11th psychology notes

Unit 3: Human Development

Development

Development is the pattern of progressive, orderly, and predictable changes from conception
to death.

• It includes both growth and decline.

• It is a lifelong process, and every stage of life (prenatal, infancy, childhood,
adolescence, adulthood, old age) brings unique changes.
• Refers to changes from birth to old age in various domains: physical, cognitive,
emotional, and social.

Three Major Processes in Development:

1. Biological Processes
These involve physical growth and changes in the body caused by genes and biology.
• Determined by heredity (genes passed from parents)
• Includes development of height, weight, brain, heart, lungs, etc.

2. Cognitive Processes
These are mental processes related to how a person thinks, learns, and remembers.
• Related to mental activities: perception, attention, memory,
imagination, problem-solving
• Help in knowing and understanding the world
• Grow with age and experience

3. Socio-emotional Processes
These refer to changes in how people interact with others, express emotions, and
develop personality.
• Includes relationships with parents, friends, teachers, etc.
• Emotional expressions like happiness, anger, fear, love
• Development of self-confidence, empathy, values

Life span:

It is the total time of a person’s life, starting from conception (inside the womb) to old age.

Human development is a continuous process that takes place in different stages from birth to
old age. Psychologists often divide development into the following stages:
 1. Prenatal Stage (Conception to Birth):
Starts from conception and ends at birth (about 9 months). Development of body parts
(head, heart, limbs, etc.) inside the womb.
2. Infancy (Birth to 2 Years):
Rapid physical growth.Begins to crawl, walk, speak, and develop attachment
to caregivers.Sensory abilities (vision, hearing) improve.
3. Early Childhood (2 to 6 Years):
Also called the “preschool years”.Improvement in motor skills (running,
jumping).Language grows fast; begins basic thinking and imagination.Learns
to interact with others.
4. Middle Childhood (6 to 12 Years):
Also known as “school-age”.Development of logical thinking, problem-
solving, and academic skills.Learns discipline, cooperation, and teamwork.
5. Adolescence (12 to 18 Years):
Period of puberty and identity formation.Major physical and emotional
changes (hormonal changes).Development of abstract thinking, independence,
and self-identity.
6. Early Adulthood (18 to 40 Years):
Focus on career, education, relationships, and marriage.Emotional maturity
increases.May become parents.
7. Middle Adulthood (40 to 60 Years):
More responsibility at work and home.Concerned with parenting, financial
stability, and caring for aging parents.Some physical slowing may begin.
8. Late Adulthood (60+ Years):
Retirement and reflection on life. Physical and cognitive decline may occur.
Needs emotional support and companionship.

Lifespan Perspective on Development

Assumptions of Human Development (Lifespan Perspective)

1. Development is Lifelong
• Human development continues from birth to old age.
• Each stage of life contributes to overall growth and change.
2. Development is Multidirectional
• Development involves both growth and decline.
• Some abilities improve with age (like wisdom), while others may decline (like
physical strength).
3. Development is Highly Plastic
• Human beings have the capacity to change at any stage of life.
• Skills and behaviours can be modified through experiences, learning, and
interventions.
 4. Development is Multidimensional
• It involves biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional aspects.
• These dimensions are interconnected and affect each other.
5. Development is Contextual
• Development is shaped by personal and environmental contexts (e.g., family,
culture, school).
• The same person may develop differently in different environments.
6. Development is Influenced by Historical Conditions
• The era in which a person lives affects their development.
• Example: People growing up during a war or a pandemic may have different
experiences.
7. Development is Studied by Multiple Disciplines
• Fields like psychology, biology, sociology, and education contribute to our
understanding of development.
• Each discipline offers unique insights.
8. Individuals Play an Active Role in Their Development
• People shape their own development through choices and behaviours.
• Both heredity (genetic factors) and environment interact to influence
development.

Definitions:

1. Growth (Psychological Aspect)

• In psychology, growth refers to physical changes that can be measured, such as

height, weight, and size of organs, especially during the early stages of life.

