when we stub our toe, and stare blankly when we are
bored. This isn’t the richest type of communication, but
it iscommunication. Some of our interactions are slightly more
substantial and include more conscious thought but are still very
routine. For example, we say “excuse me” when we need to get
past someone, say “thank you” when someone holds the door for
us, or say “what’s up?” to our neighbor we pass every day in the
hall.

While these types of communication just discussed are common,

the messages most studied by communication scholars and the
messages this course focuses on the most, are
considered constructed communication. These messages
include more conscious thought and often go beyond information
exchange to meet relational and identity needs. As we will learn
later, a higher degree of conscious thought and intention
doesn’t necessarily mean the communication will be
effective, understood, or ethical. In addition, ethical
communicators cannot avoid responsibility for the effects of what
they say by claiming they didn’t “intend” for their communication
to cause an undesired effect. Communication has short- and long-
term effects, which illustrates the next principle we will discuss—
communication is irreversible.

The irreversible character of communication. The dynamic

nature of the communication process also means that
communication is irreversible. Once an initial interaction has gone
wrong, it is impossible to turn the clock back and “redo” it.
Miscommunication can occur regardless of the degree of
conscious thought and intention put into a message. For example,
if David tells a joke that offends his coworker Beth, then he can’t
just say, “Oh, forget I said that,” or “I didn’t intend for it to be
offensive.” The message has been sent and it can’t be taken
back.

The unrepeatable character of communication. We have

already learned the influence that contexts have on
communication. Contexts change quickly and frequently — so,
even if our words and actions stay the same between Situation A
and Situation B, the physical, psychological, social, relational, and
cultural contexts will vary and ultimately change the
communication encounter. For instance, if you try to recreate a
good job interview experience by asking the same questions and
telling the same stories about yourself, you can’t expect the same
results. Have you ever tried to recount a funny or interesting
experience to a friend who doesn’t really seem that impressed?
These “I guess you had to be there” moments illustrate the fact
that communication is unrepeatable.

Communication Is Guided by Culture and

Context
Western culture tends to put more value on senders than
receivers and on the content rather the context of a message.
These cultural values are reflected in our definitions and models
of communication. As we will learn in later chapters, cultures vary
in terms of having a more individualistic or more collectivistic
cultural orientation. Canada is considered an individualistic
culture, where emphasis is put on individual expression and
success. Japan is considered a collectivistic culture, where
emphasis is put on group cohesion and harmony. These are
strong cultural values that are embedded in how we learn to
communicate. In many collectivistic cultures, there is more
emphasis placed on silence and nonverbal context.

Whether in Canada, Japan, or another country, people are

socialized from birth to communication in culturally specific ways
that vary by context. In this section, we will discuss how
communication is learned, the rules and norms that influence how
we communicate, and the ethical implications of communication.

1. Communication Is Learned
Communication patterns are relative to the context and culture in
which one is communicating, and many cultures have distinct
languages consisting of symbols, all of which are learnt (from
caregivers, starting in infancy, and then through school, social
interactions, work experiences, etc.).

Communication is symbolic — that is, the words that make up our

language systems do not directly and inherently correspond to
something in reality; they point to something that is part of our
reality as a matter of convention.
  The existence of different languages is obvious proof of this.
For instance, “fish” translates into French as “poisson.” The
words are not similar, and neither has any inherent relation
to what we think of as fish. We know what the word refers to
if we know the language.
 We also speak different “languages” based on the situation
we are in. For example, in some cultures, it is considered
inappropriate to talk about family or health issues in public,
while in others it’s common to do so. At another level, an
astronomer and someone who does not specialize in the
field would connect the word “star” to pools of knowledge of
very different dimensions and levels of depth — and many
words used by astronomers might be entirely unknown to
most people. Finally, close friends often have their own
inside terminology and expressions that would not make
sense to anyone else.

2. Rules and Norms

As discussed earlier, whether verbal or nonverbal, mediated or
interpersonal, our communication is guided by rules and norms.

Phatic communion is an instructive example of how we

communicate under the influence of rules and norms (Senft,
2009). Phatic communion refers to scripted and routine verbal
interactions that are intended to establish social bonds rather
than to exchange meaning.
Here’s an example:

When you pass your professor in the hall, the exchange may go
as follows:

Student: “Hello, how are you?”

Professor: “Fine, how are you?”

Student: “Fine, thank you.”

What is the point of this interaction? It surely isn’t to actually

inquire as to each other’s well-being. We have similar phatic
interactions when we make comments on the weather or the fact
that it’s Monday. We often joke about phatic communion because
we see that is pointless, at least on the surface.
The student and professor might as well just pass each other in the hall
and say the following to each other:
Student: “Generic greeting question.”

Professor: “Generic greeting response and question.”

Student: “Generic response.”

This is an example of communication messages that don’t really require a

high level of conscious thought or convey much actual content or
generate much meaning. So if phatic communion is so “pointless,” why do
we do it?

