CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Climate change has increasingly emerged as a major global environmental threat, particularly
affecting ecosystems and the biodiversity they support. Protected areas like Nairobi National
Park, which play a vital role in wildlife conservation, are especially vulnerable to changing
climate patterns. This chapter provides a literature-based analysis of how climate change impacts
conservation programs, with a special focus on Nairobi National Park. It is organized around
four objectives: to assess the effects of changing rainfall patterns on wildlife distribution, to
evaluate the impact of prolonged drought on habitat degradation, to examine the role of
conservation programs in responding to climate change, and to identify gaps in conservation
policies and suggest improvements.
2.2 Objective 1: To Assess the Effects of Changing Rainfall Patterns on Wildlife
Distribution in Nairobi National Park
2.2.1 Rainfall Patterns and Migration Routes
Rainfall is a crucial ecological factor that determines the availability of water and the growth of
vegetation, which in turn influences the movement patterns and distribution of wildlife. In
ecosystems like Nairobi National Park, animals such as zebras, buffaloes, wildebeests, and
antelopes rely heavily on predictable seasonal rainfall to guide their migration routes in search of
food and water. However, with climate change, these rainfall patterns have become increasingly
erratic—either failing entirely or arriving too early or too late. This unpredictability affects the
timing and location of grazing grounds, which can lead to increased competition for resources
among species.
Wildlife may stray outside protected areas into nearby human settlements, where they risk being
injured or killed. Such movement outside the park not only increases human-wildlife conflicts
but also exposes animals to poaching and vehicle collisions (Ogutu et al., 2016). For instance,
wildebeests that traditionally migrate during the long rains are now confused by off-season rains,
resulting in disrupted calving and higher mortality rates.
2.2.2 Rainfall and Reproduction Cycles
The breeding cycles of most herbivores and predators in the park are linked to specific seasons.
Sufficient rainfall supports plant growth, which in turn ensures food availability for herbivores
and indirectly for carnivores. When rainfall is inadequate or mistimed, animals may postpone
mating or produce fewer offspring. Malnourished mothers often give birth to underweight calves
with low survival chances. A study by the IPCC (2021) highlights how climate-induced changes
in rainfall reduce birth rates in plains zebras and gazelles across East Africa.
2.2.3 Water Scarcity and Wildlife Stress
Reduced rainfall leads to lower water levels in rivers, wetlands, and artificial water pans, which
serve as critical water sources during dry periods. The Nairobi River and Athi River, which
support Nairobi National Park’s biodiversity, have been drying more frequently in recent years.
This puts stress on wildlife, forcing them to gather around fewer remaining water sources. High
animal concentration in small areas often leads to overgrazing, increased disease transmission,
and territorial conflict among species.
2.2.4 Changes in Species Distribution
As rainfall becomes unreliable, some species may shift their range to areas with more stable
microclimates. However, in a fenced or semi-enclosed park like Nairobi National Park, this
natural adaptation is restricted. Studies by UNEP (2022) indicate that elephants and giraffes in
certain East African reserves have altered their home ranges due to shifting rainfall patterns,
while animals in smaller parks face increased mortality due to lack of movement options.
2.2.5 Real-World Example
In 2020, a monitoring report by the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) observed that reduced
rainfall during the March–May rainy season significantly disrupted the calving season of impalas
and hartebeests. Many newborns died within days due to lack of vegetation and water. Park
rangers also reported increased sightings of buffaloes near urban boundaries, highlighting a shift
in their movement due to water scarcity inside the park.
2.2.6 Community Impacts
Changing wildlife distribution also affects local communities that depend on ecotourism. Tour
guides and local businesses report fewer tourist sightings of iconic species like lions and rhinos
during dry seasons, leading to income losses. This economic impact demonstrates the
interconnectedness of climate change, conservation, and livelihoods.
2.2.7 Summary
Overall, the evidence demonstrates a strong link between altered rainfall patterns and wildlife
movement, health, and survival. These changes not only pose a direct threat to biodiversity in
Nairobi National Park but also to conservation goals and community well-being. Effective
mitigation strategies must therefore consider both ecological and socio-economic dimensions.
