Science Chemistry

Secondary 3 G3

Name: ________________________ ( ) Class: _________ Date: _______________

Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding Notes

Chapter 5.2 & 5.3: Structure and Properties of Materials Notes

Chapter 6.1 & 6.2: Chemical Formulae and Equations Notes

Learning Objectives (Based on MOE syllabus)

3.1 Ionic Bonding

(a) describe the formation of ions by electron loss/gain and that these ions usually have the
electronic configuration of a noble gas
(b) describe, including the use of ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams, the formation of ionic bonds between
metals and non-metals, e.g. NaCl; MgCl2
(c) relate the physical properties (including electrical property) of ionic compounds to their lattice
structure (see also 3.4(g))

3.2 Covalent Bonding

(a) describe the formation of a covalent bond by the sharing of a pair of electrons and that the
atoms in the molecules usually have the electronic configuration of a noble gas
(b) describe, using ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams, the formation of covalent bonds between non-
metallic elements, e.g. H2; O2; H2O; CH4; CO2
(c) deduce the arrangement of electrons in other covalent molecules
(d) relate the physical properties (including electrical property) of covalent substances to their
structure and bonding (see also 3.4(g))

4.1 Formulae and Equation Writing

(a) state the symbols of the elements and formulae of the compounds mentioned in the syllabus
(c) deduce the formulae of simple compounds from the relative numbers of atoms present and
vice versa
(d) deduce the formulae of ionic compounds from the charges on the ions present and vice versa

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Ionic Bonding

1. Formation of Ions
Big idea 1: The Stable Electronic Configuration of a Noble Gas

1. The elements found in Group 0 of the Periodic Table are known as noble gases.
Some examples of the noble gases are helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and
radon.

2. Noble gases are stable and unreactive. They are monatomic and exist as single
atoms.

3. Noble gases are stable because they have fully filled outer shells. Helium has a duplet
configuration while all other noble gases have an octet configuration. (thus are inert
and do not react with other atoms.)

4. Atoms of other elements are reactive because their outer shells are not fully filled.
These atoms lose, gain or share outer electrons to achieve complete valence shell
configuration (the stable noble gas configuration).

2. Why atoms form ions?

Big idea 2: Atoms form ions to achieve stable electronic structure with full electron
shells.

1. To achieve the stable electronic structure,

(a) atoms of metals lose electrons to form positive ions (cations);
(b) atoms of non-metals gain electron to form negative ions (anions).

2. Ions with two or more covalently bonded atoms are called polyatomic ions.

Examples of such ions are the ammonium ion (NH4+), carbonate ion (CO32–) and the
sulfate ion (SO42–) (Note: structure of polyatomic ions is not required).

3. Formation of Ionic Bond: Transferring Electrons

1. Ionic bonds are formed between metals and non-metals.

Examples of metals: Examples of non-metals:

Sodium, potassium, Fluorine, chlorine, oxygen,
calcium, magnesium sulfur

2. In the formation of an ionic bond, the metal atom transfers electrons to the non-metal atom
to form positive ions (cations) and negative ions (anions).

3. The oppositely-charged ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction
called ionic bonds.

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Example 1: In the formation of sodium chloride,

(a) sodium atom (2.8.1) loses 1 electron to form Na+ ion, achieving stable electronic
structure (2.8).
(b) chlorine atom (2.8.7) gains 1 electron to form Cl -, achieving stable electronic structure
(2.8.8).
(c) There is a transfer of electrons from sodium to chlorine to form sodium chloride.

Formula Na Cl Na+ Cl -
Name Sodium atom Chlorine atom Sodium ion Chloride ion
Electronic 2, 8, 1 2, 8, 7 2, 8 2, 8, 8
configuration

(d) The formula of the compound formed is NaCl.

Example 2: In the formation of magnesium chloride,

(a) magnesium atom (2.8.2) loses 2 electrons to form Mg2+ , achieving stable electronic
structure.
(b) chlorine atom (2.8.7) gains 1 electron to form Cl -, achieving stable electronic structure
(2.8.8).
(c) There is a transfer of 2 electrons from magnesium to two chlorine atoms, forming
magnesium chloride.

