Name: Tanue Pride

Ndonue

Mat: Uba24HB0069
Triaxial Test

 Aim
The primary aims of the triaxial test are:
- To determine the shear strength parameters of soil
(cohesion and angle of internal friction).
- To assess the stress-strain behavior of soil under different
loading conditions.
- To evaluate the effect of drainage conditions on soil
behavior (through different types of tests: CU, CD, UU).

 Procedure
The procedure for conducting a triaxial test generally
involves the following steps:

1. Sample Preparation:
- A cylindrical soil sample is prepared, typically measuring
38 mm in diameter and 76 mm in height (or other
standardized dimensions).
- The sample is carefully trimmed to ensure uniformity
and remove any disturbed material.

2. Setting Up the Triaxial Cell:

- The prepared soil sample is placed in a triaxial cell,
which is designed to apply confining pressure and axial
load.
- The cell is filled with a fluid (usually water) that exerts
uniform pressure around the sample.

3. Application of Confining Pressure:

- A confining pressure (σ₃) is applied to the sample by
pressurizing the fluid in the triaxial cell.
- The sample is allowed to consolidate under this pressure
for a specified time, particularly for CU and CD tests.
4. Shearing the Sample:
- After consolidation, an axial load (σ₁) is applied to the
sample at a controlled rate until failure occurs.
- For UU tests, shearing occurs without allowing drainage
and without prior consolidation.

5. Data Collection:
- During the test, the axial load and the corresponding
deformation (strain) are recorded.
- The test continues until the sample fails, which is
typically indicated by a sudden drop in load.

 Equipment
The key equipment used in a triaxial test includes:

1. Triaxial Cell:
- A cylindrical chamber that can apply confining pressure
and axial loads to the soil sample.

2. Pressure Control System:

- A system to control and measure the confining pressure
applied to the sample.

3. Load Frame:
- A device to apply axial loads to the sample, often
equipped with a load cell for accurate measurement.

4. Data Acquisition System:

- Equipment to record and analyze the data from the test,
including stress and strain measurements.

5. Pore Pressure Measurement Device (for CU tests):

- A device to measure pore water pressure within the soil
sample during the test.

 Materials
The materials required for the triaxial test include:
1. Soil Sample:
- The soil to be tested, which can be cohesive (clay) or
granular (sand).

2. Water:
- Used as the confining fluid in the triaxial cell and for
pore pressure measurements.

3. Triaxial Cell Membrane:

- A rubber membrane that encases the soil sample to
maintain the confining pressure.

 Results
The results of a triaxial test typically include:

1. Stress-Strain Curves:
- Graphs showing the relationship between the applied
stress and the resulting strain in the soil sample.

2. Shear Strength Parameters:

- Determination of cohesion (c) and angle of internal
friction (φ) from the test results using the Mohr-Coulomb
failure criterion.

3. Failure Stress:
- The maximum shear stress at which the soil fails, often
reported as effective stress parameters.

4. Comparison of Test Types:

- Results may vary depending on the type of triaxial test
conducted (CU, CD, UU), providing insights into the
drainage conditions and behavior of the soil.

 Conclusion
The triaxial test is a fundamental method for assessing soil
behavior under stress, providing essential data for
geotechnical engineering applications. Understanding the
results helps engineers design safe and effective
foundations, retaining structures, and other civil
engineering projects.

Shear box test

Aim

The primary aim of the shear box test is to: 1. Determine the shear
strength parameters (cohesion, 'c', and angle of internal friction, 'φ') of a
soil sample under drained conditions. 2. Simulate the shear failureof soil
along a predetermined plane. 3. Provide data essential for geotechnical
design and analysis, such as slope stability, bearing capacity of
foundations, and lateral earth pressure calculations.