2.3 Objective 2: To Evaluate the Impact of Prolonged Drought on Habitat Degradation
within the Park
2.3.1 Dry Spells and Vegetation Loss
Prolonged droughts significantly reduce water availability and result in extensive loss of
vegetation. In Nairobi National Park, grasses and shrubs that herbivores rely on are among the
first to be affected. With little to no rainfall, the natural regeneration of plant life is suppressed,
leading to bare soils that are highly vulnerable to erosion. The reduction in vegetation not only
diminishes food availability for herbivores but also affects the structural habitat for smaller
species and birds (Muthee & Wambugu, 2020).
2.3.2 Overgrazing and Soil Degradation
As vegetation becomes scarce, herbivores such as zebras, hartebeests, and buffaloes concentrate
in fewer areas with remaining green cover. This leads to overgrazing, which strips the land and
weakens root systems. Once these roots are gone, topsoil is easily washed away during even light
rains, preventing future regrowth and creating a cycle of degradation. According to FAO (2021),
overgrazing is among the leading causes of land degradation in savannah ecosystems, and
climate change has exacerbated this issue by extending dry seasons.
2.3.3 Spread of Invasive Plant Species
Habitat degradation from drought creates opportunities for invasive plant species to thrive. These
plants, such as Lantana camara and Parthenium hysterophorus, are highly drought-tolerant and
tend to outcompete native flora. Unfortunately, most of them are either inedible or toxic to
herbivores, which further worsens food scarcity for wildlife. Studies by WWF (2021) show that
invasive species have already occupied significant parts of degraded rangelands in Kenya,
contributing to habitat loss.
2.3.4 Increased Risk of Bushfires
Dry and dead vegetation serves as fuel for wildfires, which become more frequent and intense
during prolonged droughts. Nairobi National Park has witnessed several bushfires in the past
decade. In 2019, a large fire destroyed over 200 hectares of grassland, displacing animals and
disrupting their feeding patterns (Daily Nation, 2019). Fires not only destroy plant cover but also
alter soil chemistry, making it harder for native plants to regenerate.
2.3.5 Decreased Water Sources
The few waterholes and rivers that serve wildlife during dry periods often dry up or shrink
significantly. This includes the Athi and Nairobi rivers, which are crucial for sustaining both
plant and animal life in the park. The shrinking of water bodies affects aquatic life and plant
species dependent on wet conditions, causing further imbalances in the ecosystem.
2.3.6 Wildlife Health and Mortality
As habitats degrade, animals are forced to travel long distances in search of food and water. This
energy expenditure weakens their bodies and exposes them to disease and predation. Reports by
the Kenya Wildlife Service (2022) noted an increase in mortality rates among young and old
animals during the drought periods between 2020–2022. Malnutrition and dehydration were the
primary causes.
2.3.7 Disruption of Ecological Balance
Every species in the park plays a specific role in maintaining the ecosystem. When drought
reduces plant cover, herbivore numbers decline, which in turn affects predator populations such
as lions and hyenas. The imbalance may lead to increased predation on smaller or endangered
species as large carnivores adapt their hunting strategies.
2.3.8 Impact on Tourism and Conservation Funding
Habitat degradation also affects tourism, which is a major source of funding for conservation
programs. Tourists visit parks expecting to see thriving landscapes and abundant wildlife. When
the landscape is dry and barren, and animals are few, it reduces the quality of the experience. As
visitor numbers drop, so do revenues, limiting resources available for park management and
conservation initiatives.
2.3.9 Community Consequences
Communities around the park also feel the impact of habitat degradation. Wildlife may stray into
farms in search of food, leading to crop damage and heightened human-wildlife conflict. In
extreme cases, dangerous animals like elephants and buffaloes can cause injuries or deaths. The
situation creates resentment toward conservation programs, making community collaboration
more difficult.