Cl

Mg

Cl

Formula Mg Cl Cl - Mg2+ Cl -
Name Magnesium atom Chlorine atom Chloride ion Magnesium ion Chloride ion
Electronic 2, 8, 2 2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8 2, 8 2, 8, 8
configuration

(d) The formula of the compound formed is MgCl2.

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4. Physical Properties of Ionic compounds

Property Explanation (Specify the identity of the ions where applicable.)

Have very high melting and An ionic compound has a giant ionic crystal lattice structure.
boiling points (for reference: m.p. A large amount of energy is required to overcome the strong
~ few hundred to few thousand forces of electrostatic forces of attraction between the negative
degrees Celsius). and positive ions.
(Ionic compounds are usually solid at room temperature due to the
same reason.)
Usually soluble in water but Not required to explain
insoluble in organic solvents.

Dissolve to form a solution

(aqueous state and the symbol is
(aq)).
Conduct electricity in the aqueous In solid state, the ions are held in fixed positions by strong
and molten states but not in the electrostatic forces of attraction between the positive and negative
solid state. ions. As there are no free mobile ions to carry charges, ionic
compounds cannot conduct electricity in the solid state.

In molten or aqueous states, the strong electrostatic forces of

attraction have been overcome, hence there are mobile ions to
carry charges.
Hard and strong A large amount of energy is required to overcome the strong
forces of electrostatic forces of attraction between the negative
and positive ions.

5. Chemical Formulae of Ionic Compounds

1. The name of the non-metal ion usually ends with –ide (mostly monatomic), –ite (polyatomic)
or –ate (polyatomic)

2. Name and formulae of complex (polyatomic) ions [need to remember the formula]

Name Formula
hydroxide OH -
sulfate SO4 2-
nitrate NO3 -
carbonate CO3 2-
ammonium NH4 +

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3. Some examples of chemical formulae of ionic compounds:

Chemical formula Name

NaCl sodium chloride
CaO calcium oxide
NH4F ammonium fluoride
Ca(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide
BaS barium sulfide
Zn3N2 zinc nitride
K2S potassium sulfide
BaSO4 barium sulfate

4. To determine the ratio of positive to negative ions:

(a) The charges must be balanced for the compound to be stable (i.e. overall charge must
be 0).
(b) For inorganic compounds, the symbol of the metallic element will go first.
(c) More than one ion can be involved in forming the compound. The number of each ion
is indicated by a subscript number after the chemical symbol of the ion. The ratio
should be the simplest ratio. “1” is by default and does not need to be indicated in the
chemical formula.
(d) Polyatomic ions cannot be split up and should be considered as a whole. Brackets are
required to group them.

5. Some common acids and their chemical formulae:

Substance Chemical formula

Hydrochloric acid HCl
Nitric acid HNO3
Sulfuric acid H2SO4
Phosphoric acid H3PO4

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Covalent Bonding

1. Covalent Bond: Sharing Electrons

1. Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons with no transfer or movement of

electrons between two atoms. Molecules are formed, not ions.

2. This type of bonding occurs when non-metal atoms bond together so as to achieve
the stable electronic configuration of a noble gas with full electron shells.

3. Covalent compounds can be categorised into simple molecules (simple molecular

structure) and giant molecules (giant molecular structure).

(a) Example of simple molecules: chlorine, methane, carbon dioxide and water
(b) Example of giant molecules: diamond, graphite and silicon dioxide

2. Simple Molecules

1. Simple covalent compounds exist as simple, discrete molecules.

2. Atoms are held together by strong covalent bonds.
3. Molecules are held together by weak intermolecular forces of attraction.

Weak intermolecular
forces of attraction
between molecules

Strong covalent
bond between
atoms in molecules

3. Simple Molecules: Description for Formation of Covalent Bonds

Example 1

Chlorine gas

(a) Chlorine atom has electronic configuration of 2.8.7.

(b) Each chlorine atom has seven outer electrons.
(c) A chlorine atom shares one valence electron with another chlorine atom to
achieve the complete valence shell.
(d) A single Cl – Cl bond is formed.

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Example 2

Carbon dioxide gas

(a) Carbon atom has electronic configuration of 2.4.