Procedure

The direct shear test procedure generally involves the following steps:

1. Sample Preparation:
o An undisturbed or remolded soil sample is carefully placed
and compacted (if remolded) into a square or circular shear
box. The sample size is typically 60x60 mm or 100x100 mm
in plan.
o The sample's dimensions and weight are recorded to determine
its initial density and moisture content.
2. Shear Box Assembly:
o The shear box consists of two halves: an upper fixed half and a
lower movable half, separated by a small gap (typically 0.5-1.0
mm).
o Porous stones are placed at the top and bottom of the sample to
allow drainage.
o The shear box assembly is placed into the direct shear test
machine.
3. Application of Normal Stress:
o A normal load (vertical load) is applied to the top of the
sample through a loading frame. This load simulates the
overburden pressure on the soil in the field.
 o The normal stress is maintained constant throughout the test.
Typically, a series of tests are conducted on identical samples
under different normal stresses (e.g., 50 kPa, 100 kPa, 200
kPa).
4. Consolidation (for cohesive soils):
o If the soil is cohesive (e.g., clay), it is allowed to consolidate
under the applied normal stress until the excess pore water
pressure dissipates. This ensures drained conditions during
shearing. Deflection gauges monitor vertical settlement during
this phase.
5. Application of Shear Stress:
o After consolidation (or immediately for granular soils), a
horizontal shear force is applied to the lower half of the shear
box at a constant, slow rate (e.g., 0.5 to 1.0 mm/min). This
causes shear deformation and eventual failure along the
horizontal plane separating the two halves of the box.
o The shear force and horizontal displacement are continuously
measured and recorded.
6. Failure and Data Recording:
o The test continues until a peak shear stress is reached, or a
significant horizontal displacement occurs, indicating failure.
For some soils, a residual shear strength may be observed after
the peak.
o The maximum (peak) shear force and corresponding
horizontal displacement, as well as the initial normal load, are
recorded for each test.
7. Repetition:
o The entire procedure is repeated on at least two or three
additional identical samples, each subjected to a different
normal stress. This allows for plotting a shear strength
envelope.

Equipment

The main equipment used for a direct shear test includes:

 Shear Box: A rigid, split box (typically square or circular) made of

brass or stainless steel, with two halves that can move relative to
each other horizontally.
 Loading Frame: A mechanical or hydraulic system used to apply
and maintain the normal (vertical) load on the sample.
  Shear Loading Mechanism: A motorized system (e.g., a screw jack
with a gear reduction unit) that applies a constant rate of horizontal
displacement to the lower half of the shear box.
 Proving Ring or Load Cell: Used to measure the applied shear
force.
 Dial Gauges or LVDTs:
o Shear Displacement Gauge: Measures the horizontal
displacement of the lower shear box.
o Vertical Displacement Gauge: Measures the vertical
deformation (settlement or dilation) of the sample.
 Porous Stones: Placed at the top and bottom of the sample within
the shear box to allow drainage.
 Loading Pad/Cap: Placed on top of the upper porous stone to
distribute the normal load uniformly.
 Sample Cutter/Trimmer: For preparing undisturbed samples to the
correct dimensions.
 Weight/Masses: To apply the normal load in older mechanical
systems.
 Data Acquisition System: For automated recording of force and
displacement readings (in modern setups).

Materials

The primary material involved in the shear box test is the soil sampleitself.
This can be:

 Cohesive soils: Clays, silts, or clay-silt mixtures. These are typically

tested at their natural moisture content or remolded to specific
densities.
 Cohesionless soils: Sands and gravels. These are usually tested in a
dry or saturated condition and can be prepared at various densities
(loose, medium, or dense).
 Compacted soils: Soils compacted to specific densities and
moisture contents, simulating engineered fills.

Other "materials" involved include: * Water (for saturation or maintaining

moisture content). * Filter paper (sometimes placed between the sample
and porous stones).