• Growth is quantitative, and mainly refers to bodily changes, not changes in behaviour
or thinking.
• Example: Increase in brain size or weight during childhood.
2. Development (Psychological Aspect)

• Development refers to progressive and continuous changes in behaviour, abilities,

emotions, personality, and thinking across the lifespan.
• It includes both quantitative and qualitative changes, covering physical, cognitive,
emotional, and social domains.
• Example: A child learning language, moral values, or forming relationships.
3. Maturation (Psychological Aspect)

• Maturation is the biological unfolding of inherited traits and capacities. It refers to

changes that occur naturally with age, without the influence of learning or experience.
 • Maturation provides the foundation for many psychological abilities (e.g., attention,
memory, motor skills) to emerge.
• Example: A child develops the ability to speak only when their brain and vocal system
mature.

4. Evolution (Psychological Aspect)

• Evolution refers to long-term psychological and biological changes in human beings

over generations, which help in better adaptation to the environment.
• It explains the development of complex mental functions like language, reasoning,
and emotions through natural selection.
• Example: The gradual development of problem-solving ability in humans over
thousands of years.

Factors Influencing Development:

1. Genetic Factors (Biological Influences):

These are the inborn traits passed from parents to children through genes.

a. Genotype

• Refers to the complete genetic makeup of an individual.

• It includes all the hereditary information carried in genes (dominant & recessive).
• Example: A child inherits genes for tall height, musical ability, or a certain eye colour.
b. Phenotype

• Refers to the observable characteristics or traits of an individual that result from the
interaction between genotype and environment.
• Example: A child may have the genetic potential (genotype) to be tall, but poor
nutrition may result in shorter height (phenotype).

2. Environmental Factors:

a. Family Environment

• The family provides love, care, and security.

• Parenting style, family relationships, and emotional support impact behaviour and
personality.

b. Education

• Early learning experiences like preschool, books, and play influence cognitive and
social development.

c. Social Environment

• Interaction with peers, neighbours, and community shapes communication and social
skills.
d. Economic Status

• A family’s income affects access to food, healthcare, education, and safe living
conditions.
• Better economic conditions generally support healthier development.
e. Place of Infant

• Whether the child lives in urban or rural settings affects exposure to resources, social
opportunities, and environment.

f. Behavioural Development

• Infants develop behaviour through experience and learning in their environment,

influenced by family and social surroundings.

h. Genes at the Limit and Within the Limit

• Genes set a range (limits) for development. Environment determines where within this
range the infant will fall.
• For example, a child’s height depends on genetic potential but also on nutrition and
health.

3. Socio-Cultural Context:

This refers to the broader social and cultural environment in which a person grows up.

a. Family Environment:

• Parenting style, emotional support, and interaction shape the child's personality and
behaviour.

b. Culture:

• Culture determines beliefs, values, customs, and expected behaviours.

• It influences how children are raised and what behaviours are encouraged.
c. Socioeconomic Status (SES):

• Families with higher SES typically have access to better education, healthcare, and
resources, which supports better development.

d. Peers and Social Relationships:

• Interaction with friends helps develop communication skills, empathy, and

confidence.
Context of Development:

• Development doesn’t occur in isolation.

• It is influenced by the surrounding environment and culture.
• Life events like starting school, getting a job, or getting married happen within a
social and family setting.
• The environment can change throughout a person’s life, affecting their development.

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Contextual View of Development:

• Bronfenbrenner believed that development happens within a system of relationships

and environments. His theory emphasizes that environmental factors play a major role
in shaping an individual's growth.
• Bronfenbrenner’s theory helps us understand that development is dynamic and
influenced by multiple environmental layers, from close relationships to wider
societal and historical factors.

He introduced the Ecological Systems Theory, which describes five environmental layers that
influence a person’s development:

1. Microsystem

• Immediate surroundings where the person has direct contact.

• Examples: Family, school, peers, teachers, neighbours.
• These settings directly shape behaviour through daily interactions.

2. Mesosystem

• Refers to connections between different microsystems.

• Example: How a child’s school experience affects their home life and vice versa.
• A positive relationship between school and family can support healthy development.
3. Exosystem

• Settings that the person doesn’t directly participate in, but which still affect them
indirectly.
• Example: Parent’s workplace – if a parent has job stress, it might affect their
behaviour at home.
• Other examples: community services, mass media.
4. Macrosystem

• The broader cultural and societal context.