(b) Oxygen atom has electronic configuration of 2.6.
(c) A carbon atom shares four valence electrons with two oxygen atoms to achieve
the complete valence shell.
(d) Two double C = O bonds are formed.

4. Simple Molecules: Drawing of Electronic Structures

Note: Shared pair of electrons are to be drawn inside the overlap of circles only!

Molecules of elements Molecules of compounds

××
× Cl × Cl
H ×H
× × O
××
Name: Chlorine
×× ××
Chemical formula: Cl2 Name: Water
Structural formula: Cl – Cl Chemical formula: H2O
– : single covalent bond Structural formula: H – O – H
– : 2 shared electrons *H2O has 2 single covalent bonds
*Cl2 has 1 single covalent bond

H
×× ×
× × H× C ×H
× O × O
×
H
Name: Oxygen
Chemical formula: O2
Structural formula: O = O Name: Methane
= : double covalent bond Chemical formula: CH4
= : 4 shared electrons Structural formula:
*O2 has 2 double covalent bonds

*CH4 has 4 single covalent bonds

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 ××
× ×× ××
N × N × × ×
× O C O ×
× × × ×
Name: Nitrogen
Chemical formula: N2 Name: Carbon dioxide
Structural formula: N ≡ N Chemical formula: CO2
Structural formula: O = C = O
≡ : triple covalent bond
*CO2 has 2 double covalent bonds
≡ : 6 shared electrons
*N2 has 1 triple covalent bond

5. Simple Molecules: Physical Properties

Property Explanation (Specify the identity of the atoms / molecules where

applicable.)
Have low melting and boiling A simple molecule has simple molecular structure. Little energy is
points needed to overcome the weak intermolecular forces of attraction
between the molecules.

(Covalent molecules are usually liquids or gases at room

temperature due to the same reason.)
Poor conductors of electricity in all The molecules do not have mobile particles to carry charges.
physical states.
Usually insoluble in water but Not required to explain
soluble in organic solvents such
as alcohol, methylated spirits or
petrol.

Exceptions: hydrochloric acid,

sulfuric acid and nitric acid which
are soluble in water.

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Summary

Ionic Compounds Covalent Molecules

Bonding Ionic bond Covalent bond
Elements
Metals* and non-metals Non-metals and non-metals
involved
Bond formation Transfer of electrons Sharing of electrons
Structure Giant ionic crystal lattice structure Simple Molecular Structure
strong covalent bonds between atoms in the
strong electrostatic forces of attraction between molecule
Bonds positive and negative ions
weak intermolecular forces of attraction
between molecules
Examples Sodium chloride, ammonium nitrate Water, ammonia, hydrogen
Melting and High Low
Boiling Points strong electrostatic forces of attraction weak intermolecular forces of attraction
Conducts electricity in aqueous and molten
Does not conduct electricity in any state
state, not in solid state
Electrical
Mobile ions are present only in aqueous and
conductivity
molten states, ions are fixed in positions in solid No free mobile ions or electrons
state
Solubility in water Soluble Insoluble
Solubility in
Insoluble Soluble
organic solvent
Others Hard May dissolve in water to form ions@
*Ammonium cation is an exception, @See chapter 8 on Acids

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 The Periodic Table of Elements
Group
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 2
H He
hydrogen helium
Key 1 4
3 4 proton (atomic) number 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be atomic symbol B C N O F Ne
lithium beryllium name boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
7 9 relative atomic mass 11 12 14 16 19 20
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon
23 24 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 27 28 31 32 35.5 40
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 64 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon
85 88 89 91 93 96 – 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 57–71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba lanthanoids Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
caesium barium hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
133 137 178 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209 – – –
87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra actinoids Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
francium radium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium copernicium nihonium flerovium moscovium livermorium tennessine oganesson
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
lanthanoids La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium
139 140 141 144 – 150 152 157 159 163 165 167 169 173 175
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
actinoids Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium
– 232 231 238 – – – – – – – – – – –

The volume of one mole of any gas is 24 dm3 at room temperature and pressure
(r.t.p.). The Avogadro constant, L = 6.02 x 1023 mol-1

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