Results
The results of a direct shear test are typically presented and interpreted as
follows:

1. Shear Stress vs. Horizontal Displacement Curves:

o For each normal stress applied, a graph is plotted
showing the shear stress (calculated as shear force /
cross-sectional area of the sample) on the y-axis against
the horizontal displacement on the x-axis.
o For dense sands and overconsolidated clays, these
curves typically show a distinct peak shear stress,
followed by a decrease to a residual shear stress.
o For loose sands and normally consolidated clays, the
shear stress generally increases until a critical state or
ultimate shear strength is reached, often without a
pronounced peak.
2.
Pentrometer test
Aim

The primary aims of the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) are to:
1. Estimate the relative density of cohesionless soils (sands and
gravels). 2. Determine the consistency (stiffness) of cohesive
soils (clays and silts). 3. Obtain disturbed but representative soil
samples for visual classification and basic laboratory index
property tests (e.g., moisture content, Atterberg limits). 4. Provide
data for empirical correlations to estimate various geotechnical
design parameters, such as shear strength parameters, bearing
capacity of foundations, and liquefaction potential. 5. Identify
subsurface stratigraphy and changes in soil layers.

Procedure

The SPT is conducted in a borehole using a specific standardized

procedure:

1. Borehole Advancement: A borehole is drilled to the desired

test depth. Care is taken to minimize disturbance to the soil at
the bottom of the hole.
2. Sampler Insertion: A standard split-spoon sampler (50.8 mm
outer diameter, 34.9 mm inner diameter) is attached to a
series of drive rods and lowered to the bottom of the borehole.
3. Driving the Sampler: A 63.5 kg (140 lb) hammer is lifted and
allowed to free-fall 760 mm (30 inches) onto an anvil at the top
of the drive rods.
 4. Blow Count Recording: The number of hammer blows
required to drive the sampler each 150 mm (6 inches) of
penetration is recorded.
o The first 150 mm (6 inches) of penetration is considered
a "seating drive" and its blow count is usually ignored to
allow the sampler to seat into undisturbed soil.
o The N-value (Standard Penetration Resistance) is
defined as the sum of the number of blows required for
the second and third 150 mm increments (totaling 300
mm or 12 inches of penetration).
o The test is generally terminated if 50 blows are recorded
for any 150 mm increment, or if 100 blows are recorded
for 300 mm of penetration.
5. Sample Retrieval: After the test, the sampler is withdrawn
from the borehole, opened, and the soil sample is removed,
visually described, and placed in airtight containers for
laboratory analysis.
6. Repetition: The test is typically performed at regular depth
intervals (e.g., every 1.0 to 1.5 meters) or at observed
changes in soil strata.

Equipment

The main equipment used for the Standard Penetration Test

includes:

 Drilling Rig: A machine capable of drilling boreholes (e.g.,

rotary, auger, or cable-tool rig).
 Split-Spoon Sampler: A robust, thick-walled steel tube,
designed to split longitudinally for easy sample retrieval, with
an open end for soil entry.
 Drive Rods: Heavy steel rods that connect the split-spoon
sampler to the hammer assembly at the surface.
 Drive Hammer: A 63.5 kg (140 lb) hammer, either a donut
hammer (manual release) or an automatic trip hammer
(mechanical release for more consistent energy).
 Anvil and Guide Rod: Components that guide the hammer
and transfer the impact energy to the drive rods.
 Tripod or Mast: To support the drilling tools and guide the
hammer fall.
  Measuring Tapes/Rulers: For accurately measuring the
hammer drop height and sampler penetration.
 Sample Jars/Bags: For collecting and preserving the
disturbed soil samples.
 Water/Drilling Fluid (if applicable): Used for borehole
stability depending on the drilling method.

Materials

The primary "materials" involved in the SPT are:

 Soil: The in-situ ground through which the borehole is drilled

and the sampler is driven.
 Water/Borehole Stabilizer: If wet drilling methods are
employed, water or a drilling fluid (e.g., bentonite slurry) is
used to maintain borehole stability and remove cuttings.
 Liner (optional): Sometimes thin metal or plastic liners are
placed inside the split-spoon to facilitate sample handling and
preservation.

Results

The main result obtained from the SPT is the N-value (Standard
Penetration Resistance), which is the raw blow count corrected for
various factors.

1. Raw N-value: The directly observed sum of blows for the final
300 mm (12 inches) of penetration.
2. Corrected N-values: The raw N-value is typically corrected to
account for variations in energy delivery efficiency, effective
overburden pressure, rod length, and borehole diameter.
Common corrections include: