384 encyclopedia of tourism management and marketing
social groups (such as men, women, the elderly
or minorities). They serve an important function
in human decision making, which often needs
to reach a quick conclusion to facilitate social
exchange and, ultimately, support survival.
Sorting and organizing otherwise overwhelm-
ing information is inherent to human cogni-
tion, and categorizations are indispensable to
absorb the abundance of everyday stimuli from
the environment and to distinguish the known
from the unknown. Categorization often occurs
swiftly and unconsciously, especially when
information is repeated and adds new layers to
already available material. Stereotypes are an
example of such largely unconscious patterns of
thinking and are deemed part of ‘implicit social
cognition’ (Greenwald and Banaji, 1995). They
are often deeply rooted and difficult to recog-
nize or overcome.
The main function of stereotypes is reduc-
tion of complexity, risk defence, avoidance of
dissonance, ascription of characteristics and
covering of information gaps. Generalizations
in the form of stereotypes become a societal
challenge when they result in the disadvan-
tage of social groups along the categories of
difference. Identifiable differences are socially
constructed – that is, they arise through social
interaction (Bräu and Schlickum, 2015).
When a perception shaped by a stereotype is
transferred to the level of action, it turns into
discrimination. The underlying positive and
negative stereotypes are rarely individual but
are adopted in socialization processes, thus the
knowledge generated can be hardly separated
from the individual values and cultural tradi-
Gender Stereotypes tions in which they are rooted.
Putting both concepts together, gender stere-
Defining gender stereotypes requires awareness otypes are overgeneralized views or preconcep-
of gender as a social construct. Contrary to sex, tions on characteristics possessed by and roles
which is a biological classification and implies a that ought to be played by persons of different
differentiation between male, female and inter- genders. Gender stereotyping is the process of
sex persons based on primary sex characteristics, arbitrarily ascribing attributes or roles to indi-
gender is a more complex, socially embedded viduals simply based on their membership of a
and culturally defined concept. It interacts with gender group. Individuals who do not conform
but is fundamentally different from sex. Gender to expected gender stereotypes are often subject
consists of multiple features generated by social to ridicule or unfair treatment. This is espe-
ascriptions that can vary in time (different peri- cially problematic for transgender or gender
ods of history) and space (different societies and non-conforming persons. Gender stereotypes
even social groups). Gender offers a socially can also intersect and compound with other ste-
constructed human identity with regard to self- reotypes, leading to disproportionate negative
perception, self-esteem or role behaviour within impact on certain groups – for example, migrant
one particular context. women.
Stereotypes are persistent generalizations, In tourism, gender stereotypes can be classi-
simplifications and trivializations tied to various fied into two major groups. The first addresses
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gender stereotypes 385
gender stereotypes pertinent to work in hospi- are especially apparent in user-generated
tality and tourism. Examples are diverse, such content such as social media posts or online
as male flight attendants automatically being travel reviews. In this content, men are often
considered gay, biases against hiring young described based on their behaviour, while
women for important hotel positions because women are evaluated based on appearance or
of the unwarranted assumption that they, as conduct. In this sense, gender stereotypes also
soon as they are trained, will get pregnant, or come into play on sharing economy platforms
female pilots being perceived as less qualified such as Airbnb, in this case often to the advan-
than their male counterparts because the knowl- tage of women, as they are more likely to be
edge and skill requirements do not match tradi- evaluated on their appearance and are therefore
tional female gender roles. The second group more likely to be accepted as guests.
addresses gender stereotypes pertinent to travel Looking at these examples, one immediately
and tourism as a practice – for example, women recognizes the increasing importance of indi-
like to shop and go to spas, adventure travel is viduals as transmitters of gender stereotypes as
for men, airport restrooms do not need changing social media gain in importance while traditional
tables in the male bathrooms because female media lose relevance, especially for younger
travellers take care of the children, and so on. audiences. Of particular significance are social
These gender stereotypes related to travel and media influencers – persons who create and
tourism practice also spill over into depictions share engaging content on social media to gain
and descriptions of travellers in advertising, a following and who are able to impact on per-
guidebooks, destination brochures, websites ceptions and decisions or behaviours of their
and maps. Reproducing and promoting gender targeted audiences either directly or on behalf
stereotypes in tourism communication affects of tourism marketers (Gretzel, 2018). Their
society as a whole, decelerating gender equality postings are often gendered and perpetuate
and encouraging discrimination. Tourism busi- gender stereotypes (Bokunewicz and Shulman,
nesses and destination marketing organizations 2017), thus greatly contributing to biased infor-
are not the only culprits. Gender stereotypes mation available on social media. For instance,
Source: Original artwork created by the authors based on public Instagram posts.
Gender stereotypes in Instagram posts by social media influencers
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386 encyclopedia of tourism management and marketing
several female influencers use Instagram for them. Gender stereotypes and/or biases are
promotion of Dubai as an attractive destina- often concealed in research designs, which
tion. Rather than fighting gender stereotypes, especially pertains to quantitative surveys that
they conform with Instagram norms by posting mainly shape tourism knowledge. The dearth
sexualized pictures, emphasizing their feminine of reflective investigations is overt and urges
bodies and accentuating the exclusive way of implementation of feminist perspectives in tour-
life, fading out substantial gender inequalities ism research. Thus, gender needs to be concep-
in the Muslim destination. Their photographs tualized as a crucial analytical category, rather
demonstrate how ubiquitously these stereotypes than a mere differentiation between women
appear in the social media posts. and men, which can explain different travel
Tourism research has pointed out lack of and work behaviours, as well as opportunities
theorization on gender and particularly gender in tourism. This is instrumental for revealing
stereotypes in tourism (Vizcaino-Suárez & where and how gender stereotyping happens in
Díaz-Carrión, 2019). Only since the mid- tourism and for developing effective strategies
1990s has the relationship between tourism to combat it.
and gender been gaining attention, which has Given the intricate relationship between tour-
opened new research avenues mainly for study- ism and technology, it is important to point out
ing gender stereotypes as career obstacles in that gender stereotypes also permeate the work
hospitality and tourism, and academia. This environments and thinking processes in the
strand of scientific enquiry largely echoes technology industry (including the travel tech
research on organizations and barriers that sector), which results in technology designs
women encounter due to external ascriptions that are biased. Looking at the central role of
and stereotyping practices. For instance, studies technology in shaping travel decision making,
on career advancement found out that men are tourism planning and policy making, as well
more likely to climb the career ladder due to as interactions among tourism stakeholders,
traits and features that are deemed masculine, the urgent need to address gender stereotypes
such as reliability, rationality, justness and self- in tourism-related platforms, applications and
control. Women, by contrast, are less likely to devices becomes apparent. This also applies to
get promoted due to the nature of activities they biases sometimes built into the algorithms that
take on at work in typical female occupations increasingly facilitate digital interactions and
that mainly resemble their household duties, a transactions in tourism and can therefore foster
phenomenon widely known as social reproduc- widespread discrimination. Unfortunately,
tion (Bradley, 1998). smart tourism development theory and practice
Current tourism research, especially that currently lack gender-sensitive agendas.
related to marketing, barely accounts for Fighting and eventually overcoming gender
gender stereotypes, which makes many inves- stereotypes is critical for achieving sustainable
tigations gender blind. Knowledge creation tourism development. The negative impacts
occurs under circumstances that lack gender- of tourism often affect men and women in
sensitive approaches, particularly in relation different ways. However, sustainable tourism
to explanatory models of travel behaviour. development policies and programmes are
There have been some investigations of how usually at best gender neutral, and women are
women perceive their bodies while on vacation often excluded from sustainable development
at sun and sea destinations (Small, 2021). They leadership roles that would allow them to add
reveal how stereotyped gender norms affect their perspectives. While gender mainstreaming
women and how female tourists are confronted can facilitate some limited transformation in
with gender, age and physical appearance dis- sustainable development practice and discourse,
courses. Other recent studies have focused on it often does not translate into concrete actions.
harassment and violence against women based Revealing gender stereotypes is the first step
on gender stereotypes and have shown that in a long process to reduce gender biases in
general stereotyping and sectorial prejudices sustainable tourism. Addressing gender stereo-
in tourism cause gender harassment (Díaz- types is essential for achieving tourism-related
Meneses, Vilkaitė-Vaitonė and Estupiñan- sustainable development goals and will only
Ojeda, 2020). gain in significance over the next few years.
Tourism research not only typically ignores Irina Gewinner and
gender stereotypes but can also perpetuate Ulrike Gretzel
Irina Gewinner and Ulrike Gretzel
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gender and tourism 387
References
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Bradley, H. (1998), Gender and Power in the
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