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Class: Cambridge 08 [O Level – Biology (5090)]

Student Name: …………………………………….

Unit 02
Classification
2.1 Concept and use of a classification system
Classification means putting things into groups. There are many possible ways in
which we could group, living organisms. The main reason for classifying living organisms
is to make it easier to study them.

Variation and natural selection lead to evolution. Evolution, and the isolation of
populations, lead to the development of new species. Each species has different
characteristics and some of these characteristics can be inherited by successive
generations of this species. Observing these inherited characteristics allows scientists to
put all living organisms into categories. The science of placing organisms into categories
based on their observable characteristics is called classification.

There are so many different types of living organisms (i.e. an enormous variety of
life) that the study of these organisms would be impossible without an ordered way of
classifying them. Classification is also important in conservation and in understanding
evolutionary relationships.

Species
The smallest natural group of organisms is the species. A species can be defined
as a group of organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile offspring.

Members of a species also often resemble each other very closely in appearance,
unless humans have taken a hand in the breeding programs. All cats belong to the same
species but there are wide variations in the appearance of different. Apart from small
variations, members of a species are almost identical in their anatomy, physiology, and
behavior.

Binomial nomenclature
• Species must be named in such a way that the name is recognised all over the
world.
• ‘Cuckoo flower’ and ‘Lady’s smock’ are two common names for the same wild
plant. If you are not aware that these are alternative names this could lead to
confusion.
• If the botanical name, Cardamine pratensis, is used, however, there is no chance of
error. The Latin form of the name allows it to be used in all the countries of the
world irrespective of language barriers.
• The use of the scientific name avoids any confusion.
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• The binomial system of naming species is an internationally agreed system in

which the scientific name of an organism is made up of two parts showing the
genus and the species.
• Binomial means ‘two names’; the first name gives the genus and the second gives
the species. For example, the stoat and weasel are both in the genus Mustela but
they are different species; the stoat is Mustela erminea and the weasel is Mustela
nivalis.
• Rules related to binomial nomenclature
1. Biological names are in Latin.
2. The first word in the name indicates the genus, while the second word
denotes its specific epithet.
3. The entire two-part name must be written in italics (or underlined when
handwritten).
4. The genus name is always written first.
5. The genus name must be capitalized.
6. The specific epithet is never capitalized.
Ex: Homo sapiens (Human)
Cocos nucifera (Coconut)
Canis lupus (Wolf)

Dichotomous Key
Students and professionals use the dichotomous key to identify and classify
objects (i.e. people, animals, plants, bacteria, etc.) into specific categories based on their
characteristics. It’s the most commonly used form of classification or type of
identification key used in biology as it simplifies identifying unknown organisms.
Simply put, it is a method used to identify a species by answering a series of
questions based on contrasting features (eg: physical characteristics) that have two
possible outcomes.
“Dichotomous” means divided into two parts, hence the dichotomous keys
always present two choices based on the key characteristics of the organism in each
step. By correctly selecting the right choice at each stage, the user will be able to identify
the name of the organism at the end. The further you divide the key, the more you learn
about the specimen you are trying to identify.
When creating a dichotomous key, both qualitative (i.e. physical attributes such as
how the organism looks, what color it is, etc.) and quantitative (i.e. the number of legs,
weight, height, etc.) factors are considered.
It can be done in both a graphical (as a branching flowchart) or written format
(series of paired statements organized sequentially). Most often, they are used to
identify plant and animal species, although they can be used to classify any object that
can be identified by a set of observable characteristics.
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• A dichotomous key is usually used for

⎯ Identifying and categorizing organisms
⎯ Helping students easily understand harder scientific concepts
⎯ Organizing large amounts of information to make identification of
an organism much easier
How to Make a Dichotomous Key?
Below we have listed the steps you need to follow when creating a dichotomous
key.
Step 1: List down the characteristics
Step 2: Organize the characteristics in order
Step 3: Divide the specimens
Step 4: Divide the specimen even further
Step 5: Draw a dichotomous key diagram
Step 6: Test it out

• Best practices to keep in mind

⎯ Consider only one characteristic at a time
⎯ Use morphological or observable characteristics as much as you can
⎯ Use major characteristics when dividing the organisms in the beginning
and use lesser or less obvious characteristics to divide them into smaller
groups
⎯ When writing contrasting statements, rely on similar word formats (i.e.
have feathers and don’t have feathers)
⎯ Be specific in your statements and avoid repeating the same characteristics
⎯ Use questions that lead to yes or no answers rather than statements

Ex:
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2.2 Features of organisms

