Cell Structure & Function
Definition of Cell
A cell is the smallest unit that is
capable of performing life functions.
“Typical” Animal Cell
http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/images/cell.gif
Cells
cells
-possess a membrane-bound nucleus
-are more complex than prokaryotic cells
-compartmentalize many cellular functions
within organelles and the endomembrane
system
-possess a cytoskeleton for support and to
maintain cellular structure
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Cell types
• Cell components:
• Membrane – boundary
• Cytoplasm – contains organelles
• Nucleus – contains DNA
• Cells types:
• Prokaryotic cells: bacteria
• Do not have nucleus, however, have DNA
• 10x smaller
• Eukaryotic cells:
• Animal cells
• Plant cells
Two Types of Cells
Prokaryotic Cells:
Have no membrane
covered nucleus
Have no membrane -
covered organelles
Have circular DNA
Are bacteria
Figure 3.5 – prokaryotic cell
This figure shows the generalized structure of a prokaryotic cell.
Two Types of Cells
Eukaryotic Cells:
Have a nucleus
Have a membrane -
covered organelles
Have linear DNA
Are all other cells
Eukaryotic cell
• Components:
1. Plasma Membrane
- And a Cell wall in plants, yeast
2. Nucleus
3. Cytoplasm
• Organelles:
• Mitochondria
• Ribosomes
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Golgi apparatus
• Lysosomes
• Peroxisomes
• Cytoskeleton
• Vacuoles (plants)
• Chloroplast (plants)
Eukaryotic Cells
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Cells
Nucleus
-stores the genetic material of the cell in the
form of multiple, linear chromosomes
-surrounded by a nuclear envelope composed
of 2 phospholipid bilayers
-in chromosomes – DNA is organized with
proteins to form chromatin
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Cells
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Cells
Ribosomes
-the site of protein synthesis in the cell
-composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins
-found within the cytosol of the cytoplasm
and attached to internal membranes
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Organic molecules of
Cells
Proteins
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Nucleic acids
Proteins
Most diverse and complex macromolecules in the cell
Used for structure, function and information
Made of linearly arranged amino acid residues
“folded” up with “active” regions
Types of Proteins
1) Enzymes – catalyzes covalent bond breakage or formation
2) Structural – collagen, elastin, keratin, etc.
3) Motility – actin, myosin, tubulin, etc.
4) Regulatory – bind to DNA to switch genes on or off
5) Storage – ovalbumin, casein, etc.
6) Hormonal – insulin, nerve growth factor (NGF), etc.
7) Receptors – hormone and neurotransmitter receptors
8) Transport – carries small molecules or irons
9) Special purpose proteins – green fluorescent protein, etc.
Lipids
Hydrophobic molecules
Energy storage, membrane components, signal
molecules
Triglycerides (fat), phospholipids, waxes, sterols
Carbohydrates
• Sugars, storage (glycogen, starch), Structural
polymers (cellulose and chitin)
• Major substrates of energy metabolism
Nucleic Acids
DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid) and RNA encode
genetic information for
synthesis of all proteins
Building blocks of life
Ribosomes
Site where
proteins are
made
Cell parts are
made of proteins
“Factories of the
cell”
Cell Structure
• All Cells have:
–an outermost plasma membrane
–genetic material in the form of DNA
–cytoplasm with ribosomes
Cell Parts
Organelles
Surrounding the Cell
1. Plasma Membrane
• All membranes are phospholipid bilayers
with embedded proteins
• The outer plasma membrane
–isolates cell contents
–controls what gets in and out of the cell
–receives signals
Plasma membrane
• Components:
• Lipids
• Double layer of phospholipids
• and cholesterol & other lipids
• Proteins
• Carbohydrates
• Attached to either lipids or proteins
• Function
• Allows selective passage in & out the cell
Figure 3.8 – plasma membrane
The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. There are other
components, such as cholesterol and carbohydrates, which can be found in the membrane in
addition to phospholipids and protein.
