MODULE 6

Approximation and Differentials

In this module we are going to take a look at an application not of derivatives but of the
tangent line to a function. Of course, to get the tangent line we do need to take derivatives,
so in some way this is an application of derivatives as well. We will also be looking at
differentials in a different perspective which we will be using in the succeeding modules.

Each module contains several units with its own topic learning outcomes and topic outline.
Each unit contains activities designed using the 5E constructivist model of learning,
developed by Rodger Bybee, specifically for students to understand and comprehend
science. The 5E model provides opportunities for you to engage, explore, explain, elaborate,
and evaluate topics covered in each unit.

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

TLO 6: Solve problems involving Approximation and Differentials

Without using your calculator, estimate the square root of 5.

LINEAR APPROXIMATION

We have just seen how derivatives allow us to compare related quantities that are changing
over time. In this section, we examine another application of derivatives: the ability to
approximate functions locally by linear functions. Linear functions are the easiest functions
with which to work, so they provide a useful tool for approximating function values.

Given a function, f(x), we can find its tangent at x=a. The equation of the tangent line,
which we’ll call L(x) for this discussion, is,

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 Take a look at the following graph of a function and its tangent line.

From this graph we can see that near x=a the tangent line and the function have nearly the
same graph. On occasion we will use the tangent line, L(x), as an approximation to the
function, f(x), near x=a. In these cases we call the tangent line the linear approximation to
the function at x=a.

So, why would we do this? Let’s take a look at an example.

𝟑
Illustrative Example. Determine the linear approximation for 𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙 at x= 8. Use the linear
3 3
approximation to approximate the value of √8.05 𝑎𝑛𝑑 √25.

Solution:

Since this is just the tangent line there really isn’t a whole lot to finding the linear
approximation.

The linear approximation is then,

Now, the approximations are nothing more than plugging the given values of x into
the linear approximation. For comparison purposes we’ll also compute the exact
values.

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 So, at x=8.05 this linear approximation does a very good job of approximating the
actual value. However, at x=25 it doesn’t do such a good job.

This shouldn’t be too surprising if you think about it. Near x=8 both the function and the
linear approximation have nearly the same slope and since they both pass through the
point (8,2) they should have nearly the same value as long as we stay close to x=8.
However, as we move away from x=8 the linear approximation is a line and so will
always have the same slope while the function’s slope will change as x changes and
so the function will, in all likelihood, move away from the linear approximation.

Here’s a quick sketch of the function and its linear approximation at x=8.

As noted above, the farther from x=8 we get the more distance separates the function itself
and its linear approximation.

Linear approximations do a very good job of approximating values of f(x)f(x) as long as we

stay “near” x=a. However, the farther away from x=a we get the worse the approximation is
liable to be. The main problem here is that how near we need to stay to x=a in order to get
a good approximation will depend upon both the function we’re using and the value
of x=a that we’re using. Also, there will often be no easy way of predicting how far away
from x=a we can get and still have a “good” approximation.

The idea behind Local Linear Approximation, also called Tangent Line Approximation
or Linearization, is that we are going to zoom in on a point on the graph and notice that
the graph now looks very similar to a line.

Again, every curve will always look like a line if we zoom in small enough! And it’s this
amazing fact that will enable us to then estimate another point on the curve that is
close to our zoomed in point.

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 All we have to do find four things:

1. Find the point we want to zoom in on

2. Find the slope at that point
3. Write the equation of the Tangent Line using Point-Slope Form, and
4. Evaluate our Tangent Line to estimate another point nearby.

Approximating Roots and Powers

Linear approximations may be used in estimating roots and powers. In the next example,
we find the linear approximation for 𝒇(𝒙) = (𝟏 + 𝒙)𝒏 at x=0, which can be used to estimate
roots and powers for real numbers near 1. The same idea can be extended to a function of
the form 𝒇(𝒙) = (𝒎 + 𝒙)𝒏 to estimate roots and powers near a different number m.

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 Illustrative Example. Find the linear approximation of 𝒇(𝒙) = (𝟏 + 𝒙)𝒏 at x=0. Use the
approximation to estimate (1.01)3.

Solution:

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 DIFFERENTIALS

We have seen that linear approximations can be used to estimate function values. They can
also be used to estimate the amount a function value changes as a result of a small change
in the input. To discuss this more formally, we define a related concept: differentials.
Differentials provide us with a way of estimating the amount a function changes as a result
of a small change in input values.

When we first looked at derivatives, we used the Leibniz notation dy/dx to represent the
derivative of y with respect to x. Although we used the expressions dy and dx in this notation,
they did not have meaning on their own. Here we see a meaning to the expressions dy and
dx. Suppose y=f(x) is a differentiable function. Let dx be an independent variable that can
be assigned any nonzero real number, and define the dependent variable dy by

𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ----- Equation 1

It is important to notice that dy is a function of both x and dx. The expressions dy and dx are
called differentials. We can divide both sides of Equation 1 by dx, which yields

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ---- Equation 2

This is the familiar expression we have used to denote a derivative. Equation 2 is known as
the differential form of Equation 1.

Illustrative Examples.

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 Watch Video 14 for more examples and explanations

After watching Video 14, you will need to practice

doing these on your own. Here are some problems.
The answers have also been provided here already.

Practice Problems

Linear Approximation
1. Find a linear approximation to

Solution:

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 4
2. Find the linear approximation to 𝑔(𝑧) = √𝑧 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 2. Use the linear approximation
4 4
to approximate the value of √3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 √10.

Solution:

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 3. Without using any kind of computational aid use a linear approximation to estimate
the value of e0.1.

Solution:

Given the value we are being asked to estimate it should be fairly clear that the
function should be,

The point for the linear approximation should also be somewhat clear. With the
function in hand it’s now clear that we are being asked to use a linear approximation
to estimate f(0.1). So, we’ll need a point that is close to x=0.1 and one that we can
evaluate in the function without a calculator. It therefore seems fairly clear that x=0
would be a really nice point use for the linear approximation.

At this point finding the linear approximation shouldn’t be too bad so here is the
work for that.

The linear approximation is then,

The estimation of e0.1 is then,

Differentials
2
1. For 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 , find dy
2
Answer: 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥

2. Compute for the differential of

Answer:

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