Rules and norms guide much

of our communication. Think of all the unspoken norms for behavior in a crowded elevator.
Dangerismycat – crowded elevator – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

The term phatic communion derives from the Greek word phatos,
which means “spoken,” and the word communion, which means
“connection or bond.” These exchanges are common in North
American communication contexts and serve strictly to confirm a
connection. Everyone knows not to start discussing specific
personal or professional issues when someone asks, “How are
you?” and not to go through his/her “to do” list when someone
asks, “What’s up?” Instead, we conform to social norms through
routine verbal exchanges.

Phatic communion, like most aspects of communication we will

learn about, is culturally relative. While most cultures engage in
phatic communion, the topics of and occasions for phatic
communion vary. Scripts for greetings in Canada are common,
but scripts for leaving may be more common in other cultures.
Asking about someone’s well-being may be acceptable phatic
communion in one culture, and asking about the health of
someone’s family may be more common in another.
Communication Has Ethical Implications
Communication ethics deals with the process of negotiating and
reflecting on our actions and communication regarding what we
believe to be right and wrong.

Communication has broad ethical implications. Later in this book,

we will discuss the importance of ethical listening, how to avoid
plagiarism, how to present evidence ethically, and how to apply
ethical standards to mass media and social media. These are just
a few examples of how communication and ethics will be
discussed in this book, but hopefully, you can already see that
communication ethics is integrated into academic, professional,
personal, and civic contexts.

Ethics deals with our

beliefs about what is right and wrong, but the choice is often not
as clear-cut. Justin Baeder – That Way– CC BY 2.0,

While many behaviors can be more easily labelled as ethical or

unethical, communication acts are not always easy to judge.
Physically hurting someone is generally thought of as unethical
and illegal, but many instances of hurtful speech, or even what
some would consider hate speech, have been protected as free
speech. This reveals a complicated relationship between
protected speech, ethical speech, and the law. In some cases,
people see it as their ethical duty to communicate information
that they feel is in the public’s best interest. The people behind
WikiLeaks, for example, have released thousands of classified
documents related to wars, intelligence gathering, and diplomatic
communication. WikiLeaks claims that exposing this information
keeps politicians and leaders accountable and keeps the public
informed, but government officials claim the release of the
information should be considered a criminal act. Both parties
consider the other’s communication unethical and their own
communication ethical. Who is right?

Since many of the choices we make when it comes to ethics are

situational, contextual, and personal, various professional fields
have developed codes of ethics to help guide members through
areas that might otherwise seem uncertain. Doctors take oaths to
do no harm to their patients, and journalists follow ethical
guidelines that promote objectivity and provide for the protection
of sources. Although businesses and corporations have gotten
much attention for high-profile cases of unethical behavior,
business ethics has become an important part of the curriculum in
many business schools, and more companies are adopting ethical
guidelines for their employees. The following “Getting Critical”
box includes information about the National Communication
Association’s Ethical Credo and the International Association of
Business Communicators’ Code of Ethics.

Spotlight: “Getting Critical”

We all have to consider and sometimes struggle with questions of
right and wrong. Since communication is central to the creation of
our relationships and communities, ethical communication should
be a priority of every person who wants to make a positive
contribution to society.

The National Communication Association’s “Credo for

Ethical Communication” reminds us that communication ethics
are relevant across contexts and apply to every channel of
communication, including media, and that human worth and
dignity are fostered through ethical communication practices such
as truthfulness, fairness, integrity, and respect for self and others
(National Communication Association, 2012). The emphasis in
the credo and in the study of communication ethics is on
practices and actions rather than thoughts and
philosophies. Many people claim high ethical standards but do
not live up to them in practice. While the credo advocates for,
endorses, and promotes certain ideals, it is up to each one of us
to put them into practice. The following are some of the principles
stated in the credo:

 We endorse freedom of expression, diversity of perspective,

and tolerance of dissent to achieve the informed and
responsible decision making fundamental to civil society.
 We condemn communication that degrades individuals and
humanity through the expression of intolerance and
hatred.
 We are committed to the courageous expression of personal
convictions in pursuit of fairness and justice.
 We accept responsibility for the short- and long-term
consequences of our own communication and expect the
same of others.

1. What are some examples of unethical communication that

you have witnessed?
2. Read through the whole credo. Of the nine principles listed,
which do you think is most important and why?

Let us also examine the principles promoted by

the International Association of Business
Communicators through their Code of Ethics:

 I am honest. My actions bring respect for and trust in the

communication profession.
 I communicate accurate informationand promptly
correct any errors.
 I obey laws and public policies; if I violate any law or
public policy, I act promptly to correct the situation.
 I protect confidential information while acting within the
law.
 I support the ideals of free speech, freedom of
assembly, and access to an open marketplace of ideas.
 I am sensitive to others’ cultural values and beliefs.
  I give credit to others for their work and cite my
sources.
 I do not use confidential information for personal
benefit.
 I do not represent conflicting or competing
interests without full disclosure and the written consent of
those involved.
 I do not accept undisclosed gifts or payments for
professional services from anyone other than a client or
employer.
 I do not guarantee results that are beyond my power to
deliver