Plasma membrane functions
• It is a boundary of the cell with many functions:
• Selective permeability – allow some substances in and out the cell
• Immunity – distinguish between “self” and “non-self”
• Blood transfusion
• Organ transplant
• Viral/ bacterial infection
• Change in shape – immune cells squeeze between the blood vessels’ cells
and go to the pathogen location (skin etc.)
Membrane transport
• Membrane transport types:
• Passive
• Doesn’t use energy
• Molecules are moving from high concentration to low
• Active
• Requires energy
• Molecules are moving from low concentration to high
• Done with the help of proteins called pumps
Passive transport
• Types of passive transport:
• Diffusion – transport of substances (or solute when in solution)
• Osmosis or Diffusion of water – transport of solvent molecules (water)
• Facilitated diffusion – transport of solute with help from membrane
proteins:
• Channels
• Transporters
Solution = solvent + solutes
Active transport
• Moving molecules Against their concentration
gradient; can be done only using energy (ATP).
• Proteins in the membrane called pumps can use ATP
to push chemicals from low concentration to high
concentration.
• Example: NA/K-pump
Cell Membrane
• Outer membrane of cell
that controls movement in
and out of the cell
• Double layer
Cell Wall
• Most commonly found
in plant cells & bacteria
• Supports & protects
cells
Cells
• Structures in all cells
– Nucleus
– Ribosomes
– Endomembrane System
• Endoplasmic reticulum – smooth and rough
• Golgi apparatus
• Vesicles
– Mitochondria
– Cytoskeleton
Inside the Cell
Cytoplasm
• Gel-like mixture
• Surrounded by cell membrane
• Contains hereditary material
Nucleus
• Directs cell activities
• Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear
membrane
• Contains genetic material - DNA
The Nucleus
DNA
The control center of
the cell
Contains the Cell’s
DNA
Nucleolus
Nuclear Membrane
Nuclear Membrane
• Surrounds nucleus
• Made of two layers
• Openings allow material
to enter and leave
nucleus
Nucleolus
• Inside nucleus
• Contains RNA to build
proteins
Nucleus
• Structure
– Nuclear envelope
• Two Phospholipid bilayers with protein
lined pores
–Each pore is a ring of 8 proteins with an
opening in the center of the ring
– Nucleoplasm – fluid of the nucleus
Nucleus
• DNA is arranged in chromosomes
– Chromosome – fiber of DNA with proteins
attached
– Chromatin – all of the cell’s DNA and the
associated proteins
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Moves materials around in
cell
• Smooth type: lacks
ribosomes
• Rough type (pictured):
ribosomes embedded in
surface
Ribosomes
• Each cell contains
thousands
• Make proteins
• Found on ribosomes &
floating throughout the
cell
Golgi Bodies
• Protein 'packaging
plant'
• Move materials within
the cell
• Move materials out of
the cell
Lysosome
• Digestive 'plant' for proteins,
fats, and carbohydrates
• Transports undigested materi al
to cell membrane for removal
• Cell breaks down if lysosome
structure
is disrupted.
Vacuoles
• Membrane-bound sacs
for storage, digestion,
and waste removal
• Contains water solution
• Help plants maintain
shape
3. Cytoplasm with ribosomes
–Cytoplasm – fluid area inside outer
plasma membrane and outside DNA
region
–Ribosomes – make proteins
NUCLEUS
CYTOSKELETON
RIBOSOMES
MITOCHONDRION ROUGH ER
CYTOPLASM SMOOTH ER
CENTRIOLES
GOLGI BODY
PLASMA LYSOSOME
MEMBRANE VESICLE
Fig. 4-15b, p.59
Nuclear pore bilayer facing cytoplasm Nuclear envelope
bilayer facing
nucleoplasm
Fig. 4-17, p.61
Structures of the
Endomembrane System
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
– Continuous with the outer membrane of
the nuclear envelope
– Two forms - smooth and rough
• Transport vesicles
• Golgi apparatus
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
– The ER is continuous with the outer
membrane of the nuclear envelope
– There are 2 types of ER:
• Rough ER – has ribosomes attached
• Smooth ER – no ribosomes attached
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Function RER
• Proteins are modified as they move through the
RER
• Once modified, the proteins are packaged in
transport vesicles for transport to the Golgi
body
Endomembrane System
• Smooth ER (SER)
– Tubular membrane structure
– Continuous with RER
– No ribosomes attached
• Function SER
– Lipids are made inside the SER
• fatty acids, phospholipids, sterols..