• Includes: Cultural values, traditions, laws, economic systems.
• Influences all other systems and how individuals experience life.
5. Chronosystem

• Refers to changes over time in both the person and their environment.
• Includes: Life events (like moving, divorce, or starting school).
• Historical events (like the pandemic or a natural disaster).
• Shows how time and experiences influence development.

Durganand Sinha’s Ecological Model (1977):

• Developed to explain child development in the Indian context.

• Emphasizes the role of culture, family, and environment in shaping development.
• Inspired by ecological models but tailored to Indian socio-cultural realities.
Two Main Layers in the Model

1. Upper Layer (Immediate & Visible Influences)

• These are the factors that directly affect the child’s daily life:
• Family: Central role in the Indian context. Focus on collectivism, respect for elders,
and strong family bonds.
• Home Environment: Includes physical space, presence of siblings, availability of
learning materials.
 • Schooling: Quality of education, teaching styles, and school atmosphere influence
development.
• Peer Group: Important for social skill development and emotional growth.
2. Surrounding Layer (Wider Socio-Cultural Context)

• These factors influence the child indirectly:

• Geographical Environment: Urban/rural setting, crowding, open spaces for play, etc.
• Cultural Environment: Traditions, beliefs, religious practices, caste and class systems
shape values and opportunities.
• Socio-Economic Status: Access to food, education, health care, and recreational
resources.

For example:

a. A low socio-economic status (surrounding layer) may lead to limited resources at

home (upper layer).
b. Cultural beliefs (surrounding layer) may influence parenting styles (upper layer).

Overview of Development Stage:

• A stage is a specific period in an individual’s life that is characterized by physical,

cognitive, emotional, and social changes.
• Development is often seen as moving through sequential stages – from conception to
old age.
• Each stage has its own developmental tasks that must be accomplished
for healthy growth.
• Developmental Task:
a. A skill or challenge that must be mastered in each stage.
b. Successful completion supports positive development.
c. Failure can hinder future growth and adjustment.

1. Prenatal Stage:

• The prenatal stage is the first stage of human development, beginning at conception
and continuing until birth. It is a crucial period where rapid physical and biological
development occurs.
• Teratogens are harmful substances or environmental agents that can interfere with
normal development and cause birth defects or problems.
• Common Teratogens Include:
a. Alcohol: Can cause Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) – physical deformities, learning
problems.
b. Tobacco: Can lead to low birth weight, premature birth, or breathing issues.
c. Drugs: Both illegal and certain prescription drugs can cause physical and mental
disabilities.
d. Infections: Such as rubella, HIV, or syphilis can severely affect the baby.
e. Environmental Toxins (also called Stereotoxins):
f. These include lead, mercury, radiation, pesticides, etc.
g. Can affect brain development, cause deformities, or lead to miscarriage.
h. Poor Nutrition: Lack of vitamins (e.g., folic acid) can cause birth defects like spina
bifida.
i. Maternal Stress: High stress levels can affect brain development and
emotional health.
• This stage sets the foundation for all future development.
• Any problems in this stage can have lifelong impacts.

2. Infancy Stage (Birth to 2 Years):

Infancy is a period of rapid development across all areas – physical, sensory,

cognitive, and emotional. It is the foundation for later development.

➢ Motor Development

a) Reflexes (Inborn automatic responses):

