Training for Development 1

TRAINING FOR DEVELOPMENT

1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Basic Concepts of Training

Training is about extending and developing individuals’ capabilities for better performance in
their jobs. It involves the transfer of new knowledge, skills and attitudes to develop and
maintain trainees’ competencies to perform specific roles at their work place.

There are many definitions in the literature. Here are some that may be helpful in summarizing
many of the ideas on training:

Training is the process of acquiring specific skills to perform a job better (Jucious, 1963).

It helps people to become qualified and proficient in doing some jobs (Dahama, 1979). Usually
an organization facilitates the employees' learning through training so that their modified
behavior contributes to the attainment of the organization's goals and objectives.

Van Dersal (1962) defined training as the process of teaching, informing, or educating people
so that (1) they may become as well qualified as possible to do their job, and (2) they become
qualified to perform in positions of greater difficulty and responsibility.

Education also provides knowledge, skills and attitudes and brings about changes in behavior
of individuals. However, training differs from education.

Training Education
- Usually short term - Long term
- Narrowly focused & specific - Broadly focused
- Designed to meet a specific need - Aimed at preparing people and has immediate
application for the future.

Training may be necessary for many reasons:

- When there is a discrepancy between an employee’s current performance and the
required standard of performance in his / her present position.

- When there are changes in a job description or the addition of new responsibility in
the present position.

- When an employee moves to a new position and acquires a new set of responsibilities.

- When some new way of doing something is developed.

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Note that:

1. Training has a very clear purpose- it relates to improvements in performance

for job / career, specific tasks, productivity, etc. The term “training” is also used
of less focused needs such as “ awareness creation” and “consciousness raising”

2. Training may be delivered through formal “teaching “ or by experiential means

(learning by
doing through apprenticeship, work attachment, etc)

3. Training is provided in response to identified needs- hence it is generally given for specific
“ target groups”, over a relatively short time span.

1.2 Types of training

Training may broadly be categorized into two types: pre-service training and in-service
training. Pre-service training is more academic in nature and is offered by formal institutions
following definite curricula and syllabuses for a certain duration to offer a formal degree or
diploma. In-service training, on the other hand, is offered by the organization from time to time
for the development of skills and knowledge of the incumbents.

Pre-service Training (Education)

Pre-service training is a process through which individuals are made ready to enter a certain
kind of professional job such as agriculture, medicine, or engineering. They have to attend
regular classes in a formal institution and need to complete a definite curriculum and courses
successfully to receive a formal degree or diploma. They are not entitled to get a professional
job unless they can earn a certificate, diploma, or degree from the appropriate institution. Pre-
service training contents emphasize mostly technical subject matter such as crops, animal
husbandry, and fisheries as well as pedagogical skills to prepare the students to work in
agriculture.

In general two types of pre-service training are available for agricultural staff. These are (1)
degree level (at least a bachelor's degree in agriculture or related field), which is usually offered
for four years by a university or agricultural college; and (2) diploma level, which is mostly
offered by the schools of agriculture for a period of two to three years. The entry point for the
former is normally twelve years of schooling and for the latter ten years of schooling.

In-service Training and Staff Development

In-service training is a process of staff development for the purpose of improving the
performance of an individuals. It promotes the professional growth of individuals. "It is a
program designed to strengthen the competencies of extension workers while they are on the
job". In-service training is a problem-centered, learner-oriented, and time-bound series of
activities which provide the opportunity to develop a sense of purpose, broaden perception of
the clientele, and increase capacity to gain knowledge and mastery of techniques.
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In-service training may broadly be categorized into five different types. All of these types of
training are needed for the proper development of extension staff throughout their service life.

1. Induction or Orientation Training. Induction training is given immediately after employment

to introduce the new extension staff members to their positions. It begins on the first day the
new employee is on the job. This type of training is aimed at acquainting the new employee
with the organization and its personnel. Induction training for all new personnel should develop
an attitude of personal dedication to the service of people and the organization. Van Dersal
(1962) said that when people start to work in an organization for the first time, they are eager to
know what sort of outfit they are getting into, what they are supposed to do, and whom they
will work with. They are likely to be more attentive and open-minded than experienced
employees. In fact, the most favorable time for gaining employees' attention and for molding
good habits among them is when they are new to the job.

2. Foundation Training. Foundation training is also appropriate for newly recruited personnel.
Besides technical competence and routine instruction about the organization, every staff
member needs some professional knowledge about various rules and regulations of the
government, financial transactions, administrative capability, communication skills, leadership
ability, coordination and cooperation among institutions and their linkage mechanism, report
writing, and so on. Foundation training is made available to employees to strengthen the
foundation of their service career. This training is usually provided at an early stage of service
life.