You can find this code and read more about this association at
this link: https://www.iabc.com/about-us/purpose/code-of-ethics/

In upcoming chapters, we will link these principles of ethical

communication to essential requirements of workplace
communication such as clarity, cultural sensitivity, objectivity,
accuracy in citing sources, honesty in describing our contribution,
etc.
Key Takeaways
 Increasing your knowledge of communication and improving
your communication skills can positively affect your
academic, professional, personal, and civic lives.
 In terms of academics, research shows that students who
study communication and improve their communication
skills are less likely to drop out of school and are more
likely to have high grade point averages.
 Professionally, employers desire employees with good
communication skills, and employees who have good
listening skills are more likely to get promoted.
 Personally, communication skills help us maintain satisfying
relationships.
 Communication intensifies our civic engagement and allows
us to participate in and contribute to our communities.
 Communication meets our physical needs by helping us
maintain physical and psychological well-being; our
instrumental needs by helping us achieve short- and long-
term goals; our relational needs by helping us initiate,
maintain, and terminate relationships; and our identity
needs by allowing us to present ourselves to others in
particular ways.
  Communication is a process that includes messages that
vary in terms of conscious thought and intention.
Communication is also irreversible and unrepeatable.
 Communication is guided by culture and context.
 We learn to communicate using systems that vary based on
culture and language.
 Rules and norms influence the routines and rituals within our
communication.
 Communication ethics vary by culture and context and
involve the negotiation of and reflection on our actions
regarding what we think is right and wrong.

Exercises
1. Getting integrated: The concepts of integrative learning
and communication ethics are introduced in this section.
How do you see communication ethics playing a role in
academic, professional, personal, and civic aspects of your
life?
2. Identify some physical, instrumental, relational, and
identity needs that communication helps you meet in a
given day.
3. We learned in this section that communication is
irreversible and unrepeatable. Identify a situation in which
you wished you could reverse communication. Identify a
situation in which you wished you could repeat
communication. Even though it’s impossible to reverse or
repeat communication, what lessons can be learned from
these two situations you identified that you can apply to
future communication?
4. In what types of phatic communion do you engage? How
are they connected to context and/or social rules and
norms?

References
Burleson, B. R., Metts, S. and Kirch, M.W. (2000) Communication in close
relationships. In C. Hendrick and S. S. Hendrick (Eds.), Close
Relationships: A Sourcebook (245-57). Sage.

Dance, F. E. X., & Larson, C. E. (1976). The functions of human

communication: A theoretical approach. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Ehrlich, T. (2000). Civic responsibility and higher education. Oryx, 2000).

Gass, R. H., and Seiter, J.S. (1999). Persuasion, social influence and
compliance gaining. Allyn and Bacon.

Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Anchor Books

Greene, K., Derlega, V.D. and Mathews, A. (2006). Self-disclosure in

personal relationships. In A. L. Vangelisti & D. Perlman (Eds.), The
Cambridge handbook of personal relationships (pp. 409–427). Cambridge
University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511606632.023

Hargie, O. (2011). Skilled interpersonal interaction: Research, theory, and

practice. Routledge.

Jaschik, S. (2009, Sept. 30). The civic engagement gap. Inside Higher
Ed, http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2009/09/30/civic.

National Association of Colleges and Employers. (2010). Job outlook 2011.

Senft, G. (2009). “Phatic communion. In G. Senft, J.-O. Ostman, & J.

Verschueren (Eds.), Culture and angluage use (pp. 226-33). John
Benjamins Publishing Company.

Williams, K. D., and Zadro, L. (2001). Ostracism: On being ignored,

excluded, and rejected. In M. Leary (Ed.), Interpersonal rejection (pp. 21–
54). Oxford University Press

Zabava, W. S., & Wolvin, A.D. The differential impact of a basic

communication course on perceived communication competencies in
class, cork, and social sontexts. Communication Education 42 (1993),
215–17.

1.4: COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE

Learning Objectives
1. Define communication competence.
2. Explain each part of the definition of communication competence.
3. Discuss strategies for developing communication competence.
4. Discuss communication apprehension and public speaking anxiety
and employ strategies to manage them.

Communication competence has become a focus in higher

education over the past couple of decades as educational policy
makers and advocates have stressed a “back to basics” mentality
(McCroskey, 1984, p. 259). The ability to communicate effectively
is often included as a primary undergraduate learning goal along
with other key skills like writing, critical thinking, and problem
solving. In advanced communication courses, students are
expected to move beyond the basic communication competence
expected of any college and university graduate by engaging with
challenging communication scenarios related to specific
business/professional contexts and by enhancing their abilities of
engaging in reflexive, metacognitive processes of self-monitoring
and self-assessment.