• Rooting Reflex: When touched on the cheek, the infant turns its head toward
the touch and opens the mouth – helps with feeding.
• Moro Reflex (Startle Reflex): In response to loud sounds or sudden
movement, the baby throws arms outward and then brings them back in.
• Grasp Reflex: When the infant’s palm is touched, they close their fingers
around it.
• Babinski Reflex: Stroking the sole of the foot causes the toes to fan out and
the big toe to move upward.
b) Gross Motor Skills:
• Development progresses from head to toe (cephalocaudal trend).
• Milestones include holding head, rolling over, sitting, crawling, standing, and
walking.
c) Fine Motor Skills:
• Includes grasping, reaching, and later using fingers to pick up small objects.
➢ Sensory Abilities
• Vision: Blurry at birth but improves by 6–8 months; infants prefer human
faces and bright colours.
• Hearing: Well-developed; newborns recognize their mother’s voice.
• Smell and Taste: Infants can differentiate smells and prefer sweet tastes.
• Touch: Crucial for bonding; sensitive to pain and comfort through touch.
➢ Cognitive Development (Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage)
• Object Permanence: Realizing that objects exist even when out of sight
(develops around 8–12 months).
• Exploration: Infants learn through actions – looking, touching, mouthing.
• Cause and Effect: Understanding simple relationships (e.g., shaking a rattle
makes noise).
➢ Socio-Emotional Development
• Attachment Formation: Strong emotional bonds, especially with the primary
caregiver.
• Emotional Expression: Basic emotions like happiness, fear, anger, and sadness
emerge.
• Social Responses: Smiling, cooing, and later imitating actions and responding
to voices.
• Harlow’s Experiment (1962)
o Study: Baby monkeys were separated from their mothers for 8 hours
after birth.
o Setup: Monkeys had access to two “surrogate mothers”:
a. One made of wire mesh providing food.
b. One made of soft cloth but no food.
o Findings: Monkeys preferred the cloth mother for comfort, spending
more time clinging to it.
o Conclusion:
a. Attachment is not based on food alone.
b. Comfort, warmth, and security are crucial for emotional bonding.
c. Early social deprivation causes emotional and behavioural problems.
• Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory (1968)
o Stage: Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1 year)
o Key idea: Infants develop a sense of trust when their caregivers are
responsive and sensitive to their needs.
o If successful: The infant feels safe and confident to explore the world.
o If unsuccessful: Mistrust develops, leading to insecurity and anxiety.
o Secure Attachment: Infant feels protected, better emotional regulation,
positive social relationships later in life.
o Insecure Attachment: Infant feels neglected or anxious, poor emotional
control, difficulty in relationships as adult.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development:

Jean Piaget proposed that children actively construct their understanding of the world through
four universal, sequential stages of cognitive development.

1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)

• Learning through senses and actions (looking, touching, sucking).

• Object permanence develops (understanding that objects exist even when not seen).
• Actions become intentional (e.g., shaking a rattle to hear sound).
2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years)

• Use of symbols and language increases.

• Thinking is egocentric (difficulty seeing others’ viewpoints).
• Lack of conservation (cannot understand that quantity remains the same despite shape
changes).
• Engage in pretend play.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)

• Begin to think logically about concrete events.

• Understand conservation, reversibility, classification, and seriation (arranging
objects).
• Thinking becomes less egocentric.
4. Formal Operational Stage (11 years and above)

• Develop ability for abstract, hypothetical, and deductive reasoning.

• Can think about future possibilities, test hypotheses, and solve complex problems.
• Capable of metacognition (thinking about one’s own thinking).
3. Childhood Development:

➢ Physical Development

a) Growth Patterns

•Cephalocaudal Trend: Growth occurs from head to toe (e.g., baby controls
head before legs).
• Proximodistal Trend: Growth occurs from centre of the body outward (e.g.,
control of arms before fingers).
➢ Motor Development

a) Gross Motor Skills:

• Involve large muscles.

• Actions like walking, running, climbing, jumping improve steadily.
b) Fine Motor Skills:

• Involve smaller muscles.

• Includes drawing, holding crayons, buttoning clothes, writing.
➢ Cognitive Development (Based on Piaget)
• Preoperational Stage (2–7 years)
• Pretend Play: Child enjoys imagination and role play.
• Intuitive Thought: Reasoning is based on appearance and feelings, not logic.
• Symbolic Function: Use of words and images to represent objects.
• Centration: Focus on one aspect at a time (e.g., height of water, ignoring
width).
• Egocentrism: Child can’t understand others’ perspectives.
• Static Thinking: Difficulty understanding transformation (only sees
beginning and end).
• Animism: Belief that non-living things have life (e.g., "the sun is smiling").
• Lack of Conservation: Doesn’t understand that quantity remains the same
even if shape changes.
➢ Socio-Emotional Development

a) Self-Concept

• Child begins to see themselves as an individual ("I am a boy", "I run fast").
• Self-awareness and pride increase.
b) Gender Identity & Gender Role

• Gender Identity: Understanding oneself as male or female.

• Gender Role: A set of expectations about how males and females should think,
act, and feel. These roles are learned from family, peers, school, and media.
For example, boys may be expected to be strong, girls to be caring.
 c) Moral Development (Early Childhood)

• Morality is based on obedience and punishment.