3. Maintenance or Refresher Training. This training is offered to update and maintain the
specialized subject-matter knowledge of the individuals. Refresher training keeps the
specialists, administrators, subject-matter officers, extension supervisors, and frontline workers
updated and enables them to add to the knowledge and skills they have already. Maintenance or
refresher training usually deals with new information and new methods, as well as review of
older materials. This type of training is needed both to keep employees at the peak of their
possible production and to prevent them from getting into a rut.

4. On-the-Job Training. This is ad hoc or regularly scheduled training, such as fortnightly

training under the training and visit (T&V) system of extension, and is provided by the superior
officer or the subject-matter specialists to the subordinate field staff. This training is generally
problem or technology oriented and may include formal presentations, informal discussion, and
opportunities to try out new skills and knowledge in the field. The superior officer,
administrator, or subject-matter specialist of each extension department must play a role in
providing on-the-job training to the staff while conducting day-to-day normal activities.

5. Career or Development Training. This type of in-service training is designed to upgrade the
knowledge, skills, and ability of employees to help them assume greater responsibility in higher
positions. The training is arranged departmentally for successful extension workers, at all
levels, for their own continuing education and professional development. Although extension
workers are responsible for designing their own career development education, the extension
organization sometimes sets some criteria and provides opportunities for the staff by offering
options.
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1.3 Benefits of Training

Well planned and effective training can have numerous potential benefits both for individuals
receiving training and the organizations and institutions in which they work.

From the individual trainees’ point of view, training increases job satisfaction through
improved performance, better pay, and higher prestige associated with higher productivity
work. It also increases their potential for promotion within the organizations in which they
work, or in the labor market in general.

There are also numerous organizational benefits associated with training.

- It leads to higher productivity and output through improved skills and job performances.
- It can increase the quality of output and customer satisfaction.
- It fosters the image of the organization as dynamic and forward looking, in turn attracting
both
customers and potential recruits.
- It can also help enhance and define better the roles and functions of employees within the
organization.

This can result in long term cost servings through better industrial relation, improved employee
morale, reduced absenteeism, etc.

2. PHASES OF TRAINING
Training is a circular process that begins with needs identification and after a number of steps
ends with evaluation of the training activity. A change or deficiency in any step of the training
process affects the whole system, and therefore it is important for a trainer to have a clear
understanding about all phases and steps of the training process. In the broadest view, there are
three phases of a training process: planning, implementation, and evaluation.

Planning Phase

The planning phase encompasses several activities, two of which - training needs assessment
and curriculum development - are very important.

Implementation phase
Once the planning phase of a training program is complete, then it is time to implement the
course. Implementation is the point where a trainer activates the training plan, or it is the
process of putting a training program into operation.

Evaluation phase

Evaluation is a process to determine the relevance, effectiveness, and impact of activities in

light of their objectives. Raab et al. (1987) define training evaluation as "a systematic process
of collecting information for and about a training activity which can then be used for guiding
Training for Development 5

decision making and for assessing the relevance and effectiveness of various training
components."

2.1 PLANNING

2.1.1 TRAINING NEEDS ASSESSMENT

2.1.1.1 What is Training Needs Assessment?

A training need is said to exist when a gap between the work performance of an individual or
organization and a desired level of competency is perceived. This suggests that a training need
can be described as a set of specific skills, knowledge, and attitudes, which are needed by
individuals in a given organization or occupational category in order to perform a particular job
or task more efficiently.

Training Needs Assessment refers to the process whereby such training needs are identified,
prioritized, and selected for specific action as part of a training program. The first step of the
training cycle is the identification of training needs. Training should never be provided unless
needs have been clearly analyzed and identified. Once a problem has been identified, a number
of solutions may exist. It is very important, however, to realize that training is not always the
answer.

Whenever a deficiency of knowledge, skill or attitude exists, it is all too easy to fall into the
trap of thinking that some form of formal training program is necessary. It is often better to
decide what we must not teach or need not teach, in order to determine what we must teach.

Gane (1972) also notes that before deciding to provide training, one should consider whether
changing the organization, the equipment or the job itself, or changing the people concerned by
the selection, would ease the problem, before the expensive, uncertain process of training is
embarked on to change people’s performance directly.

It might be asked why training is not a cure for all performance ills. The fact is that training has
high costs. Men and women are taken away from productive work and time and money are
spent on achieving objectives which might have been managed more cost- effectively.

Before considering training, therefore, the situation should first be analyzed carefully in order
to decide whether a deficiency in performance can be rectified using non-training measures,
such as making changes in human, technological, financial, organizational, social and
information systems. Specific examples could include making changes to the working
environment, improving housing, transport or the general infrastructure or, in an organization,
altering the criteria used in selecting staff.
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As a final note, remember:

Training should only be carried out when it is believed that the same results, in terms of... job
performance, cannot be obtained so efficiently, effectively and economically by any other
strategy.