In addition to supporting you directly in your future managerial/

leadership roles at work, the advanced communication skills
taught in this course are meant to foster your development of the
seven “Job Skills for the Future” Fanshawe College plans to
prioritize in future years. Here is the list:
Fanshawe College: Job Skills for the Future

 Novel and adaptive thinking: Find

innovative, creative and unconventional relationships between
things or concepts.
 Resilience: Succeed through adversity.
 Social intelligence: Build and nurture mutually beneficial
relationships.
 Self-directed learning: Identify and achieve personal learning
goals.
 Global citizenship: Create an awareness of the wider world and
our place in it.
 Complex problem solving: Find solutions to real-world problems.
 Implementation skills: Manage projects to achieve key milestones
and outcomes.

You can read more about these skills

here:https://www.fanshawec.ca/about-fanshawe/choose-fanshawe/innova
tion-village/silex-and-job-skills-future#

Since this book focuses on advanced professional communication

in terms of workplace managerial/ leadership applications, you
will see connections to the higher-order cognitive skills referenced
here in all chapters. A “Getting Competent” feature box is
included in each chapter specifically to emphasize aspects of
communication competence of high impact on your development
of higher-order cognitive skills.

Defining Competence
 Developing
communication competence can bring many rewards, but it also
requires time and effort. Paul Shanks – Communication – CC BY-
NC 2.0.

Communication competence refers to the knowledge of effective

and appropriate communication patterns and the ability to use
and adapt that knowledge in various contexts (Cooley & Roach,
1984, p. 25).

Knowledge of communication patterns. The cognitive

elements of competence include knowing how to do something
and understanding why things are done the way they are (Hargie,
2011, p. 9). Since you are currently taking a communication class,
try to observe the communication concepts you are learning in
the communication practices of others and yourself. This will help
bring the concepts to life and also help you evaluate how
communication in the real world matches up with communication
concepts. As you build a repertoire of communication knowledge
based on your experiential and classroom knowledge, you will
also be developing behavioral competence.

The ability to use communication. At the individual level, a

person’s physiological and psychological characteristics affect
competence. In terms of physiology, age, maturity, and ability to
communicate affect competence. In terms of psychology, a
person’s mood, stress level, personality, and level of
communication apprehension (level of anxiety regarding
communication) affect competence (Cooley & Roach, 1984, p.
25). All these factors will either help or hinder you when you try to
apply the knowledge you have learned to actual communication
behaviors. For example, you might know strategies for being an
effective speaker, but public speaking anxiety that kicks in when
you get in front of the audience may prevent you from fully
putting that knowledge into practice.

The ability to adapt to various contexts. What is defined as

competence varies based on social and cultural context (Cooley &
Roach, 1984, p. 25). Social variables such as status and power
affect competence. In a social situation where one person has
more power than another (e.g. supervisor vs. employee), the
person in the higher position in the hierarchy is typically the one
who sets the standard for competence. Cultural variables such as
race and nationality also affect competence. A
Taiwanese womanwho speaks English as her second language
may be praised for her competence in the English language
in her home country but be viewed as less competent in the
United States because of her accent. In summary, although we
have a clear definition of communication competence, there are
not definitions for how to be competent in any given situation,
since competence varies at the individual, social, and cultural
level.
The National Communication Association (NCA) has identified the
following aspects of competence — with a focus on speaking and
listening, and noting that developing communication competence
in these areas will help people in academic, professional, and civic
contexts (Morreale, Rubin, & Jones, 1998):

1. State ideas clearly.

2. Communicate ethically.
3. Recognize when it is appropriate to communicate.
4. Identify their communication goals.
5. Select the most appropriate and effective medium for
communicating.
6. Demonstrate credibility.
7. Identify and manage misunderstandings.
8. Manage conflict.
9. Be open-minded about another’s point of view.
10. Listen attentively.

These are just some of the competencies the NCA identified as

important for college graduates. While these are skill focused
rather than interpersonally or culturally focused, they provide a
concrete way to assess your own speaking competencies at the
start of this class and to then track your progress throughout the
term, as we study and attempt to assimilate a large variety of
advanced communication strategies and techniques.

Developing Competence
We all have areas where we are skilled and areas where we have
deficiencies. In most cases, we can consciously decide to work on
our deficiencies, which may take considerable effort. There are
multiple stages of competence you should try to assess as you
communicate in your daily life: unconscious incompetence,
conscious incompetence, conscious competence, and unconscious
competence (Hargie, 2011, p. 9).

 Before acquiring a rich cognitive knowledge base of

communication concepts and before practicing and
reflecting on skills in a particular area, you may not be
aware that you are communicating in an incompetent
manner — that is, you may exhibit unconscious
incompetence.
 Once you learn more about communication and have a
vocabulary to identify concepts, you may find yourself
exhibiting conscious incompetence: you know what you
should be doing, and you realize that you’re not doing it as
well as you could.
 As your skills increase, you may advance to conscious
competence: you know you are communicating well in the
moment, which will add to your bank of experiences to draw
from in future interactions.

When you reach the stage of unconscious competence, you

can communicate successfully without straining to be competent.
Just because you reach the stage of unconscious competence in
one area or with one person does not mean you will always stay
there. We are faced with new communication encounters
regularly, and although we may be able to draw on the
communication skills we have learned about and developed, it
may take a few instances of conscious incompetence before you
can advance to later stages.
 Becoming more mindful of
your communication and the communication of others can contribute to your communication
competence. Free Stock Photos – public domain.