• Children follow rules because adults say so.
• Begin to understand right and wrong in terms of consequences.
• Empathy and sense of fairness start to develop.
• Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) studied how children develop a sense of morality.
o He believed moral thinking develops in stages, which are age-related.
o He presented children with moral dilemmas (e.g., Heinz dilemma) and
studied their reasoning behind what they thought was right or wrong.
o Children internalize moral rules over time – they adopt societal rules as
their own.
o The goal of moral development is to become virtuous and gain
approval from others and society.
o According to Lawrence Kohlberg, internalisation is the process by
which individuals gradually adopt the moral rules and standards of
society as their own.

4. Adolescence:

• Adolescence is the transitional period between childhood and adulthood.

• It begins with puberty and involves biological, cognitive, emotional, and social
changes.
• Commonly ranges from 11 to 19 years.
➢ Physical Development (Puberty)

Puberty marks the biological onset of adolescence, where individuals attain sexual maturity
and the ability to reproduce.

a) Primary Sexual Characteristics:

• Refers to the organs directly involved in reproduction:

• Boys: Growth of testes, penis, sperm production.
• Girls: Growth of ovaries, uterus, onset of menstruation (menarche).
b) Secondary Sexual Characteristics

• Physical changes not directly related to reproduction but indicate maturity:

• Boys: Facial hair, voice deepening, muscle growth.
• Girls: Breast development, widening hips.
• Both: Growth spurt, pubic and underarm hair.
c) Menarche

• Menarche is the first menstrual period in females.

• It is a key indicator that the body has reached reproductive capability.
• Usually occurs between ages 10 to 14.

➢ Cognitive Development (Piaget's Formal Operational Stage)

According to Jean Piaget, adolescents enter the formal operational stage (from around 11
years):

• Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning: Ability to think logically, test hypotheses, and

solve abstract problems.
• Imaginary Audience: Belief that everyone is watching and judging them—leads to
self-consciousness.
• Personal Fable: Belief that their feelings and experiences are unique and no one else
understands them.
• Idealism: Tendency to form strong opinions about justice, fairness, and how the
world should be.
• According to Erik Erikson, the key developmental task of adolescence is: Identity vs
Role Confusion (12–18 years), adolescents explore “Who am I?”, successful
resolution leads to a strong identity and direction in life. Failure may lead to
confusion, insecurity, and indecisiveness.

➢ Emotional and Social Changes.

• Mood swings due to hormonal changes.
• Desire for independence and peer acceptance.
• Conflicts with parents and authority figures.
• Development of intimate friendships and romantic interests.
Major Challenges Faced by Adolescents:

a) Peer Pressure

• Pressure to conform to friends' behaviours or lifestyle (positive or negative).

b) Delinquency

• Involvement in unlawful or antisocial behaviour due to lack of guidance, peer

influence, or emotional conflict.

c) Substance Abuse

• Use of drugs, alcohol, or tobacco due to curiosity, stress, or peer pressure.

d) Eating Disorders

• Anorexia nervosa: Extreme dieting and weight loss.

• Bulimia nervosa: Binge eating followed by purging.
• Often linked to body image issues.

5. Adulthood and Old Age:

Adulthood:

➢ Age Range:
• Early Adulthood: 20–39 years
• Middle Adulthood: 40–59 years
• Late Adulthood: 60 years and above
➢ Physical Development:
• Peak physical health in early adulthood
• Gradual decline in strength and metabolism in middle adulthood
• More noticeable physical changes in late adulthood
 ➢ Cognitive Development:
• Stable or slight decline in memory and problem-solving in middle adulthood
• Possible slower cognitive processing in late adulthood
• Emotional and Social Development:
• Early adulthood: Career building, intimate relationships, starting families
• Middle adulthood: Life reassessment, possible mid-life crisis
• Late adulthood: Reflection on life, retirement, coping with physical changes

Old Age:

➢ Age Range:
• Young-Old: 65–84 years
• Old-Old: 85–99 years
• Centenarians: 100 years and above
➢ Physical Changes:
• Decrease in bone density, muscle mass, and joint flexibility
• Higher risk of chronic illnesses like arthritis, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases
➢ Cognitive Changes:
• Potential memory loss and slower processing speed
• Many maintain cognitive function and continue learning
➢ Emotional and Social Aspects:
• Retirement changes social roles and identity
• Focus on life review and legacy
• Importance of social support and meaningful engagement for well-being

Review Questions

Q1. What is development? How is it different from growth and maturation?