In the case of a new training program, TNA is deemed necessary at an early stage in the process
of planning. In the case of an existing program, it is used mainly for improving, modifying and
adapting it to the needs of a particular clientele. In either form, TNA is an integral part of the
training cycle, and an indispensable element in the overall planning process.

Thus while the overall objective of identifying and bridging the “ gap” between “what is “ and
“what should be” may be the common denominator of most TNA programs, there is
considerable variation in the systematicity with which individual TNA undertakings are
conceived and implemented.

A systematic needs assessment is a comprehensive process involving:

(*) deciding the target population (beneficiaries)

(*) defining and identifying needs
(*) Measuring competency short comings
(*) Prioritizing between them
(*) Setting training objectives in the light of assessment findings.

2.1.1.2 Benefits of Needs Assessment

At the most general revel TNA helps planners decide which problems to address through
training and how to address them. But TNA also performs other specific functions within the
training cycle:

* It provides the baseline data upon which all planning decisions are made.
* It assists the setting up of a results-oriented training program: the identification of needs
form the basis for analyzing the results of training.
* Needs assessment improves training effectiveness through better targeting: it sorts out
problems into those which require a training solution & those which need other types of
attention; it also identifies individuals who need training, and the type of training they require.
* It helps to avoid some of the most common mistakes in training, eg. Spending unnecessary
time on teaching difficult, but relatively unimportant, material; or forgetting to include highly
essential, but easy to teach, material; teaching what trainees already know, etc.
* TNA provides valuable insights and leads in respect of the design, development and delivery
of training programs:

(a) type of training to be undertaken

(b) the location of training
(c) the time- tabling of training activities
(d) their resource requirements (funds & staffing)
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(e) Selection, preparation and adaptation of training materials and methods.

For instance, needs assessment results can shed valuable light on the appropriateness or
desirability of the use of computers in training.

2.1.1.3 Effective Needs Assessment

Several difficulties may hamper the successful formulation and implementation of needs
assessment in practice. While many problems arise out of the resource constraints faced by
training programs (time and cost dimensions), many difficulties are of conceptual or
organizational character. An awareness of these issues at an early stage will generally help the
design of needs assessment exercises.

Conceptual Considerations

As indicated earlier, needs may be conceived of as a gap between an existing situation

(“What is“) and another, under ‘ideal’ or’ desirable’ conditions (“what should be”).

This relationship is illustrated below.

The Need Gap

What ought to be - Desirable Situation

Need = difference, shortfall, Deficiency

What is = actual situation

Applied to the needs of an individual trainee, for instance, this translates itself into identifying
an ‘ ability gap’-i.e.- the deficiency in knowledge, skills and attitudes which present the
attainment of job performance at’ required’ standards’.

The advantage of this model is that it distinguishes between two possible courses of action
when the identification of ability gaps is completed.

* Fitting the employee to the job : by better selection or provision of training

* fitting the job to the employee: by job redesign or providing job aids.

The distinction is also a useful reminder of the fact that not all perceived problems and
performance gaps are due to lack of training, eg. they may be caused by factors such as internal
conflicts, low morale, etc. Attributing the right gap to appropriate training needs thus forms an
important part of the challenge in TNA.

Understanding Need Levels

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Some serious problems arise at the level of measuring ‘ability gaps’. These arise partly out of
difficulties in establishing the base-line or existing levels of knowledge /attitude /skills for
individuals concerned, and partly in defining ‘desirable’ standards for trainers to achieve. To
illustrate these difficulties, the following schematic outline may be used to describe five levels
of individuals’ attainment:

1. Nil Knowledge level practically absent or negligible regarding some subjects

2. Deficiency Some general awareness, but insufficient knowledge
3. Sufficiency Fairly adequate knowledge or skill to perform, but short of efficient
performance.
4. Precision The required level to achieve precision & consistency in performance
5. Perfection Combining precision with speed in performance: the ‘ideal’ level of
attainment.

Needs Perceptions

Problems of needs ‘perception’ are another common source of difficulty for undertaking TNA.

Some authors have distinguished between felt and unfelt needs. The former are those needs
with people do recognize, and the latter those which they do not. With recognized needs, there
is a stronger spur or urge to take action to bridge “gaps”. However, needs assessment is more
challenging when the knowledge of such need among trainees is missing or unreliable.

Possible perceptions of Training Needs

Training Need

Unfelt need Felt need

4
1 2 3
1. Performance problem not perceived at all
2. Performance problem perceived, not aware that problem is due to lack of training
3. Performance problem perceived, aware of type of training needed, but unable to determine
its amount
4. Performance problem perceived, able to identify type and amount of training.