Obviously, becoming a more mindful communicator can speed up

your progress toward communication competence. A mindful
communicator actively and fluidly processes information, is
sensitive to communication contexts and multiple perspectives,
and is able to adapt to novel communication situations (Burgoon,
Berger, & Waldron, 2000, p. 105). Becoming a more mindful
communicator has many benefits, including achieving
communication goals, detecting deception, avoiding stereotypes,
and reducing conflict.

Whether or not we achieve our day-to-day communication goals

depends on our communication competence. Various
communication behaviors can signal that we are communicating
mindfully — such as asking employees to paraphrase their
understanding of the instructions given (showing that you are
aware that verbal messages are not always clear, that people do
not always listen actively, and that people often do not speak up
when they are unsure of instructions for fear of appearing
incompetent or embarrassing themselves). Some communication
behaviors indicate that we are not communicating mindfully —
such as withdrawing from a romantic partner or engaging in
passive-aggressive behavior during a period of interpersonal
conflict. Most of us know that such behaviors lead to predictable
and avoidable conflict cycles, yet we are all guilty of them. Our
tendency to assume that people are telling us the truth can also
lead to negative results. Some tentativeness and mindful
monitoring of a person’s nonverbal and verbal communication can
help us detect deception. However, this is not the same thing as
chronic suspicion, which would not indicate communication
competence.

Spotlight: “Getting Competent”

Getting Started on Your Road to Communication Competence

The “Getting Competent” boxes throughout this book are meant to help
you become a more confident and skilled communicator. While each box
will focus on a specific aspect of communication competence, this box
addresses communication competence more generally.

A common communication pitfall that is an obstacle on many students’

roads to communication competence is viewing communication as
“common sense.” In fact, this can be accurate in some cases but not in
others. For instance, many of us are aware that conflict avoidance can
lead to built-up tensions that eventually hurt an interpersonal relationship
— it may be “common sense” to expect that. Still, in order to put that
“commonsense” knowledge to competent use, we must have a more
nuanced understanding of how conflict and interpersonal communication
relate and know some conflict management strategies.

Communication is common in that it is something that we spend most of

our time doing, but the ability to make sense of and improve our
communication takes competence that is learned through deliberate
study and personal reflection. Throughout this term, try to systematically
engage in the following:

 Challenge yourselves to apply the concepts we are learning to your

personal and professional life and goals.
 Commit to sharing the knowledge you gain in this class with those
around you.
 Practice self-monitoring (start to notice your communication habits
and abilities more; notice both strengths and areas in need of
improvement).
 Be prepared to put in the time to improve (it takes effort to become
a better listener, give better feedback, etc.).

If you start these things now you will be primed to take on more
communication challenges that will be presented throughout this book.
 1. What aspects of communication do you think are “common
sense?” What aspects of communication do you think require more
formal instruction and/or study?
2. What communication concept has appealed to you most so far?
How can you see this concept applying to your life?
3. Do a communication self-assessment. What are your strengths as
a communicator? What are your weaknesses? What can you do to
start improving your communication competence?

Overcoming Anxiety

Communication
apprehension and public speaking anxiety are common but can
be managed productively. Ana C. – day 339 butterflies – CC BY-
NC-ND 2.0.

Decades of research conducted by communication scholars shows

that communication apprehension is common among college
students (Priem & Solomon, 2009, p. 260). Communication
apprehension (CA) is fear or anxiety experienced by a person due
to actual or imagined communication with another person or
persons. CA includes multiple forms of communication, not just
public speaking: 15 to 20 percent of college students
experience high trait CA (they are generally anxious about
communication) and 70 percent experience sometrait CA — which
means that addressing communication anxiety in a class like the
one you’re taking now stands to benefit the majority of students
(Priem & Solomon, 2009, p. 260).

Public speaking anxiety is type of CA that produces

physiological, cognitive, and behavioral reactions in people when
faced with a real or imagined presentation (Bodie, 2010, p. 72).
Research on public speaking anxiety has focused on three key
ways to address this common issue: systematic desensitization,
cognitive restructuring, and skills training (Bodie, 2010, p. 72).

Communication departments are typically the only departments

that address communication apprehension explicitly, which is
important as CA is “related to negative academic consequences
such as negative attitudes toward school, lower over-all
classroom achievement, lower final course grades, and higher
college attrition rates” (Allen, Hunter, & Donohue, 2009).
Additionally, CA can lead others to make assumptions about your
communication competence that may be unfavorable. Even if you
are intelligent, prepared, and motivated, CA and public speaking
anxiety can detract from your communication and lead others to
perceive you in ways you did not intend.
Top Ten Ways to Reduce Speaking Anxiety
We will discuss this more in later chapters, but for now, here are
a few basic tips that can help you manage your anxiety:

1. You are not alone. Public speaking anxiety is common, so

don’t ignore it—confront it.
2. You can’t literally “die of embarrassment.” Audiences are
forgiving and understanding.
3. It always feels worse than it looks.
4. Take deep breaths to release endorphins, which naturally
fight the adrenaline that causes anxiety.
5. Look the part. Dress professionally to enhance confidence.
6. Channel your nervousness into positive energy and
motivation.
7. Start your outline and research early. Better knowledge =
higher confidence.
8. Practice and get feedback from a trusted source (such as a
friend or colleague).
9. Visualize success through positive thinking.
10. Rehearse as much as possible. Practice is a speaker’s
best friend.