– Lipids are packaged in transport vesicles and sent
to the Golgi
Endomembrane System
Vacuoles
-membrane-bound structures with various
functions depending on the cell type
There are different types of vacuoles:
-central vacuole in plant cells
-contractile vacuole of some protists
-vacuoles for storage
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Endomembrane System
Endomembrane system
-a series of membranes throughout the
cytoplasm
-divides cell into compartments where
different cellular functions occur
1. endoplasmic reticulum
2. Golgi apparatus
3. lysosomes
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Endomembrane System
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
-membranes that create a network of
channels throughout the cytoplasm
-attachment of ribosomes to the membrane
gives a rough appearance
-synthesis of proteins to be secreted, sent to
lysosomes or plasma membrane
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Endomembrane System
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
-relatively few ribosomes attached
-functions:
-synthesis of membrane lipids
-calcium storage
-detoxification of foreign substances
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Endomembrane System
Endomembrane System
Golgi apparatus
-flattened stacks of interconnected
membranes
-packaging and distribution of materials to
different parts of the cell
-synthesis of cell wall components
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Endomembrane System
Lysosomes
-membrane bound vesicles containing
digestive enzymes to break down
macromolecules
-destroy cells or foreign matter that the cell
has engulfed by phagocytosis
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Golgi Apparatus
• Golgi Apparatus
– Stack of flattened membrane sacs
• Function Golgi apparatus
– Completes the processing substances received
from the ER
– Sorts, tags and packages fully processed proteins
and lipids in vesicles
Golgi Apparatus
• Golgi apparatus receives transport vesicles
from the ER on one side of the organelle
– Vesicle binds to the first layer of the Golgi and its
contents enter the Golgi
Transport Vesicles
• Transport Vesicles
– Vesicle = small membrane bound sac
– Transport modified proteins and lipids from the ER
to the Golgi apparatus (and from Golgi to final
destination)
Mitochondria
• Structure:
– ~1-5 microns
– Two membranes
• Outer membrane
• Inner membrane - Highly folded
– Folds called cristae
– Intermembrane space (or outer compartment)
– Matrix
• DNA and ribosomes in matrix
Mitochondria
• Produces energy through
chemical reactions – breaking
down fats & carbohydrates
• Controls level of water and
other materials in cell
• Recycles and decomposes
proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates
Mitochondria
Mitochondria (4.15)
• Function – synthesis of ATP
– 3 major pathways involved in ATP production
1. Glycolysis - cytoplasm
2. Krebs Cycle - matrix
3. Electron transport system (ETS) - intermembrane
space
Mitochondria
TEM
Mitochondria
Mitochondria
-organelles present in all types of eukaryotic
cells
-contain oxidative metabolism enzymes for
transferring the energy within
macromolecules to ATP
-found in all types of eukaryotic cells
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Mitochondria
-surrounded by 2 membranes
-smooth outer membrane
-folded inner membrane with layers
called cristae
-matrix is within the inner membrane
-intermembrane space is located between the
two membranes
-contain their own DNA
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Mitochondria
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Endo and Exocytosis
Exocytosis
- membrane vesicle fuses
with cell membrane, releases
enclosed material to
extracellular space.
Endocytosis
- cell membrane
invaginates, pinches in, creates
vesicle enclosing contents
– endocytosis
Three variations of endocytosis are shown.
(a) In one form of endocytosis, phagocytosis, the cell membrane surrounds the particle and pinches off to form an intracellular vacuole.
(b) In another type of endocytosis, pinocytosis, the cell membrane surrounds a small volume of fluid and pinches off, forming a vesicle.
(c) In receptor-mediated endocytosis, uptake of substances by the cell is targeted to a single type of substance that binds at the receptor on the
external cell membrane. (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal)
Exocytosis -
In exocytosis, a vesicle migrates to the plasma
membrane, binds, and releases its contents to
the outside of the cell. (credit: modification of
work by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal)