Five kingdoms Classification
• This means that all the species that make up these five large groups - some recent
theories split them further into six or even seven
• This means that all the species that make up these five large groups - some recent
theories split them further into six or even seven
• Living things are divided into five kingdoms: animal, plant, fungi, protist, and
monera.
• All the species in a particular kingdom have similar characteristics in terms of their
growth and the way they function. Now let's look at where the family
relationships that define nature's kingdoms come from:
⎯ Nutrition. Autotrophic (makes its own food) or heterotrophic (feeds on
other living things).
⎯ Cell organization. Unicellular (having only one cell) or multicellular (having
two or more cells).
⎯ Cell type. Eukaryotes (the genetic material is surrounded by a membrane)
or prokaryotes (lacking a membrane).
⎯ Respiration. Aerobic (needs oxygen) or anaerobic (does not use oxygen).
⎯ Reproduction. Sexual, asexual, or through spores.
⎯ Movement. Self-moving or static.
• The first person to divide living things into five broad kingdoms was North
American ecologist Robert Whittaker.

This is the kingdom of microscopic living things and groups together the
prokaryotes (archaea and bacteria). This group is present in all habitats and is made up of
single-cell things with no defined nucleus. Most bacteria are aerobic and heterotrophic,
while the archaea are usually anaerobic and their metabolism is chemosynthetic.

This name is used to designate the fungi kingdom which includes yeasts, moulds,
and all species of mushrooms and toadstools. These multicellular aerobic heterotrophic
eukaryotes have chitin in their cell walls, feed off other living things, and reproduce
through spores.

This group is the most primitive of the eukaryotic and all the others are
descendants of it. The Protista kingdom is paraphyletic - it contains the common ancestor
but not all its descendants - and it includes those eukaryotic organisms that are not
deemed to be animals, plants, or fungi such as protozoa. As it is so heterogeneous it is
difficult to categorize it, since its members have very little in common.
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Trees, plants, and other species of vegetation make up part of the Plantae
kingdom - one of the oldest, and characterized by its immobile, multicellular and
eukaryotic nature. These autotrophic things, whose cells contain cellulose and
chlorophyll are essential for life on Earth since they release oxygen through
photosynthesis. As regards their method of reproduction, this may be either sexual or
asexual.

The kingdom Animalia is the most evolved and is divided into two large groups -
vertebrates and invertebrates. These animals are multi-celled, heterotrophic eukaryotes
with aerobic respiration, sexual reproduction, and the ability to move. This kingdom is
one of the most diverse and comprises mammals, fish, birds, reptiles, amphibians,
insects, molluscs, and annelids, among others.

Invertebrates
• Organisms without a vertebral column are known as invertebrates. Invertebrates
again can be divided into different phyla according to their features.
• Five main phyla are,
1. Cnidaria /Coelenterata
2. Annelida
3. Mollusca
4. Arthropods
5. Echinodermata

Arthropodas
Arthropods are invertebrates with jointed legs. They make up about 75% of all
animals on Earth and have a major role in maintaining ecosystems as pollinators,
recyclers of nutrients, scavengers, and food for other animals. They include many animals
we come across in our gardens, such as spiders, ants, centipedes, and slaters. They have
the following features,

1. Possess jointed limbs

2. Segmented bodies collectively form functional segments called Tagma (Head,
Thorax, Abdomen).
3. Each body segment bears a pair of jointed appendages
4. Possess a hard chitinous exoskeleton
5. Live in water as well as on land
6. There are separate female and male organisms. They show sexual dimorphism.
Carry out sexual reproduction.
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Arthropods are divided into four major groups:

1. Insects
2. Myriapods (including centipedes and millipedes)
3. Arachnids (including spiders, mites, and scorpions)
4. Crustaceans (including slaters, prawns, and crabs)

Class Insecta (Insects)

• One of the most diverse group of animals on earth
• Represent more than half of all known living organism
• Found in almost all environments
• The number of extant species of class insects: 6-10 million 4.
• Represent over 90% of differing life forms on earth

Characteristics
1. Three pairs of legs.
2. Three body parts: head, thorax, and abdomen.
3. Typically two pairs of wings; some groups have one pair or none.
4. One pair of antennae.
5. Usually, one pair of compound eyes; simple eyes (ocelli) are present in many
groups.
6. The chitinous (hard) exoskeleton, no bones or a skeleton
Ex: Fleas, moths, flies, wasps, mosquitoes, grasshopper, beetles, cockroaches,
termites, butterflies, ants
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Myriapods (including centipedes and millipedes)

Myriapoda is a subphylum of arthropods containing millipedes, centipedes, and
others. The group contains over 16,000 species, most of which are terrestrial.