2.3.10 Real-World Examples and Research Evidence
A report by the African Wildlife Foundation (2021) documented how prolonged drought in
Amboseli National Park led to the death of over 300 elephants between 2017 and 2019. Though
this study focuses on a different park, the ecological and climatic conditions are comparable to
those in Nairobi. These examples emphasize that without intervention, prolonged drought can
lead to irreversible habitat degradation and biodiversity loss.
2.3.11 Summary
The impact of prolonged drought on Nairobi National Park is multifaceted. It not only leads to
the degradation of the physical environment but also weakens the entire ecological network,
putting pressure on wildlife, conservation efforts, and surrounding communities. These
challenges highlight the urgent need for adaptive management strategies such as habitat
restoration, water harvesting infrastructure, and community engagement to sustain the park’s
biodiversity.
2.4 Objective 3: To Examine the Role of Conservation Programs in Responding to Climate
Change Impacts
2.4.1 Climate Adaptation Strategies in Conservation Programs
Conservation programs are increasingly developing adaptation strategies to address the effects of
climate change. These include restoring degraded habitats, replanting native vegetation, and
constructing artificial water points to support wildlife during drought. In Nairobi National Park,
initiatives such as the creation of additional water pans have been implemented by Kenya
Wildlife Service (KWS) to supplement natural water sources during dry seasons (KWS, 2021).
2.4.2 Community Involvement and Co-management
A key aspect of successful conservation programs in Kenya is involving local communities in the
planning and implementation of climate-related projects. Co-management strategies empower
locals to participate in wildlife monitoring, anti-poaching patrols, and habitat conservation.
According to the African Conservation Centre (2020), conservation efforts that include
community education and benefit-sharing schemes see higher success rates, especially in regions
adjacent to protected areas like Nairobi National Park.
2.4.3 Wildlife Corridors and Migration Routes
As climate patterns shift, animals are forced to move outside traditional boundaries in search of
food and water. Conservation programs have responded by securing and restoring wildlife
corridors. In Nairobi, organizations such as Friends of Nairobi National Park (FoNNaP) have
partnered with county governments and landowners to prevent construction along traditional
migration routes. These corridors ensure that wildlife can safely access other protected areas like
Kitengela and Athi-Kapiti plains (FoNNaP, 2019).
2.4.4 Scientific Research and Monitoring
Effective response to climate change requires updated and accurate data. Conservation programs
invest in wildlife censuses, remote sensing technology, and GIS mapping to track habitat
changes and wildlife movement. Nairobi National Park has benefitted from data collected by
KWS and academic institutions like the University of Nairobi, which helps in formulating
adaptive management practices (Odindi & Mugo, 2020).
2.4.5 Use of Technology in Climate Resilience
Drones, camera traps, and satellite imaging have become essential tools in conservation. They
provide real-time data on animal populations, vegetation health, and illegal human activities. In
Nairobi National Park, drones are being tested to monitor the park’s boundaries and detect early
signs of bushfires or illegal grazing, helping to prevent damage before it escalates
(Tech4Wildlife, 2022).
2.4.6 Collaboration with NGOs and International Bodies
Partnerships with international conservation organizations have strengthened Kenya’s response
to climate change. Groups like WWF, UNEP, and IUCN provide funding, technical expertise,
and global visibility to local conservation issues. Nairobi National Park is part of broader
initiatives like the Global Environment Facility (GEF) Small Grants Program, which supports
climate-smart conservation activities (UNDP, 2022).
2.4.7 Education and Awareness Campaigns
Conservation programs have also focused on educating the public about the connection between
climate change and biodiversity loss. School visits, public awareness campaigns, and workshops
are held regularly within and around Nairobi to promote environmental stewardship. Programs
like Wildlife Clubs of Kenya play a key role in shaping the mindset of the youth toward
conservation (Wildlife Clubs of Kenya, 2021).
2.4.8 Financial and Institutional Challenges
Despite these efforts, conservation programs often face funding limitations and institutional
barriers. Budget allocations are frequently inadequate, and enforcement of policies may be weak
due to corruption or political interference. Nairobi National Park’s management has repeatedly
appealed for increased government support and long-term investment in climate adaptation
infrastructure (KWS Annual Report, 2021).
2.4.9 Success Stories and Lessons Learned
There have been notable successes. For instance, during the 2016 drought, the park’s artificial
water pans ensured that most herbivores had access to water, reducing mortality. Similarly, the
relocation of some species to less affected areas in collaboration with other parks demonstrated
the effectiveness of flexible conservation approaches (KWS, 2017).
2.4.10 Importance of Policy Integration
Conservation programs must align with national climate policies such as Kenya’s Climate
Change Act (2016) and Vision 2030. These frameworks emphasize the need to mainstream
climate adaptation into all sectors, including wildlife conservation. Programs that incorporate
these policies are more likely to receive government backing and funding, creating long-term
sustainability.
2.4.11 Summary
Conservation programs in Nairobi National Park play a central role in building resilience against
climate change. By incorporating community participation, science, policy alignment, and
technology, these programs are developing models that can be replicated across Kenya and
beyond. However, challenges such as funding and enforcement gaps must be addressed to ensure
continued success in adapting to a changing climate.
2.5 Objective 4: To Identify Gaps in Existing Conservation Policies and Suggest
Improvements for Climate Adaptation
2.5.1 Lack of Climate Risk Mapping
Many protected areas, including Nairobi National Park, lack up-to-date climate risk maps, which
makes planning difficult (UNEP, 2022).
2.5.2 Policy Overlap and Poor Enforcement
There is often a gap between county-level environmental management and national conservation
policies. This overlap results in confusion and weak enforcement of protected area regulations
(Ministry of Environment, 2019).
2.5.3 Recommended Improvements
Create clear wildlife corridors with legal protection.
Train rangers and staff in climate-sensitive conservation practices.
Allocate more funding for water conservation infrastructure.
2.6 Summary
In summary, the literature reviewed highlights the multi-faceted impact of climate change on
conservation programs, especially in a critical ecosystem like Nairobi National Park. Climate
change has influenced rainfall patterns, caused prolonged droughts, and disrupted wildlife
movement and habitat stability. Conservation programs have made commendable strides in
adapting to these changes through community engagement, use of technology, habitat
restoration, and policy integration. However, challenges remain—particularly in terms of
inadequate funding, weak enforcement mechanisms, and fragmented policy implementation.
These insights serve as a foundation for identifying research gaps and informing more robust
conservation approaches.
2.7 Research Gap
Although various studies have addressed the general effects of climate change on wildlife and
conservation globally, there remains a significant gap in localized and empirical research
focusing specifically on Nairobi National Park. Most existing literature either focuses on broader
ecological regions or lacks data-backed analysis of Nairobi’s unique urban-wildlife interface.
One key research gap is the insufficient documentation of species-specific behavioral changes
linked to altered climate conditions within the park. For instance, while anecdotal evidence
suggests that species like zebras and buffalo are moving farther in search of water, there is little
published data mapping these changes over time. Additionally, there is limited analysis on how
specific conservation programs have adjusted their strategies to address climate variability and
how effective these adjustments have been.
Another notable gap lies in policy evaluation. Although conservation policies exist at both
national and county levels, there is little information evaluating their actual implementation
within Nairobi National Park. Studies often mention the presence of frameworks like the
Wildlife Conservation and Management Act (2013) or the Climate Change Act (2016), but few
explore how these are executed on the ground or how they directly benefit the park’s ecosystem.
Community engagement, while frequently discussed in theory, also suffers from a lack of
specific, measurable evaluations in the park’s context. Are local communities being actively
involved in conservation decision-making? What barriers limit their participation? What benefits
are they receiving, and how sustainable are these benefits under changing climate conditions?
These are questions that remain under-explored.
Finally, existing studies rarely capture the voices of park rangers, community scouts, and local
conservationists who are on the frontlines of climate response. Their insights could provide
invaluable information on the day-to-day realities of managing conservation under stressful and
unpredictable weather conditions.
In conclusion, more localized, detailed, and participatory research is needed to fill these gaps.
This project contributes to that effort by focusing on Nairobi National Park and offering insights
based on empirical observation, policy review, and stakeholder feedback.