Category 4- ‘The fully aware’ participant

2.1.1.4 Approaches to Needs Assessment

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Needs assessment is concerned with identifying the type of training needed, as well as those in
needs, down to the level of the individual organization and its constituent elements
(departments, units and individuals)

Three levels may be identified specifically

1. Organizational level needs: Concerns identifying the type of training needed by

organizations
and /or units and departments within them.
2. Occupational level needs: involves identifying the attitudes and knowledge refinements
for
carrying out a particular type of job or function
3. Individual level needs: deciding the organizational and occupational needs leads at the
question of who or which individuals are in need of what type of training.

The difference between these should, however, not be exaggerated. Since training is ultimately
about upgrading the performance capabilities of people and individuals, it may be argued even
at the former two levels, needs are examined in abstraction from the individuals who may
require training. Thus there are clear intersections between these; nevertheless each represents
a particular angle or perspective from which identification of needs takes place.

Individual level Needs

Individual level needs assessment is an example of identifying needs as ability gaps, ie

deficiencies between existing and desired levels of knowledge, skill and attitudes required by
individuals to perform a job. In fact, to the extent that the ultimate aim of all training is to
equip individuals with the required levels of Competency to perform their jobs, this level of
assessment provides a common interface between all levels of assessment discussed so far.

Its importance is in helping trainers find out:

- Who needs training?

- What training they need most
- How this can be best achieved

The knowledge gained from this is indispensable for:

- Planning new training or

- Tailoring the content and design of an existing program to the needs of prospective
trainees.

Methods

The two most common and useful methods of individual level needs assessment are:

- Performance Appraisal
Training for Development 10

- Gap Analysis

Common techniques of investigation and data collections may be used to operationalize them.
Examples are:

- Observation - Group Discussion

- Questionnaires - Tests
- Interviews - Records /Reports

Performance Appraisal

The main purpose of a performance appraisal is to locate any short comings in the performance
of appraises based on their actual job performance. However, not all performance appraisals
are intended, or designed, for identifying individual training needs.

In fact, in many organizations performance appraisal is a part of an annual activity the results
of which are left without adequate analysis.

Never the less, given appropriate expertises are sound judgment, it should be possible to extract
such information from these appraisals. Moreover, if designed and conducted appropriately, a
performance appraisal can be a useful means of establishing, effectively and relatively quickly,
the training needs of individuals. Best appraisals would include the full knowledge and
participation of the appraisee. Thus while technically many methods may be available
(examination of work sample, observation, etc), interviews of a semi-structured nature are
likely to be more appropriate.

As with other TNAs, successful performance appraisals have a number of pre-requisites:

- Experienced appraiser: S/he must be clear as to the purpose of the exercise, must
adequately
people for it.
- Conducive environment: this is also partly in the sense of the appraiser’s experience;
must
allow for sufficient time; must be prepared to allow for appraisees lack of experience (if
first
time); must be friendly, sensitive, and prepared to listen to and discuss points raised.
- A suitable form: this is very important if discussions are to be focused, and to proceed
smoothly.
Clearly, the requirements of appraisal forms will vary according to the type and nature
of the job.
However, a number of general hints may be useful:
- lengthy forms should be avoided
- They should clearly relate to the job carried out
- Questions should be grouped into specific areas of competence eg. Interpersonal skills;
technical abilities; planning and organization, etc)
 Training for Development 11

Gap Analysis

Gap analysis involves finding out whether there is a gap between what prospective trainees
know, and what they need to know in order to function effectively in their jobs. The propose is
thus to find out if there is a gap, and whether training is a remedy.

Gap analysis is a follow-up to job and task analyses.

Gap

Job analysis: A job or function consists of a number of tasks. For instance, the function
carried out by agricultural project planners typically relate to one or more of the components of
a project cycle: identification, preparation, appraisal, implementation, monitoring and
evaluation of projects.

The clear advantage of a job analysis is to assist trainers to avoid some tasks and to focus on
others. In practice, however, job analysis is much more complicated.

The main outcome of this type of analysis is, therefore, a list of the tasks that make up the job
and their assessment to define the focus of the training program. The assessment is in turn
based on three sets of Considerations:
- the relative importance of each task
- the frequency with which they are carried out
- the frequency with which they are carried out
- the envisaged learning difficulty

Suggested procedure for completing job Analysis Worksheet

Steps Comments
1. list all tasks that might be included in the job You’ll not necessarily teach all these tasks, some will be
deleted, later an in the analysis
2. Determine how frequently each task is performed Use a scoring scheme
1. very / quite frequently 2. regularly
3. Occasionally 4. Seldom
3. Indicate the relative importance of each task Rate each task 1, 2, or 3 to indicate your judgment of their
importance : eg.
1. Extremely important 2. Moderately important
3. Marginally ‘’
4. Estimate the difficulty of learning the task 1. Extremely difficult 2. Very difficult
3. Moderately ‘’ 4. Easy
5. Tally up the total score Tasks with the lowest total score will be the priority tasks to be
included in the training activity.
Job Analysis Worksheet

Job: Project Work

Tasks Frequency of Importance Learning Total Focus?