Characteristics
1. Many pairs of legs.
2. Two body sections (head and trunk)
3. One pair of antennae on the head.
4. Simple eyes.
5. Mandibles (lower jaw) and maxillae (upper jaw)
6. Respiratory exchange occurring through a tracheal system.
Ex: Centipedes, Millipedes, Symphylans

Arachnids (including spiders, mites, and scorpions)

The arachnids (class Arachnida) are an arthropod group that includes spiders,
daddy longlegs, scorpions, mites, and ticks as well as lesser-known subgroups.

Characteristics
1. Four pairs of legs (eight total)
2. Arachnids also have two additional pairs of appendages
3. Arachnids do not have antennae or wings
4. The arachnid body is organized into the cephalothorax, a fusion of the head and
thorax, and the abdomen
5. Arachnids do not have antennae or wings.
6. To adapt to living on land, arachnids have internal breathing systems
7. Arachnids are mostly carnivorous, feeding on the pre-digested bodies of insects
and other small animals.

Crustaceans (including slaters, prawns, and crabs)

Crustaceans form a large, diverse arthropod taxon which includes such animals as
crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimps, prawns, krill, woodlice, and barnacles. Like other
arthropods, crustaceans have an exoskeleton, which they moult to grow.

Characteristics
1. A segmented body with a hard exterior (known as an exoskeleton)
2. Jointed limbs, each often with two branches (termed biramous)
3. Two pairs of antennae
4. Use gills for breathing
5. Seven or more pairs of appendages for feeding, swimming, walking, respiration,
and reproduction (clasping, sperm transfer, egg brooding, and carrying young).
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Vertebrates
Animals that possess a vertebral column are Vertebrates. Vertebrates can be
divided into five main groups;
1. Pisces (Fish)
2. Amphibia (Amphibians)
3. Reptilia (Reptiles)
4. Aves (Birds)
5. Mammalia (Mammals)

Pisces (Fish)
Fish are adapted to live in water. The streamlined body shape of fish helps them
to move easily inside the water. They possess fins for swimming as well as maintain the
balance of their body.

Characteristics
1. Streamlined body shape.
2. Body covered with scales.
3. Possess gills for breathing.
4. Compound eyes without eyelids.
5. Internal skeleton for the support function of the body.
6. Possess a bony or a cartilage endoskeleton.
7. Two chambered hearts.
8. Body temperature fluctuates with the environmental temperature (cold-
blooded/poikilothermic).
Ex: Seer fish, Sea horse, Manta ray, Thilapia, Shark, Skate

Amphibia (Amphibians)
According to the evolutionary evidence, amphibians are the pioneer vertebrates
who adapted to live on land as well as in water. They have their birth in water.

Characteristics
1. They have limbs with fingers (pentadactyl) for locomotion.
2. Possess a thin mucous, moist skin with glands.
3. No scales are found on the skin.
4. Gas exchange takes place via lungs, mouth as well as moist skin.
5. Have a prominent life cycle that needs water to complete it.
6. There chambered heart with two atria with a single ventricle.
7. Body temperature fluctuates with the environmental temperature (cold-
blooded/poikilothermic)
Ex: Toad, Frog, Salamander, Newt
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Reptilia (Reptiles)
Reptiles were the first group of animals truly adapted to live in the terrestrial
environment. Dinosaurs which lived on earth about 230 million years ago, also belonged
to this group.

Characteristics
1. Dry, scaly skin without glands
2. Breathing by lungs
3. Lay eggs covered with a leathery shell
4. Some reptiles possess legs. Claws are present at the tips of the fingers.
5. Four chambered hearts, with partially divided ventricles.
6. Cold-blooded.
7. Posses internal fertilization.
Ex: Cobra, Viper, Turtle, Crocodile, Lizards, Tortise, Rattlesnake

Aves (Birds)
Birds that have adapted for flying belong to this group. The largest bird is Ostrich
and the smallest bird is the Hummingbird.

Characteristics
1. Streamlined body shape which helps for flying.
2. Live on land, water as well as in the air.
3. Forelimbs are modified to wings, for flying.
4. Hind limbs are adapted for walking, perching, or swimming.
5. Body covered with feathers.
6. Posses a beak. No teeth in the mouth.
7. Breathing by lungs.
8. Four chambers in the heart.
9. Well-developed brain.
10. Lay eggs. These eggs are hatch and give birth to young ones.
11. Warm-blooded (homeothermic). Body temperature is not changed according to
environment temperature.
Ex: Kiwi, Ostrich, Hummingbird, Bald eagle, Toucan, Swan, Cassowary
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Mammalia (Mammals)
Animals that nourish young with milk belong to class Mammalia. Human, Mice,
Loris Monkey, Orangutang, Gorilla, Bat, Whale, Dolphin, Stag, Deer, Buffalo are some of
the animals belong to this group. Though the Duck-billed platypus and Anteater (Echidna
or spiny anteater) are mammals, they do not give birth to young ones. They are egg-
laying mammals.

Characteristics
1. Skin covered with hair and bear various glands such as mammary glands, sweat
glands, sebaceous glands, etc.
2. Give birth to young ones, which the fetus is grown inside the womb.
3. Young ones feed on breast milk, secreted by mammary glands.
4. Posses external ear lobs (pinnae) and movable eyelids.
5. Four chambered hearts.
6. Complete double circulation
7. Biconcave red blood cells lacking a nucleus.
8. Warm-blooded (Homoiothermic).
9. Testes present outside the body.
10. Internal fertilization.
11. Possess a placenta and embryonic membranes.

Classification of plants
Plants are organisms that have cells with cell walls made of cellulose. At least
some parts of a plant are green. The green colour is caused by a pigment called
chlorophyll, which absorbs energy from sunlight. The plant uses this energy to make
glucose, using carbon dioxide and water from its environment by the process known as
photosynthesis.
Plants include small organisms such as mosses, as well as ferns, and flowering and
non-flowering plants.

Ferns
Ferns are land plants with quite
highly developed structures. Their
stems, leaves, and roots are very
similar to those of flowering plants.
The stem is usually entirely below
ground and takes the form of a
structure called a rhizome. The leaves
of ferns vary from one species to
another, but they are all several cells
thick.
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Characteristics
1. Plants with roots, stems, and leaves
2. Have leaves called fronds
3. Do not produce flowers
4. Reproduce by spores

Flowering plants
Flowering plants reproduce by seeds that are formed in flowers. The seeds are
enclosed in an ovary. Characteristics of the flowering plants are given below.

⎯ Plants with roots, stems, and leaves

⎯ Reproduce sexually by means of flowers and seeds
⎯ Seeds are produced inside the ovary, in the flower

Flowering plants are divided into two subclasses: monocotyledons and

dicotyledons. Monocotyledons (monocots for short) are flowering plants that have only
one cotyledon in their seeds. Most, but not all, monocots also have long, narrow leaves
(e.g. grasses, daffodils, bluebells) with parallel leaf veins. The dicotyledons (dicots for
short) have two cotyledons in their seeds. Their leaves are usually broad and the leaf
veins form a branching network.

Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
• Single cotyledon in the seed • Two cotyledons in the seed
• Stem is unbranched • Stem is branched
• No taproot. Possess a fibrous root • Root system with a taproot and lateral
system roots
• Leaves possess a parallel venation • Leaves possess a reticulate venation
• Trimerous flowers • Tetra or pentamerous flowers
• No secondary growth • Secondary growth takes place
• The diameter of the stem is even • The base of the stem is broad and the
tip is thin
Ex: Paddy, Grass, Arecanut Ex: Chillies, Jak, Blue lotus

Viruses
• There are many different types of viruses and they vary in their shape and
structure.
• All viruses, however, have a central core of RNA or DNA surrounded by a protein
coat.
• Viruses have no nucleus, cytoplasm, cell organelles, or cell membrane, though
some forms have a membrane outside their protein coats.
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• Virus particles, therefore, are not cells. They do not feed, respire, excrete or grow
and it is debatable whether they can be classed as living organisms.
• Viruses do reproduce or replicate, but only inside the cells of living organisms,
using materials provided by the host cell.
• A generalized virus particle is shown in the Figure given below. The nucleic acid
core is a coiled single strand of RNA.
• The coat is made up of regularly packed protein units called capsomeres each
containing many protein molecules. The protein coat is called a capsid.

Use of dichotomous keys

Ex 01: Classify these organisms into groups using a dichotomous key
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1. Jointed limbs ……………………………… 2

No jointed limbs ………………………….. Earthworm

2. More than 5 pairs of jointed limbs ………. Centipade

5 or fewer pairs of jointed limbs 3

3. First pair of limbs form large claws ………. Crab

No large claws …………………………….. 4

4. 3 pairs of limbs …………………………….. Locust

4 pairs of limbs ……………………………… Spider

Ex 02: Separate these vertibrates into groups using a dicotomus key.

Ostrich, Rabbit, Cobra, Seer fish, Toad

Ex 03: Separate the following invertibrates into groups using dicotomus key.
Grass, Bat, Raven, Mango tree, Whale