Article

Journal of College Student Retention:

How First-Generation Research, Theory & Practice

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Adjust to College DOI: 10.1177/1521025116682035
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Melinda M. Gibbons1,
Alessandra Rhinehart2, and
Erin Hardin1

Abstract
This study explored the perceived barriers and supports related to college adjustment
for first-generation college students at a large public university in the southeastern
United States. Using social cognitive career theory as a framework, 15 college students
participated in focus groups to discuss their adjustment to college and what they
believed would have helped them better prepare for college. A qualitative analysis of
themes resulted in identification of various barriers and supports, provided a multifa-
ceted understanding of college adjustment, and highlighted the importance of preparing
for college. Implications for career and school counselors are provided.

Keywords
first-generation college students, social cognitive career theory, college
adjustment, focus groups

First-generation college students (FGCs), those who are the first in their family
to pursue postsecondary education, often lack information about the career
development process (Tate et al., 2015). Additional studies are thus needed
that explore student strengths and deficits and how programs are meeting the
unique needs of FGCs. The current study served this purpose by exploring
social-cognitive constructs of barriers to and supports for college adjustment
and success among first-generation college students.

1
University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
2
Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY, USA
Corresponding Author:
Melinda M. Gibbons, University of Tennessee, 441 Claxton Building, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA.
Email: [email protected]
2 Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0(0)

First-Generation College Students

FGCs represent about one quarter of all traditional college-aged students (Horn
& Nunez, 2000), and they present with unique needs and strengths. They are
more likely to be students of color, tend to be from lower income families, and
have higher attrition rates from college (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998). They
come to college with slightly lower ACT scores and typically rely on scholar-
ships, grants, and loans to pay for schooling (Martinez, Sher, Krull, & Wood,
2009). In addition, FGCs are less likely to achieve their original educational
aspirations than their peers from college-educated families (McCarron &
Inkelas, 2006), often because they have to work part-time or full time during
college (Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak, & Terenzini, 2004).
FGCs also struggle with college adjustment. Some students believe they do not
matter to their university and often feel disconnected from peers due to their FGC
status (DeRosa & Dolby, 2014). Lower self-esteem or an external locus of control
also appears to directly influence levels of adjustment (Aspelmeier, Love, McGill,
Elliott, & Pierce, 2012). Many FGCs feel underprepared for college, citing diffi-
culties with time management (Reid & Moore, 2008) and challenges understand-
ing college culture (Collier & Morgan, 2007). Several studies (Bradbury &
Mather, 2009; Stephens, Fryberg, Markus, Johnson, & Covarrubius, 2012)
noted the need for more research on best practices for college adjustment or
how first-generation students adapt in the face of these issues.
Most of the research on FGCs focuses on current college students and how
they are progressing through school. For example, helpful and supportive men-
tors appear to increase college success (Stephens, Hameddani, & Destin, 2014).
Other factors also seem to increase FGC success as well. In another study, Bryan
and Simmons (2009) noted the importance of family support and positive peer
influences, while Dennis, Phinney, and Chuateco (2005) identified the value of
personal motivation to attend college. Finally, Tate et al. (2015) learned that
student support programs in college were helpful for students as they moved
toward a career goal. Although few studies consider what can be done prior to
college to increase student success, one article that focused on prospective first-
generation college students was Gibbons & Borders (2010), who found that
seventh-grade students from families without college education already per-
ceived a high number of barriers to college-going, so activities before college
seem necessary. Taken together, the past research makes clear that FGCs appear
to need assistance both before and during college.

Social Cognitive Career Theory

Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT; Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994) offers a
model to explain why individuals make specific career and educational choices.
According to SCCT, background characteristics, such as family income or
Gibbons et al. 3

parent education level, influence learning experiences, which in turn directly

influence perceptions about ability to complete relevant tasks (self-efficacy) or
what might happen if one did successfully complete a career-related task (out-
come expectation). Career interests and actions are directly influenced by self-
efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, and perceived barriers and supports (Lent
et al., 1994).
In their update of SCCT, Lent, Brown, and Hackett (2000) specifically high-
lighted the role of barriers and supports in the career development process. They
suggested that research on perceived barriers, in particular, shift focus to better
consider specific developmental tasks, to be considered as related to supports,
and to view barriers as issues over time rather than solely in the immediate
future. Subsequent research has consistently shown that contextual barriers
and supports have direct effects on educational goals and persistence (e.g.,
within a specific major), as well as indirect effects via self-efficacy (e.g., Lent
et al., 2001).
SCCT appears to accurately predict career development for diverse popula-
tions, including (prospective) FGCs (Gibbons & Borders, 2010; Tate et al.,
2015), students from low-income families (Hsieh & Huang, 2014; Metheny &
McWhirter, 2013), and students of color (Gonzalez, 2012; Navarro, Flores, Lee,
& Gonzalez, 2014). SCCT also is a useful framework for understanding aca-
demic persistence and achievement (see Brown et al., 2008). As such, it is a
particularly useful framework for understanding the college adjustment of
FGCs.
The purpose of this study was to learn how FGCs adapted and adjusted to
college life and learn what resources they felt would have helped them as they
prepared to enter college. Limited research exists on the actual activities that
most help FGCs adjust to college (Garriott, Hudyma, Keene, & Santiago, 2015)
, so this study addressed a gap in the available research on specific successful
high school interventions that colleges might build on to increase college adjust-
ment. We used SCCT as a framework for focus group interviews with partici-
pants. Specifically, we wanted to know, as students who were the first in their
families to attend college, students’ views on the specific barriers and supports
that affected their college adjustment—both those that occurred prior to enrol-
ling in college and those they experienced after enrolling.

Method
Participants
Participants (see Table 1) were 15 college students (11 women, 4 men) from a
large, public state university in the southeastern United States. According to
institutional data, the percentage of first-time freshmen at this university who
received Pell grants (an indicator of familial financial need) their first fall of
4 Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0(0)

Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Focus Group Participants.

Class standing Gender

Self-reported race
or ethnicity First-year Sophomore Junior Senior All Women Men

Asian American 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
African American or Black 2 2 1 0 5 2 3
European American or White 2 4 0 0 6 5 0
Bi- or multiracial 3 0 0 0 3 3 1
All 8 6 1 0 15 11 4

entry ranges from 26% to 34%, which is higher than at other comparable
universities in the region. Approximately 25% of the university’s freshmen
cohort self-identify as first-generation students with neither parent possessing
a 4-year degree; roughly 7% of students in these cohorts were from families with
neither parent progressing to college. The participants in the current study were
the first 15 to respond to an e-mail request sent to a student listserv for first-
generation and minority college students. The use of this listserv was intentional
because we wanted only FGCs to participate in this study. Five (33%) self-
identified as Black or African American, six (40%) as White, one (7%) as
Asian, and three (20%) as bi- or multiracial. This compares to an undergraduate
student population that was 6.9% Black or African American, 80.2% White,
2.7% Asian, and 2.5% bi- or multiracial (Office of Institutional Research and
Assessment, n.d.). Over half of the participants (n ¼ 8) were first-year students,
six were second-year students, and one was a junior. The average age of the
participants was 18.53 years, and ranged from 18 to 20. All participants planned
to return to college next semester and planned, at least at this point, to continue
to graduation.

Procedure
Focus groups were facilitated by the authors and an additional doctoral student.
The first and third authors facilitated one group and the second author facili-
tated the second group with the additional doctoral student. Students self-
selected into one of the two focus groups based on their scheduling availability.
In each focus group, one researcher served as the primary facilitator and the
other served as the recorder and back-up interviewer (Bender & Ewbank, 1994).
All four researchers were White females trained in working with college-aged
students in general and the interview protocol in particular.
All participants learned of the focus group through an email sent through an
academic support center on campus, which focuses on assisting first-generation
Gibbons et al. 5

and minority college students. In the email invitation, FGCs who were in their
first or second year in college were asked to e-mail the first author if they were
interested in participating. The first 15 students to indicate interest in the focus
group were invited to participate. The number of participants in each group was
kept between 6 and 10, as suggested by Rabiee (2004). As noted by Gibbs (1997),
the number of focus groups for research purposes can vary from one to more
than four; the current study included two focus groups.
The interview protocol was designed by the first and third
authors specifically for this study. Focus groups lasted 1 hour each, and all
participants received a gift card for their participation. All interviews were
audiotaped and then transcribed after being conducted. Prior to analysis, all
transcripts were scrubbed of identifying information to protect participant
identities.

Focus Group Protocol

We used focus groups in order to allow students to share experiences with their
peers, modify their opinions during the group experience, and build on the ideas
presented by others (Kidd & Parshall, 2000). According to Kidd and Parshall
(2000), focus groups may be a more valuable way to collect information when
studying marginalized groups. Because we used this approach, we considered the
group, rather than each individual in the group, the focus of analysis, thereby
acknowledging the power of the group process on the beliefs of the individuals
who comprised the group (Kidd & Parshall, 2000). The focus group questions
were designed using SCCT (Lent et al., 1994, 2013) constructs. SCCT was
selected because we wanted to explore adjustment, perceived barriers, and sup-
ports to college-going constructs directly addressed in SCCT. Specifically, we
asked about college adjustment (‘‘How has the adjustment to college been for
you?’’), perceived barriers (‘‘What barriers, or things that have made college-
going difficult, have you faced, both before coming to college and now?’’),
perceived supports (‘‘Who has been a support for you as you have navigated
the college-going process?’’), and recommendations for helping first-generation
college-bound high school students in their college-going preparation (‘‘What is
your advice to us about creating a college planning program?’’). Questions were
followed up with probing and paraphrasing to elicit deep meaning (Bender &
Ewbank, 1994).

Data Analysis
According to Rabiee (2004), the purpose of the study drives the analysis, and the
analysis begins by returning to the intention of the study. In other words, focus-
ing and refocusing on the purpose of the study assists in the analysis of the data.
We followed the focus group data analysis procedures described by Rabiee
6 Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0(0)

(2004) and informed by Hsieh and Shannon (2005). In our first step, the two
facilitators of each focus group met immediately following the interview to
reflect on the experience and capture any reactions that may have emerged.
Next, the first three authors read through the transcripts multiple times in
order to immerse ourselves in the details as well as obtain a sense of the
whole of the interview. As we read the transcripts, we considered the focus
group as a focus for analysis rather than separating the individuals in the
group into separate cases.
Our third step was to identify emerging themes by attaching descriptive state-
ments to the various quotes in the transcripts. In this step, we also used the ideas
of directed content analysis provided by Hsieh and Shannon (2005). Because our
initial coding was concept-driven, or drawn from theory (Schreier, 2012), we had
preconceived themes. These were all SCCT variables, including college self-
efficacy, outcome expectations, barriers, and supports. We intentionally inquired
about (most of) these constructs in the focus group interviews and purposely
tried to identify them in our thematic analysis. Hsieh and Shannon (2005) noted
that most analyses include a combination of concept- and data-driven themes,
allowing us the opportunity to consider additional themes that emerged from the
data itself. From this step onward, we met repeatedly to compare our coding and
to reach consensus. Our fourth step involved categorizing the various quotes by
category or theme to fully review the data for emerging and concept-driven
themes (Rabiee, 2004). Finally, we considered the various quotes by theme
and for overall meaning.

Trustworthiness and Credibility

Tracy (2010) offered various criteria for ensuring that qualitative analysis was
credible, and we followed these recommendations to increase the trustworthiness
of our research. First, we selected a relevant and significant topic. Second, we
included a well-researched theory, SCCT, as the frame for our research ques-
tions, adding to the overall rigor. Third, prior to conducting the focus groups,
we each considered our own biases and preconceived notions about the research
topic. Fourth, we increased credibility by considering thick description, and we
considered the voices of all participants. Fifth, we completed our research in an
ethical manner, obtaining institutional review board approval and informed
consent from participants and ensuring that participation was voluntary and
nonpenalizing. In addition to Tracy’s (2010) recommendations, we also consid-
ered transferability and confirmability as suggested by Lincoln and Guba (1985).
For transferability, we are ensuring that readers were informed the theoretical
context of our research and that we assumed SCCT variables explained our
findings. To offer confirmability, we each individually reviewed and coded the
transcripts prior to meeting together, and we regularly returned to the original
data to reconfirm our findings.
Gibbons et al. 7

Findings
Questions asked during the focus group were formulated using concepts from
SCCT. The concept-driven themes identified using SCCT that were supported
by participants in this study were adjustment, barriers, and supports of going to
college as a FGC. During our analysis, another theme, called double-edged sword,
emerged. Additionally, two overarching themes, spanning across all question
categories, developed: prepare yourself for change and prepare for college early.
Each theme category is explicated and supported using participants’ words.

Adjustment to College
Adjustment to college, as reported by the participants, involved learning about self,
academic adjustment, balance, and self-care. All of these behaviors seemed to affect
overall adjustment to and satisfaction with college. Participants described their
subjective experiences with each of these four subtheme categories given here.

Learning about self. One theme related to adjustment was learning about self. Self-
growth involved gaining independence and developing a personal and professional
identity. For example, one participant noted, ‘‘It was first kind of hard to adjust to
the responsibility of having to do everything on your own. And it is just now you and
the world, and you have to take care of yourself in it.’’ Another individual added,

I can really relate to that because going into college you think you have it all figured
out, but it takes a lot of courage to realize that, hey, this is kind of a mess, and I
need to take it one step at a time. Just find yourself and who you want to be.

Participants explained that they were exploring their place in the world and how
adjusting to college involved personal insight and understanding.

Academic adjustment. Another of theme of adjustment related to academics.

Academic adjustment consisted of managing expectations, meeting deadlines,
and seeking assistance to succeed in coursework. Participants described having
to adjust to academic rigor in college. For example, one person mentioned,

The hardest adjustment, for me, was that in high school, I never really had to study
anything. Everything really came easy. And then I got here, and it was a really big
adjustment in time management, to buckle down and get my priorities straight.

Another said,

I think the hardest thing for me was that I never had to have tutoring in high
school. It just sort of came naturally and now I’m learning things that are so far
8 Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0(0)

beyond my comprehension, but I know they are so important that I have to learn
them. So I guess going to tutoring, finding a tutor that I work well with, and
making a schedule with him . . . . . . That was hard for me to find people that I
could work with to learn from.

Overall, the students did not feel prepared for the shift from high school aca-
demics to college-level coursework but were managing to succeed.

Balance. As the participants spoke of adjusting to college as FGCs, they also

discussed balance. They found themselves torn between visiting home often and
focusing on school, while experiencing a wide range of emotions regarding the
shift. For example, one student said,

I think not going home is the hardest part. I have been home almost every other
weekend, and I’m deciding that’s not how I want to do college so I just stopped.
But it is kind of hard, because your parents are like, ‘‘Hey I miss you, you should
come [home].’’ You are like ‘‘I can’t.’’

Another explained, ‘‘I don’t go home much, because if you go home you miss
home, and you get distracted.’’ Within this subtheme, participants agreed on the
need for balance between staying connected to their families for support and
avoiding visiting home too often to lessen distractions.

Self-care. The final subtheme that emerged within adjustment was self-care. This
involved having healthy sleep patterns, properly managing money, and main-
taining physical health. One participant explained,

Last year I slept so much. I would have so much stuff to do but I’d just go to sleep
because I felt like . . . you ever have so much stuff to do that you get stressed about it
so you just take a nap? That’s what I did all the time . . . So get your sleep patterns
in order. Prioritize. Either sleep or flunk out. Lose a little bit of sleep and go to
class. I had to adjust my bedtime.

Another person spoke of her experiences attending to self-care while providing

some advice, ‘‘Keep mindful of your money. If you’re not financially stable or
don’t know how to deal with money, seek help. Seek immediate help because
you will be broke and hungry.’’ A third participant added, ‘‘You have to take
care of yourself. You won’t make it if you don’t make yourself a priority above
everything else.’’ Participants spoke often of the adjustments to self-care they experi-
enced during their first years of college. They often framed their experience with
words of advice regarding physical health, money management, and prioritization.
Adjustment to college as a FGC is a multifaceted process. Participants
described situations in which they developed their personal identities. They
Gibbons et al. 9

altered their expectations regarding the rigorous nature of college courses. The
students also developed a balance between their family lives and their academic
responsibilities and learned to take care of themselves physically and financially.

Barriers
Although it is likely for a prospective college student to encounter some chal-
lenges as they prepare for and embark upon their first years of college, the FGCs
in this study spoke of specific situations they considered barriers to coming to
college. Barriers to coming to college were situations or events that caused the
student to pause or reconsider attending school. They also mentioned college
barriers while enrolled in college-level courses. More specifically, barriers iden-
tified here are family, finances, and lack of information.

Family. Family as a barrier primarily included their parents’ difficulty letting go

as the students moved away from home and gained more independence, as well
as their inability to provide complete understanding of the transition to college.
One student reported,

My parents actually didn’t want me to come to [college], because it is so far away. I

am the youngest in my family. I’m like the baby, and my parents really didn’t want
me to go. I just kind of basically kept on telling them every single year in high
school like ‘‘Hey, I want to go here because of the Vet program.’’ Then they finally
said okay. They keep on calling saying like ‘‘Hey, I’ll come pick you up in the
weekend.’’ And I am like you don’t have to come pick me up, especially when it’s
not like a three-day weekend, cause I really don’t want to go home then.

Another participant spoke of his parent’s lack of experience as a barrier for

support, saying ‘‘My parents were kind of like if that is what you want to do
then you can do it, but they didn’t ever give me any advice with it, because they
didn’t really go to college.’’ Although, for the most part, students remained
connected to their parents, a shift occurred in that connection as the students
embarked upon the journey of stepping out of the box to go to a large university.

Money. When describing barriers to coming to college, participants mentioned

money to pay for college as a barrier. This barrier not only affected some of their
decisions regarding college but also influenced their level of interest in applying.
For example, one participant noted ‘‘I think money is a huge factor; the biggest
factor’’ and another noted the desire not to attend a community college but that
she was fearful of the financial strain,

I didn’t want to go to community, because you go there and you never get out of
the area, and you don’t go anywhere . . . I am from [town] and a lot of people go to
10 Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0(0)

[community college] there . . . you get two years of free tuition . . . My mom wanted
me to go there, but I didn’t want to go there.

Another student spoke about family struggles related to finances,

My mom had lost her job the day I came up here . . . Barring all of my student
scholarships and loans I had gotten, it was still kind of hard seeing my mom and
dad struggling so hard while I’m just sitting up her wondering what I can do.

Participants reported financial obligations and stress related to those obligations

were barriers in coming to college. Finances were a major barrier to college-
going for these participants.

Lack of information. As they considered going to, prepared for, and started college,
participants described lacking information in various situations. Lack of infor-
mation included uncertainty regarding obtaining and renewing financial aid, as
well as involvement in additional activities to get the most out of the college
experience. For example, one student described the college application
experience,

I will agree that it gets kinds of hectic, as far as when you are trying to meet all
those deadlines and the essays and all that stuff. It kind of freaks you out just to
know that you have to do it, and you have to figure out when everything has to be
turned in. it just becomes a lot to worry about when it gets to that point.

Another participant discussed his lack of knowledge about loans, ‘‘Make sure
you understand those loans too. Some people will go out and spend it and not
understand that you have to pay those back with interest on them.’’ Similarly,
another participant mentioned not understanding about needing to reapply for
loans yearly, ‘‘no one tells you to reapply for scholarships, so a lot of people lose
them.’’ A fourth participant noted a lack of information about entering college,
explaining ‘‘I had orientation the day before class started because I didn’t know
I was supposed to do it.’’ Family influences, financial considerations, and lack of
information create barriers for participants as they anticipated applying to col-
lege and managing their lives as college students. Although the challenges parti-
cipants faced may have caused them stress, they were able to find supports as
they overcame those challenges.

Supports to Going to College

FGCs make the transition to college with a number of barriers. However, the
participants of this study spoke of hope and encouragement as they pressed on
Gibbons et al. 11

through the challenges. Supports to college-going included money, family, men-

tors, and other types of support.

Money. The first subtheme identified within supports was money. Participants
spoke of scholarship awards as primary factors in their decisions to go to col-
lege. One participant explained, ‘‘I am here just for scholarships. I got a full ride
year, so no parental contributions.’’
Another individual spoke of the joy she felt when she realized the financial
support changed her possibilities, ‘‘It is crazy. It was like a little kid going to
Disney World for the first time, I kid you not. I cried, because it was just
something I never thought would happen.’’ Financial support through scholar-
ship money allowed participants to realize their dreams of going to college.
Money also served as motivation to pursue those dreams, even when the stu-
dents experienced some doubt. Participants also spoke of family support as they
considered their possibilities.

Family. A second subtheme that emerged within supports was family. Although
family may have caused some distractions, as seen in the barrier category, students
also moved forward with emotional and instrumental support from their families.
One participant spoke of his primary support continuing through the transition
from high school to college, ‘‘My mom has always been behind me, like in high
school.’’ Another student explained her parents’ devotion as support,

It actually started with my mom . . . They were like they wanted me go. They were
like if that’s where you want to go, they were going to figure out how to do it
regardless. How I don’t know, but they told me they would.

Although their parents did not go to college and could offer very little relatable
experiences, participants’ families provided the emotional foundations necessary
for students to press on through the unknown.

Mentors. Individuals close to participants, with more college experience,

also provided support as participants went to college. Mentors included
former teachers, school counselors, and friends. One student elaborated on a
connection with a professor that provided practical support before she came to
college,

One of my old professors, she was my dual enrollment professor . . . We just became
very good friends after class . . . I kept her up to date, as I would my other teachers.
We would meet and have coffee over the summer and stuff . . . So she has been a lot
of my support, because my mother didn’t know. She is kind of like that aunt that
did go to college that kind of knew.
12 Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0(0)

Another participant spoke of her school counselor as a support as she consid-

ered going to college,

My guidance counselor was the same for me. She actually went to all my teachers
that I ever had in high school and got every one of them to write me recommenda-
tion letters. So I didn’t know, and I come in and there is a like a pile of recom-
mendation letters for me. Even the teachers I didn’t know like I cried a little bit; oh,
they like me. She was really helpful in the whole process.

Participants were able to locate and utilize other adults who could help them
through the college-going process.

Other supports. Not only did participants receive support from their families and
mentors, they also sought support from student services, faith, and friends. One
student described his experience seeking academic support outside the classroom,

I would say even if you don’t feel like you need it your first year, [college] has
academic coaching in the student success center, and I just started going. Seriously,
it does wonders, and they help you so much with everything.

Another participant spoke of various types of support, ‘‘My parents motivate

me but when I need someone who really understands me, it’s either G-d or my
friends. You need to surround yourself with people who you know will be there
for you through ups and downs.’’
Knowing what kind of support was needed and where to find that support
was an essential factor in the success of the participants in this study. When they
did find what they needed in family or mentors, they sought guidance through
campus-based services, faith, and loyal friends.
Participants were able to find support in many areas as they prepared for and
attended college as first-generation college students. Despite having a lack of
experience, participants’ families offered emotional support. Informational sup-
port came from their mentors and student services provided academic support.
Participants also experienced additional forms of support from their friends.

Double-Edged Sword
One unexpected theme that emerged, which reflected both barriers and supports,
was the double-edged sword category. Participants mentioned things that were
simultaneously both positive and negative, so it became its own category. For
example, one student said,

My mom is a really big support, but she doesn’t like understand the college
process . . . I feel like a bunch of my friends, their parents did everything for
Gibbons et al. 13

them. I did all my applications. I did the FAFSA and found all the information for
it and stuff. She’s supportive, but

Another participant spoke of simultaneous motivation and pressure regarding

her experience,

My mom and dad had worked so hard going through multiple jobs just to put me
and my three other siblings through school. I am the first one to actually go to a
university [out] of four [kids] so it’s really on my shoulders. I can prove that all their
work is not in vain.

Additionally, one individual spoke of having money and managing it,

I had to learn to manage money really quickly last year. I was given a set amount,
and that had to last me a semester. Then I got another set amount that lasted me
the next semester. It’s kind of like what do you need, what do you want?

Participants noted emotional support from their parents coupled with their lack
of understanding as a double-edged sword. They felt motivated and pressured by
expectations placed on them as first-generation college students. They also
experienced relief from scholarship awards, but stress in managing their
money throughout the year.

Overarching Themes
In addition to the preconceived themes established by the SCCT-based questions and
the double-edged sword category, two overarching themes emerged. Participants
repeatedly discussed the change process during their transition to college. They also
emphasized preparing for college early related to academics and managing finances.
The participants visited these themes with words of advice to future FGCs.

Prepare yourself for change. Woven throughout their discussions, participants spoke
of changing. Preparing yourself for change included experiencing personal growth,
maintaining balance, and adjusting to the academic rigor of college courses. For
example, one participant recommended, ‘‘Prepare yourself for change. At the end of
your freshman year, you are not going to be the same person you were when you
graduated high school.’’ Another insisted, ‘‘I would say don’t be scared. A lot of
people were like ‘you’re going to [city], that’s a big city.’ I would say don’t be scared
because you can do it. Don’t be afraid to step outside the box.’’ One student
considered balance during the adjustment to college,

I think you really need to focus on, yes you have freedom, but you have respon-
sibility. In college, your mom is not here saying, ‘‘Did you go to class? Did you do
14 Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0(0)

your homework?’’ so it is really easy to roll over and say I’m not getting up this
morning . . . it is really easy to get distracted. Then you lose scholarships.

Although the participants prepared for and entered college feeling

somewhat anxious and doubtful, not knowing what to expect, they were able
to persevere. In fact, retrospective thinking allowed them the space to
offer advice for students preparing the experience those personal and academic
shifts.

Prepare early. As participants spoke of their barriers and supports to entering

college as first-generation students, they realized preparing early was one of the
most important factors to coming to college. Their advice for preparing early
included academic preparation, setting deadlines, and getting organized. When
considering academic adjustment, one participant said,

As soon as you can, register for classes, pick out your classes. As soon as you can,
meet with your advisor. As soon as you can, meet with your coach. As soon as you
can, do all of those things.

Another student spoke of preparing for financial barriers and becoming well-
rounded,

I would tell them to start whatever they’re doing to start now. I didn’t get serious
until the second semester of my eleventh grade year when the seniors started to
leave . . . If I would’ve started way before then I would have gotten so much more
money. Stuff would have been so much more easier for me to have to deal with.

Further considering academic preparation, an individual added,

I would tell them to take more challenging classes, because a lot of my friends
took—they had senioritis . . . I decided that I was going to take harder classes, and I
think that’s what prepared me for college better. Taking dual enrollment and AP,
that’s what really helped. Without those classes I would not be making it right now
I think.

Overall, participants described entering a whole new world as they transitioned

to college. They reflected upon their change processes and offered some insight
into navigating these shifts. They also offered encouragement using the lessons
they learned about academic rigor and money management. They offered
encouragement and inspiration for high school students preparing to be first-
generation college students. It is possible to succeed, and getting support during
the challenging times will ensure that success, regardless of any barriers that may
stand in the way.
Gibbons et al. 15

Discussion
In this study, we completed two focus groups with first-generation college stu-
dents. In response to several prompts informed by SCCT, the participants
described preparing for and succeeding in college in a variety of ways. They
discussed adjusting to college, addressing perceived barriers, and utilizing sup-
ports. They also discussed how some aspects of their experience were both
positive and negative, and offered suggestions for future college students related
to preparing early for college-going and being primed for life changes. Using the
findings presented here, we identified two avenues for supporting FGCs as they
adapt and adjust to college life. Considering adjustment to college, navigating
barriers and supports, and preparing for college going, we identified ways in
which career counselors and student support programs may actively foster suc-
cess in FGCs during their college experiences (as recommended by Tate et al.,
2015), as well as prepare them before they attend college.

Adjustment to college. SCCT (Lent et al., 1994) describes adjustment as

directly related to satisfaction; those who manage to adjust to college feel a
sense of increased satisfaction with their educational pursuits, directly
affecting their intentions to complete their education. In this study, our partici-
pants noted the complexities of adjusting to college. In their experiences, parti-
cipants learned about self, academic adjustment, balance, and self-care. As they
described initial difficulty and eventual satisfaction related to increased function-
ing in these areas, they highlighted the need to prepare students going into
college and support students during college to successfully navigate these
adjustments.
Our results were similar to previous research in some ways but unique in
others. Like the participants in Reid and Moore’s (2008) study, our participants
also noted difficulties with time management, related to meeting deadlines and
balancing multiple responsibilities, and understanding how to study effectively,
related to academic rigor in college. Our participants, like FGCs in another
qualitative study (Bryan & Simmons, 2009), similarly identified feeling discon-
nected from their families and struggled with balancing home and school respon-
sibilities. For example, they mentioned being torn between being at school and
going home, and they discussed the difficulty in explaining college life to their
noncollege educated families. Unlike other studies of FGCs, our participants
noted the importance of self-care and how self-exploration and growth were
primary components of the college adjustment process. These students identified
how they were developing their own unique identity as a result of being in
college. This unique identity related to beliefs about self-care, as they realized
that they needed to care for themselves and that their choices affected their
school and future success. Overall, college adjustment was viewed as a complex
and complicated process for these students.
16 Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0(0)

Navigating barriers and using supports. Our participants identified multiple barriers
to college-going as well as noted support systems to help them navigate through
these barriers. Sometimes, things were both a barrier and a support for these
students, causing confusion or new challenges. As in other research (e.g.,
McCarron & Inkelas, 2006; Wange, 2012), family influence was powerful for
these students. Family provided emotional and tangible support but lacked the
ability to provide concrete information on college-going to our participants.
Similarly, money served as both a support and a barrier. Money has been con-
sistently identified as a barrier for FCGs (Soria, Weiner, & Lu, 2014), but our
participants also saw scholarships and financial assistance as a positive factor for
them. Scholarships helped the participants be able to attain their dream of
attending college, but also created an ongoing struggle as they tried to support
themselves financially.
Other issues were either a barrier or a support, but not both. Lack of informa-
tion was a significant barrier for our participants. Our participants could not rely
on obtaining concrete information about college-going from their parents, so they
mentioned it as a barrier to attending and completing college. Other research (Bui,
2002; Collier & Morgan, 2007) highlights this lack of information for FGCs,
which for our students affected their entire college planning process and continued
once they entered college. It may be that our participants were uncertain where to
find this information or whom to ask for help. One avenue of support that was
frequently mentioned was formal mentors. Our participants sought out others
with college experience to help them navigate the college application process, so
they seemed to find one way to address their barrier of lack of information, but it
seemed that this may not have been sufficient for some of them.

Preparing for college-going. One major finding related to preparing for the college-
going process: Participants wished they had started planning earlier and wished
they fully understood that college-going was more than taking classes and pre-
paring for a career. The process also involved personal growth and a new sense
of self. Our participants expressed a desire to better understand the college
experience. They spoke of wanting a better understanding of college norms
and procedures and how to successfully monitor their time once in college. It
may be that college adjustment would go more smoothly if some of this infor-
mation was available to them earlier, before they arrived at college. At mini-
mum, our participants felt unprepared for the many changes facing them and
uniformed that college would be so different that high school had been for them.

Limitations and Implications

Several limitations must be noted regarding this study. First, all of our partici-
pants were from a single university and a single southeastern state, so general-
izability is limited as a result. Also, because we intentionally recruited
Gibbons et al. 17

participants from an academic support center on campus with a strong outreach

presence among racial or ethnic minority students, minority students were over-
represented in our sample, compared with the minority rates of the university as
a whole. FGCs are more likely to be people of color, so this was not unexpected,
but it does affect how one views our findings. Relatedly, because we considered
the focus group as our primary focus for analysis (as opposed to the individuals
in the focus group), attention was not given to whether there were differences of
opinion by race or ethnicity. Therefore, we cannot know for certain if the
experiences of the focus groups represent first-generation college students
from all types of backgrounds. However, this is typically the case when research-
ing this population, because the overlap of ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and
first-generation status is quite typical.
Our procedures and data analysis may also serve as limitations. We used a
focus group model to collect our information, so it is possible that participants
felt unable to share their own feelings due to being in a group format. We tried
to ensure diversity in responses by encouraging feedback from everyone, but
some participants talked more than others. Also, as this was a qualitative study,
it is possible that our analysis was affected by preconceived biases or opinions.
We followed strict protocols to increase the trustworthiness of the data, but it is
possible that someone else might identify different themes from our groups.

Implications for Theory

SCCT (Lent et al., 1994) proved a useful theoretical framework for understand-
ing the adjustment of these FGCs. However, our results also have important
implications for SCCT, notably related to the double-edged sword category that
emerged from our focus groups. SCCT conceptualizes barriers and supports as
separate influences on individuals’ interests, goals, and actions; yet, many of our
participants highlighted ways in which family and money were simultaneously
barriers and supports. Just as some ambivalent stimuli can simultaneously elicit
both positive and negative affect (Larsen, McGraw, & Cacioppo, 2001), our
results suggest the existence of ambivalent contextual factors that simulta-
neously are experienced a helpful and hindering, a possibility not heretofore
considered by SCCT theory or research. Just as with ambivalent emotions,
such ambivalent experiences may be uncommon, but quite meaningful (Larsen
et al., 2001). Future research grounded in SCCT should explore the existence,
prevalence, and impacts of such simultaneously helping and hindering contex-
tual factors in these and other populations.

Implications for Practice

The results suggest several ideas for ways that universities can better meet the
needs of first-generation college students. As noted earlier, more research is
18 Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0(0)

needed on what actual activities help FGCs in their adjustment to college

(Garriott et al., 2015), and these results help begin to fill this gap. Research
might explore how well current programs aimed at increasing college adjustment
for FGCs improve the college adjustment process by measuring college adjust-
ment changes before, during, and after programming. Preparing FGCs to adjust
well and achieve success may start before they enter and as they begin college.
Using student support programs, helping professionals may encourage students to
explore new ways of being and achieve insight as they learn about themselves in
the early years of college. Self-reflection and processing activities may promote
this endeavor. Support programs may also benefit FGCs as they adjust to the
academic rigor in college coursework by offering clear parameters for time man-
agement (Reid & Moore, 2008), study skills, and encouragement to seek tutoring
services. Beyond academic adjustment, support in learning to balance family
connections and academic responsibilities, as well as the provision of clear self-
care strategies, including physical and financial wellness, are essential in ensuring
success as FGCs adjust to college. College counseling centers might partner with
academic advising centers on campus, for example, to proactively offer workshops
on self-care, time management, and study habits. For each of these areas, concrete
examples, opportunities for goal setting, and space to process emotions related to
autonomy, change, and responsibility may be beneficial.
Student support programs may promote success by helping FGCs work
through their perceived barriers, access their supports, and manage ambiguity
between the two as they prepare for, begin, and continue college. Counselors
and advisors working with prospective FGCs also need to be aware of the ways
in which barriers to college-going affect barriers to career exploration; they must
directly explore students’ perceptions of their access to the postsecondary edu-
cation needed to pursue their career goals.
Recognizing family as both a barrier and a support, it seems fitting to actively
involve family members in the first-generation student’s adjustment to and suc-
cess in college. Programming for prospective students might more actively
involve families and provide them with tools to help their student during the
college application process. Helping professionals may work with families
toward a more comprehensive understanding of the college-going experience,
as well as ways in which family members may individually and collectively
actively engage in supporting, encouraging, and accepting the student’s auton-
omy and pursuit of life outside the established family or community norms. For
example, a parent may offer care and encouragement by checking in on the
student, but also allowing the student to come to them first. Another way a
family member might serve as a support while eliminating a barrier is to ask the
student about the transition experience and how college-going may be different
than what they both had previously expected.
As money was also described as both a barrier and support, interventions
focused on navigating the nuances of scholarship attainment and management,
Gibbons et al. 19

as well as processing decision making related to finances may reduce stress and
allow students to fully reap the benefits of financial support. Helping profes-
sionals may offer support and encourage responsibility by having students docu-
ment their scholarship requirements and deadlines for reapplying for
scholarships awarded. They may also engage students in decision making
regarding their careers and personal lives as they align with their scholarship
opportunities, budget, and potential to obtain money beyond direct financial
support, including other types of financial aid and avenues for earning money
that are flexible and present minimal distractions.
The participants in this study also offered sound advice regarding the timing
of preparation for college, which may serve efforts to provide support to pro-
spective FGCs during middle and high school. Postsecondary institutions may
become involved in these interventions, which would help demonstrate their
concern for prospective FGCs as well as make connections for these students
prior to their arrival at college. For example, encouraging personal motivation,
which is related to success (Dennis et al., 2005), may be achieved by having
students establish a real connection to the opportunities FGCs have to thrive
academically, supported by grants and scholarships. Illuminating these oppor-
tunities emphasizing necessary organization and hard work may personally
motivate students who are otherwise discouraged or unrealistic about their
responsibility. Such programs could be offered as early as middle school, in
light of the evidence that perceived barriers to college-going are reported as
early as seventh grade (Gibbons & Borders, 2010). Providing concrete informa-
tion on college-going would help decrease this potential barrier. For example,
programming could be offered for students and parents on the college applica-
tion process, financial aid, scholarships, and life in college.
Finally, student support programs may benefit FGCs by offering more infor-
mation about support services on campus and understanding college culture, as
recommended by Collier and Morgan (2007), as well as encouraging students to
pursue their personal support systems beyond family relationship and finances.
For example, a helping professional may assess a student’s religious or spiritual
preferences and identify possibly beneficial student organizations and activities
that may continue that type of support beyond high school in to college. FGCs
may also continue to seek support from established mentors, such as their
former teachers, school counselors, and friends. Knowing that those connections
do not necessarily end upon high school graduation may provide a sense of relief
and bolstered personal identity as the students experience monumental changes
in multiple areas of their lives.
Successfully adjusting to college goes beyond career decision making, involving
preparation for the personal change process, acclimation to college coursework
requirements, and managing finances. Career counseling and other student sup-
port programs may raise students’ awareness of the personal change process by
having them identify minor shifts in their identity or major transitions in their lives
20 Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0(0)

that may have affected them in the past. Being able to relate to the emotions
surrounding that process and encouraging a positive outlook on successfully
working through change while balancing autonomy and responsibility may elim-
inate anxiety and engender well-informed expectations for college-going. Future
studies involving prospective FGCs may offer a more holistic understanding of the
transition to college-going. Additional studies including students attending or
transferring from community colleges may also add depth and breadth.
Information regarding the implementation of the previously discussed implica-
tions may serve to obtain and maintain viable funding options for first-generation
student support programs prior to and during college. Finally, research illuminat-
ing students’ adjustment processes following involvement in such programs may
offer understanding of areas not covered by participants in this study.
The purpose of this study was to investigate how first-generation college
students adapted and adjusted to college life. Using SCCT, we framed their
experiences within the contexts of barriers and supports to college going. We
utilized focus groups to illuminate students’ views on being the first in their
families to attend college. The findings related to the participants’ objective
experiences of navigating the transition to college have implications for offering
career counseling and other student support programs prior to and during the
college-going experience for this population. Recommendations for action
included support in adjusting to personal change and academic rigor, navigating
barriers, and using supports, as well as preparing early.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication
of this article.

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Author Biographies
Melinda M. Gibbons is an associate professor of counselor education at the
University of Tennessee, Knoxville, where she coordinates the PhD in
Counselor Education Program. Her research interests focus on career develop-
ment for underserved populations, including prospective first-generation college
students and students with intellectual disabilities.

Alessandra Rhinehart is an assistant professor of counseling at the University of

Northern Kentucky. Her research interests include clinical supervision and
counselor identity development.

Erin Hardin is a professor and associate department head in the Department of

Psychology at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Her research focuses on
vocational psychology and the scholarship of teaching and learning.