Performance
Training for Development 12

Identification of Projects

Preparation & Analysis

Appraised

Implementation

Monitoring and Evaluation

Frequency Importance Learning Difficulty

1= Very / quite frequently 1. Extremely important 1. Extremely difficult

2= Regularly 2. Moderately important 2. Very difficult
3= Occasionally 3. Marginally important 3. Moderately difficult
4= Seldom 4. Easy

Task Analysis

Just as a job consists of various tasks, so does a task comprise of a number of steps or
components. As indicated earlier , in case job analysis fails to yield sufficient insights into the
nature of activity covered under a given job, it may be necessary to take the analysis further to
analyze each task. A study of these tasks, known as task analysis, enables trainers to develop a
fuller understanding of the detailed activities covered by a job, and to determine, at a more
detailed revel, the desirable focus of the training program.

The procedure used for task analysis is very similar to job analysis. This requires:

- Breaking down each task into its constituent elements (steps or components), and
- assessing these steps on the basis of the aforementioned criteria of frequency of
occurrence,
relative importance, and envisaged learning difficulties,

It should be noted that although the procedure for the two types of analyses is similar, their
rationale is some what different: unlike job analysis, take analysis is not aimed at deciding what
is to be included or what is to be excluded from training ( ie priorities b/n task). Instead, it is
directed at determining which steps should be given more emphasis or exposure in the course
of training once its overall content and broad area of focus have been determined through job
analysis. In this case, task analysis helps with the planning of training at a more detailed level
than job analysis.

Suggested procedure for completing Task Analysis work sheet.

Steps
1. At the top of the form, write down the tasks you decided should be the focus of your
training
activity
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2. List all the component parts of each of the tasks to be taught in the training program.
3. Determine low frequently each step or components is performed.
4. Indicate the relative importance of each
5. Estimate the difficulty of learning each step
6. Tally up the total score for each

Task Analysis Worksheet

Task = Project monitoring

Steps / Components Frequency of Performance Importance Learning difficulty Total.focus

System Design

Data Collection

Data Processing

Data Analysis

Presentation of Results

Frequency: Importance: Learning Difficulty:

1. Very /quite frequently 1. Externally Important 1. Externally difficult

2. Regularly 2. Moderately Important 2. Very difficult
3. Occasionally 3. Marginally important 3. Moderately difficult
4. Seldom 4. Easy.

Some further assessment of the tasks is necessary to refine your focus and make decisions
regarding allocation of resources for teaching specific tasks and steps. A gap analysis helps you
to do this. In this step you will determine if there is a gap between what prospective trainees
know, and what they need to know to function effectively in their jobs. Your job is to
determine if there is a gap, and then to see if training might be a remedy. If, for instance, you
have reason to believe that trainees are already knowledgeable in a task - there is no gap, and
therefore little reason to include teaching this topic in your training activity. Alternatively, you
might find that, yes, there is a difference between “what is” and “what should be”. You must
then analyze this gap and determine if training will solve the problem.

The sample gap analysis worksheet indicates that trainees were already proficient in performing
one of the component skills and that training would not cause any change in behaviour. Hence,
it will be more efficient to increase the time available for training other skills in which trainees
are not competent.
Sample of completed worksheet
GAP ANALYSIS WORKSHEET
JOB: Rice Farmer
TASK: Fertilizing

Tasks/Components Required Standards Present Ability Gap? Training

Training for Development 14

Gap?

Collect soil samples for Able to Unable to do collect soil Yes Yes
analysis. - collect soil samples at right location, according to procedure.
depth, and amount.
- Properly package and send for analysis.

Identify types of basal Able to recognize types of basal Can select the right basal No No
fertilizers for soil. fertilizers. fertilizers.

Identify amount of fertilisers Able to determine the fertilizer amount Can only do simple Yes Yes
required for soil. required through simple calculation. estimation of fertilizers
required.

Identify nutrient deficiency Able to recognize NPK, Fe and Mg Able to recognize Yes Yes
symptoms in plants. deficiency symptoms by visual inspection deficiency symptom of N
of leaves. only.

Identify types of fertilizers Able to recognize types of fertilizer Competent in selecting the No No
required by plants. required at various growth stages. right types of fertilizer

Determine amount of Able to determine fertilizer requirement Can only do simple Yes Yes
fertilizers required by plants. through simple calculation. estimation of fertilizer
requirement.

Determine time of Able to recognize various growth stages Can apply at No No

application. of plant, for the right time of fertilizer
application.

Apply fertilizers. Able to correctly apply as recommended. Able to apply correctly. No No

Training for Development 15

2.1.2 DESIGN AND PREPARATION OF TRAINING

Course development is an important part of the overall planning of training. It follows needs
assessment in the training phases and comprises typically of the following components:

- Defining training objectives in the light of needs identified

- Developing course curriculum to achieve there objectives
- Selecting and developing instructional design to ensure effective delivery of the training
course. This last step in turn involves decisions about designing and preparing training
materials and choosing appropriate aids.

The rest of this chapter focuses on the primarily considerations of; and inter- linkages between
the above three components of course development.

2.1.2.1. From Needs Assessment to Training Objectives

An objective is a statement of what is to be accomplished by an activity. In the training context,

objectives arise out of ‘gaps’ and ‘deficiencies’ identified in the process of needs assessment.
They indicate what is to be done about these gaps by stating an end-of-training performance out
come.

Objectives thus link two important stages of planning in the training phase: need assessment
and the design and preparation of training. Defining objectives is also important for the
delivery of training as well as for evaluating its outcomes.

Importance of Objectives

- It gives a sound basis for selection and design of instructional materials, content and
method
- It provides in basis for deciding whether the instruction was successful in achieving the
objectives. In the absence of learning objectives, assessment of instruction is largely
impossible
- When trainees know what is expected of them they can organize their efforts more
effectively. They are secure in the knowledge that what they are doing will contribute to
the achievement of objectives. They will drive satisfaction from the achievement of
objectives.
- A clear statement of course objectives may aid the selection of individuals for a course.
In many situations selection is based on an individuals’ ability to complete a course.
- It enhances communication between trainer and trainees.

How to Write Objectives

Clear objectives need to let the trainee and the evaluator know exactly

- What improvements are being sought

- Under what conditions these standards are to be attained
Training for Development 16

- What standards of performance are to be attained

To achieve these would in turn require that the specified objectives are observable, measurable
and understood by all.

The three essential components of objectives are performance, conditions and standards.

Performance

Performance is stated in terms of what the trainee will be able to do by the end of the learning
experience.

In converting needs into objectives, three areas of performance may be focused on:

1. Skills: it is normally easier to write learning objectives for skill related jobs. As skills are
more readily observable or identifiable, they can be stated fairly specially compared to the other
two categories of learning.

Eg. Action verbs for constructing skill related objective

Assemble Design Make
Collect Fix Measure
Construct Install Perform
Demonstrate Locate Show

2. Knowledge: Most learning objectives involve some kind of knowledge, although

knowledge does not by itself change performance. One potential difficulty in writing
knowledge related objectives is to differentiate those which raise general awareness and
understanding.

Eg. Action verbs for constructing knowledge related objectives

Analyze Describe List
Categorize Evaluate Match
Compare Express Order
Define Group Relate

3. Attitude: This is perhaps the most controversial areas of learning, and one which is least
susceptible to measurement.

Eg. Action verbs for constructing attitude related objectives

Accept Defend Prescribe
Agree Encourage Recommend
Choose Help
Cooperate Lead

Here are a few examples for setting expected end-of-training performance objectives
- To conduct price analysis in the agricultural sector
Training for Development 17

- To assess the impact of different macroeconomic polices on the performance of the

agricultural sectors
- To analyses the impact of a new irrigation project on household income.

Conditions

This specifies the limitations or constraints under which the performance is expected to take
place. It should be noted that these are not limitations of the learning situation, but of the
terminal performance

A few examples are given below

- To perform demand analysis in a dynamic context

- To identify sources of distortion in the agricultural sector in an open economy
- To forecast the likely impact of new technology given base line data.

Standards

This states or defines what is acceptable standard of performance. Under the first component,
we were only looking for performance, and under the second the condition under which that
performance should occur. Under standards we lock at the required criteria for judging
performance or how well the learner is expected to perform.

Here are some examples

- to enumerate four specific areas of market failure

- To organize a 3- day training course on project appraisal
- To provide a detailed commentary on the impact of macro economic policy on the
agricultural sector

Criticism and Limitations

Convincing as the case for objectives may be, some trainers view its value with some
skepticism. Some of these skepticisms to objectives are:

- The time and care invested in writing objectives would been to be a logical and a
commons sense approach to training and few would fail to agree that training could
only benefit from having specific objectives on which to base the design of training.
- There were a number of trainers who found the use of a rigorous systematic approach
difficult to cope with. In particular attitudes hardened against the writing of objectives.
The prescription for writing objectives was seen as unnecessarily rigid in its demands
for the outcomes of training to be described in terms of performance, condition and
standards.
- In writing objectives it is expected that performance that a trainee has to demonstrate at
the end of training must be “observable and measurable.” While this adds to the
Training for Development 18

criticism already introduced, it also suggests that those parts of the training program
that contain general interest, enrichment and educational material should be cut out.
- In addition a number of trainers have said that they have had difficulty in composing
objectives. One problem is the excessive amount of time spent in trying to find the
appropriate word to describe the kinds of behavior the trainee has to demonstrate.
Further difficulty is encountered in trying to decide and express how performance
should be identified and measured.
- The problem is more acute when it comes to writing objectives which reflect attitudinal
training outcomes. It may be comparatively easy to write performance statements
describing attitudinal behavior, but the problem of measuring whether or not a trainee
has developed or changed an attitude is considered to be highly subjective unless trust
is placed in the performance observed.

2.1.2.2. Training Course Development

After training objectives have been clarified, it becomes necessary to define the scope of the
training course. Known as syllabus design or curriculum development, this is an important step
in the translation of training objectives into actual training program.

What is a Syllabus?

Generally a syllabus is a listing or outlining of the content which is to be learnt. It contains the
main topic headings, sub- headings, headings, and may go to several levels of specificity. The
syllabus does not normally indicate how learning is to take place, rather what is to be learnt. It
spells out learning units, their sequence, and degree of importance or priority.

The main purpose of syllabus designs is to clarify the subject matter to be trained and to show
how it will be approached. It can at the some time be seen as a form of remote control over the
composition of the training to be recruited.

Step in Training Content Development

Three stapes are involved in the design of training curriculum:

- Defining the course content or components (in terms of parts, chapters, sections or sub-
sections.
- Establishing the relative importance of each components, and
- Deciding the sequence in which they are to be covered

Defining Content

Some trainers would agree that at this stage of course design, objectives should serve as a
check list, each of the stated learning objectives should be readily identifiable in the
curriculum. Conversely there should not be any part of the curriculum that does not relate to
pre-determined objective.
Training for Development 19

Trainers are likely to benefit from some or all of the following criteria when deciding what are
to be included in their course:

- Can the proposed content meet the previously stated objectives?

- Can the proposed content meet the previously identified training needs?
- Can the proposed content lead to the performance specified?
- How does it compare with, or stand up to, the experience of other trainers offering
identical or similar course?
- How are the trainees likely to find it?

Categorizing Content

The next stage in syllabus design is to establish the relative importance of its components.

This is importance partly for organizational considerations (i.e. allocating training time
between different parts and topics) and partly for signaling to trainees how much of their
learning effort should be devoted to each topic.

Trainers should make explicit their assumptions about the relative importance of different
components in the course. One simple way of doing this is to differentiate between material
they deem to be essential (highly recommended) or additional (optional). An important
consideration in deciding what falls into each category is whether the topic in question can be
omitted without implications for meeting the training objectives.

Sequencing Content

After the content has been decided, and the relative importance of its components established,
the next question to consider is the sequence or order in which it is to be presented to trainees.

One approach is the general to the specific. In this situation, the trainee is first introduced to the
overview, and then the content is presented that moves toward the specific.

Summary check list for Designing Syllabus:

Developing
- Define content (keep objectives in view).
- Decide relative weight of components
- Sequence; define inter- connections

Presenting
- Keep outline clear; section appropriately; choose titles carefully.
- Give details where necessary (e.g. amount of time on each part; relative importance of
each topic)
- Indicate the span and scope of course by giving a flavor of essential and/ or
recommended reading.
Training for Development 20

2.1.2.3. Training Materials

Training materials refer to all forms of support prepared for, and used in, training.
Training materials can be used in a variety of circumstances and for a variety of purposes:
- The spoken word may not be sufficient to convey complicated information. Some
illustration or attempt at representation may be additionally required. Thus,
supplementary aids may be used to reinforce the training massage.
- They can help store the conveyed information in the memory of trainees.
- They provide interest and attraction to trainees, who may other wise succumb to the
monotony of verbal presentations.
- They promote participant involvement in the learning process.
- As a resource for future referencing, they extend the ‘shelf life’ of leaning well beyond
the training session(s).

Training materials can be divided into two major types:

- Print materials and
- Audio-visual support

Print materials include handouts, worksheets, boxed extracts, selected articles, exercises,
posters, leaflets, etc.

Audio-visual aids include chalkboard, white board, flip charts, overhead projector, film slides,
video and film and audio cassettes, etc.

Training materials refer to all tools, aids, media and other devices (in print or audio-visual
format) which are used to enhance learning effectiveness.

Choice of appropriate training materials

The choice of an appropriate training aid is often not a straight forward decision. This is partly
because of the availability of a wide range of aids with different characteristics and partly
because of the varying circumstances and contexts in which a decision has to be made.