Answer:

Development refers to the pattern of progressive, orderly, and predictable changes that begin
at conception and continue throughout life. It encompasses both growth and decline. Growth
is the increase in size or mass of the body or its parts and is measurable (e.g., height, weight).
Maturation involves the unfolding of genetically programmed processes, leading to the
development of abilities and behaviours in a fixed sequence.
Q2. Describe the main features of the life-span perspective on development.

Answer:

The life-span perspective on development includes the following assumptions:

1. Development is lifelong: It occurs across all age groups, from conception to old age,
involving both gains and losses.
2. Development is multidirectional: Some aspects may increase, while others decrease over
time.
3. Development is highly plastic: Abilities and skills can be modified throughout life.
4. Development is influenced by historical conditions: Experiences differ across generations
due to historical contexts.
5. Development is multidisciplinary: Various disciplines like psychology, anthropology, and
sociology study human development.
6. Development is contextual: It occurs within a particular context, influenced by inherited
characteristics, physical environment, social, historical, and cultural contexts.

Q3. What are developmental tasks? Explain by giving examples.

Answer:

Developmental tasks are challenges that arise at certain periods in an individual's life, the
successful achievement of which leads to happiness and success with later tasks.
For example:
Infancy: Learning to walk and talk.
Adolescence: Developing a sense of identity.
Adulthood: Establishing a career and family.

Q4. What is Bronfenbrenner’s contextual view of development?

Answer:

Urie Bronfenbrenner's contextual view emphasizes the role of environmental factors in

development. He proposed that development occurs within a series of nested systems:
1. Microsystem: Immediate environments like family, school, peers.
2. Mesosystem: Interconnections between microsystems (e.g., parent-teacher relationships).
3. Exosystem: External environments that indirectly influence development (e.g., parent's
workplace).
4. Macrosystem: Larger cultural and societal contexts.
5. Chronosystem: The dimension of time, reflecting the environmental events and transitions
over the life course.
Q5. What are teratogens? Give examples.

Answer:

Teratogens are harmful substances or environmental agents that can cause birth defects or
developmental problems in the prenatal stage. Examples include:
Drugs: Alcohol, tobacco, certain prescription medications.
Infections: Rubella, syphilis.
Radiation: X-rays.
Environmental pollutants: Lead, mercury.

Q6. Define menarche.

Answer:

Menarche is the first menstrual period in girls, marking the onset of reproductive ability.

Q7. What are reflexes in infancy? Name some important reflexes.

Answer:

Reflexes are automatic, involuntary responses present at birth that help infants survive.
Important reflexes include:
Rooting reflex: Turning head toward a touch on the cheek.
Moro reflex: Startle response to a sudden loss of support.
Grasp reflex: Curling fingers around an object placed in the hand.
Babinski reflex: Fanning and curling of toes when the sole is stroked.

Q8. Explain Piaget’s formal operational stage.

Answer:

Piaget's formal operational stage, occurring around age 11 and beyond, is characterized by:
Abstract thinking: Ability to think about hypothetical situations.
Logical reasoning: Solving problems systematically.
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning: Forming hypotheses and testing them.

Q9. What is the "imaginary audience" and "personal fable"?

Answer:

Imaginary audience: Adolescents' belief that they are the focus of others' attention and
concern.
Personal fable: Adolescents' belief in their uniqueness and invincibility.
Q10. What is Erikson’s stage of identity vs. role confusion?

Answer:

Erikson's stage of identity vs. role confusion occurs during adolescence. The main task is to
develop a strong sense of personal identity. Success leads to a stable identity, while failure
results in role confusion and instability.

Q11. What are some major challenges faced by adolescents?

Answer:

Adolescents face several challenges, including:

Peer pressure: Influence from peers to conform to behaviours or attitudes.
Identity confusion: Struggling to establish a clear sense of self.
Delinquency: Engagement in illegal or antisocial behaviours.
Substance abuse: Misuse of drugs or alcohol.
Eating disorders: Conditions like anorexia or bulimia.