Key Takeaways
 Communication competence refers to the knowledge of
effective and appropriate communication patterns and the
ability to use and adapt that knowledge in various
contexts.
  To be a competent communicator, you should have
cognitive knowledge about communication based on
observation and instruction; understand that individual,
social, and cultural contexts affect competence; and be
able to adapt to those various contexts.
 Getting integrated: The NCA notes that developing
communication competence in speaking and listening will
help college students in academic, professional, and civic
contexts.
 Levels of communication competence include unconscious
incompetence, conscious incompetence, conscious
competence, and unconscious competence.
 In order to develop communication competence, you must
become a more mindful communicator and a higher self-
monitor.
 Communication apprehension (CA) refers to fear or anxiety
experienced by a person due to real or imagined
communication with another person or persons. Public
speaking anxiety is a form of CA that more specifically
focuses on anxiety about giving a public presentation. Both
are commonly experienced by most people and can be
managed using various strategies.

Exercises
1. Getting integrated: Evaluate your speaking and listening
competencies based on the list generated by the NCA. Out
of the skills listed, which ones are you more competent in
and less competent in? Which skill will be most useful for
you in academic contexts? Professional contexts? Personal
contexts? Civic contexts?
2. Think of a person you know who you think possesses a high
level of communication competence. What makes you think
this? What communication characteristics do they have
that you might want to have yourself?
3. What anxieties do you have regarding communication
and/or public speaking? Since communication and speaking
are a necessary part of life, identify some strategies you
can use to manage those anxieties.

References
Allen, M., Hunter, J. E., & Donohue, W. A. (1989). Meta-analysis of self-
report data on the effectiveness of public speaking anxiety treatment
 techniques. Communication Education, 38(1), 54–76. DOI:
10.1080/03634528909378740

Bodie, G. (2010). A racing heart, rattling knees, and ruminative thoughts:

Defining, explaining, and treating public speaking
anxiety. Communication Education, 59(1), 70–105.
DOI:10.1080/03634520903443849

Burgoon, J. K., Berger, C. and Waldron, V.R. (2000). Mindfulness and

interpersonal communication. Journal of Social Issues56(1), 105-127.
https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00154

Cooley, R. E., and Roach, D.A. (1984). A conceptual framework. In

Bostrom, R.N. (Ed.), Competence in communication: A multidisciplinary
approach (pp. 11-32).Sage.

Hargie, O. (2011). Skilled interpersonal interaction: Research, theory, and

practice. Routledge.

McCroskey, J. C. (1984). Communication comptence: The elusive

construct. In Bostrom, R.N. (Ed.), Competence in communication: A
multidisciplinary approach (pp. 259-268). Sage.

Morreale, S., Rubin, R.B, & Jones, E. (1998). Speaking and listening
competencies for college students. National Communication Association.

Priem, J. S., & Solomon, D.H. ( 209). Comforting apprehensive

communicators: The effects of reappraisal and distraction on cortisol
levels among students in a public speaking class. Communication
Quarterly 57(3), 259-281. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463370903107253

1.5: EIGHT ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS

OF COMMUNICATION
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the communication process
2. Define the components of communication

The communication process can be broken down into a series of

eight essential components, each of which serves an integral
function in the overall process:
1. Source
2. Message
3. Channel
4. Receiver
5. Feedback
6. Environment
7. Context
8. Interference

Source

The source imagines, creates, and sends the message. The

source encodes the message by choosing just the right order or
the best words to convey the intended meaning, and presents or
sends the information to the audience (receiver). By watching for
the audience’s reaction, the source perceives how well they
received the message and responds with clarification or
supporting information.

Message

“The message is the stimulus or meaning produced by the source

for the receiver or audience” (McLean, 2005, p. 10). The message
brings together words to convey meaning, but nonverbal cues,
organization, grammar, style, and other elements also contribute
to the way it is conceived, conveyed, and received.

Channel

“The channel is the way in which a message or messages travel

between source and receiver.” (McLean, 2005, p. 10). Spoken
channels include face-to-face conversations, speeches, phone
conversations and voicemail messages, radio, public address
systems, and Skype. Written channels include letters,
memorandums, purchase orders, invoices, newspaper and
magazine articles, blogs, emails, text messages, tweets, and so
forth.

Receiver

“The receiver receives the message from the source, analyzing

and interpreting the message in ways both intended and
unintended by the source” (McLean, 2005, p. 10).

Feedback
When you respond to the source, intentionally or unintentionally,
you are giving feedback. Feedback is composed of messages the
receiver sends back to the source. Verbal or nonverbal, all these
feedback signals allow the source to see how well and how
accurately (or how poorly and inaccurately) the message was
received (Leavitt & Mueller, 1951).

Environment

“The environment is the atmosphere, physical and psychological,

where you send and receive messages” (McLean, 2005, p. 10).
Surroundings, people, animals, technology, can all influence your
communication.

Context

“The context of the communication interaction involves the

setting, scene, and expectations of the individuals involved”
(McLean, 2005, p. 10). A professional communication context may
involve business suits (environmental cues) that directly or
indirectly influence expectations of language and behaviour
among the participants.

Interference

Interference, also called noise, can come from any source.

“Interference is anything that blocks or changes the source’s
intended meaning of the message” (McLean, 2005, p. 10). This
can be external or internal/psychological. Noise interferes with
normal encoding and decoding of the message carried by the
channel between source and receiver.

References:
Leavitt, H., & Mueller, R. (1951). Some effects of feedback on
communication. Human Relations, 4, 401–410.

McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication. Allyn &

Bacon.

1.6: PRINCIPLES OF VERBAL

COMMUNICATION
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the principles of verbal communication
2. Define the basic aspects that govern the use of words.

Verbal communication is based on several basic principles. In this

section, you’ll examine each principle and explore how it
influences everyday communication. Whether it’s a simple
conversation with a coworker or a formal sales presentation to a
board of directors, these principles apply to all contexts of
communication.

Language Has Rules

Language is a system of symbols, words, and/or gestures used to
communicate meaning. The words themselves have meaning
within their specific context or language community. Words only
carry meaning if you know the understood meaning and have a
grasp of their context to interpret them correctly.

There are three types of rules that govern or control your use of
words.

 Syntactic Rules – govern the order of words in a sentence.

 Semantic Rules – govern the meaning of words and how to
interpret them (Martinich, 1996).
 Contextual Rules – govern meaning and word choice
according to context and social custom.

Consider the example of a traffic light as follows:

Semantics : Green means Go, and Red means Stop

Syntax: Green is on the bottom, yellow in the middle, and red on top.

Even when you follow these linguistic rules, miscommunication is

possible. Your cultural context or community may hold different
meanings for the words used – different from the meanings that
the source communicator intended. Words attempt to represent
the ideas you want to communicate, but they are sometimes
limited by factors beyond your control. Words often require you to
negotiate meaning, or to explain what you mean in more than
one way, in order to create a common vocabulary. You may need
to state a word, define it, and provide an example in order to
come to an understanding with your audience about the meaning
of your message.
Words have two types of meanings: denotative and connotative.

Denotative: The common meaning, often found in the dictionary.

Example: “home” = your place of residence

Connotative: Meaning that is not found in the dictionary but in the

community of users itself. It can involve an emotional association with a
word, positive or negative, and can be individual or collective, but is not
universal.

Example: “home” generally carries positive connotations (we associate it

with family, emotional support, feeling nourished and protected, etc.)
With a common vocabulary in both denotative and connotative
terms, effective communication becomes a more distinct
possibility. But what if you have to transfer meaning from one
vocabulary to another? That is essentially what you are doing
when you translate a message. For example, HSBC Bank was
forced to rebrand its entire global private banking operations after
bringing a U.S. campaign overseas. In 2009, the worldwide bank
spent millions of dollars to scrap its 5-year-old “Assume Nothing”
campaign. Problems arose when the message was brought
overseas, where it was translated in many countries as “Do
Nothing.” In the end, the bank spent $10 million to change its
tagline to “The world’s private bank,” which has a much friendlier
translation.
Exercises
Read the following article for a few more examples of organizational
messaging challenges: Lost in Translation: 10 International Marketing
Fails by Skye Schooley from Business News Daily (2019).

Language is Abstract
Some words are more directly related to a concept or idea than
others. If you were asked to go and take a picture of a book, it
might seem like a simple task. If you were asked to go and take a
picture of “work,” you’d be puzzled — work is an abstract word
that was developed to refer to any number of possibilities (writing
a book, repairing an air conditioner, fertilizing an organic garden,
etc.). You could take a picture of any of those things, but you
would be challenged to take a picture of “work.”

Consider the example of a cow. If you

were in a barn with this cow, you would actually be experiencing
stimuli that would be coming in through your senses. You would
hear the cow, likely smell the cow, and be able to touch the cow.
You would perceive the actual ‘thing,’ which is the ‘cow’ in front
of you. This would be considered concrete, and it would be
unmediated, meaning it was actually the moment of experience.
As represented in the image below, the ladder of abstraction
begins to move away from experience to language and
description.

The ladder of abstraction is a model used to illustrate how

language can range from concrete to abstract. If you follow a
concept up the ladder of abstraction, more and more of the
“essence” of the original object is lost or left out, which leaves
more room for interpretation, potentially leading to
misunderstanding. However, this process of abstracting, of
leaving things out, may allow you to communicate more
effectively — it may serve as a shorthand that keeps you from
having to use an unmanageable list of words, each referring to
one specific thing, when you want to express a certain idea
(Hayakawa & Hayakawa, 1990, pp. 85-86)
A ladder depicting increasing abstraction of observation and language. (Hayakawa &
Hayakawa, 1990, pp. 85-86).

As you move up a level on the ladder of abstraction, you might

give your experience a name — you are looking at ‘Bessie.’ So
now, instead of the direct experience with the ‘thing’ in front of
you, you have given the thing a name, which takes you one step
away from the direct experience toward the use of a more
abstract symbol. Now you can talk and think about Bessie even
when you aren’t directly experiencing her.

At the next level, the word cow now lumps Bessie in with other
bovine creatures that share similar characteristics. As you go up
the ladder, cow becomes livestock, livestock becomes an asset,
and then an asset becomes wealth.

Note that it becomes increasingly difficult to define the meaning

of the symbol as you go up the ladder and how with each step
you lose more of the characteristics of the original concrete
experience. The more abstractthe words you use, the more
careful you would have to be to provide enough context and
enough connections with other ideas expressed in order to make
sure that your message can be decoded.

Language Organizes and Classifies Reality

Humans use language to create and express some sense of order
in their world. You often group words that represent concepts by
their physical proximity or their similarity to one another. For
example, in biology, animals with similar traits are classified
together. An ostrich may be said to be related to an emu and a
nandu, but you wouldn’t group an ostrich with an elephant or a
salamander. Your ability to organize is useful, but artificial and a
matter of convention. The systems of organization you use are
not part of the natural world but an expression of your views
about the natural world.

What is a doctor? A nurse? A teacher? If a male came to your

mind in the case of the word ‘doctor’ and a female came to mind
in reference to ‘nurse’ or ‘teacher’, then your habits of mind
include a gender bias. In many cultures, there was a time where
gender stereotypes were more than just a stereotypes — they
were the general rule, the social custom, the norm. But now, in
many places in the world, this is no longer true. More and more
men are training to serve as nurses. In 2019, for example, data
from the Canadian Medical Association (CMA) indicated that 43%
of practising physicians in Canada were women (Canadian
Medical Association, 2019).

We use systems of classification to navigate the world. Imagine

how confusing life would be if we had no categories such as
male/female, young/old, tall/short, doctor/nurse/teacher. While
these categories are mentally useful, they can become
problematic when used to uphold biases and ingrained
assumptions that are no longer valid. Biases can make us assume
that certain elements are related when they have no relationship
at all. As a result, our thinking may become limited and our grasp
of reality impaired. It is often easier to spot these biases in others,
but it is important, as effective communicators, to become aware
of them in ourselves. Holding biases unconsciously would limit our
thinking, our grasp of reality, and our ability to communicate
successfully.

References
Canadian Medical Association. (2019). Quick facts on Canada’s physicians.
https://www.cma.ca/quick-facts-canadas-physicians

Hayakawa, S. I., & Hayakawa, A.R. (1990). Language in thought and

action (5th ed.). Harcourt Brace.

Martinich, A. P. (Ed.). (1996). The philosophy of language (3rd ed.).

Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

CHAPTER 1: REVIEW
Key Takeaways
Below is an abbreviated summary of the key takeaways for each section
of this chapter:

 Communication is a broad field that draws from many academic

disciplines.
 Communication is the process of generating meaning by sending
and receiving symbolic cues that are influenced by multiple
contexts.
 There are five forms of communication: intrapersonal, interpersonal,
group, public, and mass communication.
 Communication models are not complex enough to truly capture all
that takes place in a communication encounter.
 The transmission model of communication describes communication
as a one-way, linear process in which a sender encodes a message
and transmits it through a channel to a receiver who decodes it.
 The interaction model of communication describes communication
as a two-way process in which participants alternate positions as
sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending and
receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts.
 The transaction model of communication describes communication
as a process in which communicators generate social realities
within social, relational, and cultural contexts.
 Increasing your knowledge of communication and improving your
communication skills can positively affect your academic,
professional, personal, and civic lives.
 Professionally, employers desire employees with good
communication skills, and employees who have good listening
skills are more likely to get promoted.
 Personally, communication skills help us maintain satisfying
relationships.
 Communication is a process that includes messages that vary in
terms of conscious thought and intention. Communication is also
irreversible and unrepeatable.
 Communication is guided by culture and context.
 Rules and norms influence the routines and rituals within our
communication.
 Communication ethics varies by culture and context and involves
the negotiation of and reflection on our actions regarding what we
think is right and wrong.
 Communication competence refers to the knowledge of effective
and appropriate communication patterns and the ability to use and
adapt that knowledge in various contexts.
 Levels of communication competence include unconscious
incompetence, conscious incompetence, conscious competence,
and unconscious competence.
 Communication apprehension (CA) refers to fear or anxiety
experienced by a person due to real or imagined communication
with another person or persons.
 Verbal communication is based on several basic principles.
Language is a system of symbols, words, and/or gestures used to
communicate meaning. Language is abstract , so we try iour best
to organize and classifies reality