In practice, several considerations influence the choice of suitable training aids:

- The context of training

- Costs
- The presentational characteristics of the media, and
- Their control features
The context in which training aids are to be used is often very varied. Variations occur in at
least four respects. There are:

- the subject matter of training

- Training method(s) to be used
- Group size
Training for Development 21

- Facilities available and trainees access to them. Cost considerations arise in at least two
levels of decision making
o How best to use available media and equipment, and
o The decision to set up, maintain and use a new system.

For most trainers teaching effectiveness will be paramount in the choice of training aids. If the
medium is not effective, then there is not much point in using it-regardless of how cheap or
accessible it may be.

Basically there is a lack of a sound and universal theory of media selection based on pedagogic
criteria, in turn partly due to the widely varied styles of teaching among individual trainers, and
partly due to the relatively recent increase in the choice of instructional media.

Other than contexts of use, costs, and presentational characteristics, the intrinsic features of the
media will also influence the choice of appropriate training aids. For instance, some aids may
be relatively more difficult to use, others may not tend themselves so readily to updating.

2.1.3 ESTIMATING TRAINING COSTS

Organizing and conducting an effective training program takes time, effort and money.
Unfortunately, money is not always available in the amounts organizers would like. It is,
therefore, important that those responsible for a training program learn to budget accurately for
any necessary expenditure to ensure that they can justify fully the requests they may make for
funds.

The financial allocation for a training program must be based on a properly prepared budget
which can stand up to close scrutiny and be defended during discussion. No overall amount per
person can be suggested for a training program as the costs vary according to:
- the type of training provided;
- the size of the training group;
- the administrative costs of training such as supplies and classroom materials; equipment
and field materials; travel expenses; number of training staff involved; and, other staff
expenses.

A framework within which estimated training costs may be allocated is given below.

Item Cost
Transport
Numb of participants x cost of transport for each round trip.
Number of guest staff x cost of transport for each round trip.

Per diem or subsistence allowance

Number of participants x amount per day x number of days on course, plus an appropriate
number of days for travel to and from the course.
Number of guest staff days required x appropriate allowances per day and for travel time.
Training for Development 22

Supplies and materials

Number of participants x cost of training materials per participant.

The accuracy of this estimate can be improved steadily if records of materials issued and unit
costs are maintained by the Documentation and Proceedings Committee.

Honoraria for lecturers

Number of hours (or teaching units) taught by lecturers x rate of honorarium per hour or unit.

Educational field trips

Determine the number of field trips planned.
Compute costs on basis of vehicle distance covered at the standard rate per kilometer for each
vehicle used.
Include overtime or any special payments for drivers.

Overhead expenses
This item may be hard to determine precisely initially and it is often simply quoted as a
percentage of the overall costs of the program. It should cover any additional secretarial or
domestic staff requirements during the course. An allowance of 10 - 15% should be made
initially in most cases. This can be adjusted for subsequent courses on the basis of records of
the actual costs incurred.

Miscellaneous
This is frequently computed on the basis of 10% of the total budgetary requirements, including
overhead expenses. It should be held in reserve to finance any item of expenditure which could
not reasonably have been forseen and which, if not met, would seriously affect the standard of
training offered.

2.2 CONDUCTING TRAINING

2.2.1 Training Techniques

In principle, there are a wide variety of techniques that trainers can employ to conduct their
courses. In practice, however, choice is constrained by such factors as trainer’s confidence and
competence, and resources available for training.

This section outlines the pedagogic features of a number of common techniques. These are
classified into three groups, reflecting their broad common areas of functionality. Some
methods are most suited for presenting information, others for encouraging participant
involvement, and yet others are best as activities outside the training room.

2.2.2 Presentational Techniques

Most training programs will involve, albeit to varying degrees, the transmission of new
information and knowledge to trainees. Presentational techniques are didactic for most part, i.e,
they are one way communications from the trainer/tutor to learners. They economize both on
Training for Development 23

space and time given their ability to put across a large amount of material to sizeable audiences
in limited periods of time. Their drawbacks relate to the passive nature of their approach to
instruction, their limited success in arousing participants’ interests, sustaining their
concentration, and achieving satisfactory memory retention rates.

2.2.2.1 Lecture

Lecture is one of the most common forms of presenting information to an audience,

particularly of a large size. Communication is mostly one way: while the lecture goes on the
audience listen and (normally) take notes. It is customary to defer questions (Other than those
with a clarifying nature) to the end of the session.

Lecture allows a large volume of material to be covered in a relatively short-period of time.

This explains its proven appeal to situations when time considerations are over-riding (as in
intensive training courses). The effectiveness of lecture can be boosted if it is accompanied by
appropriate visual support and written material. For instance, the provision of summary notes
and handouts can assist learners create a mental structure of the material presented to them,
usefully direct their concentration, and moderate the pressure on them to take notes.

The main difficulty arises from the didactic nature of teaching. Lecture does not address the
needs of the individual learner; nor does it provide opportunities for the audience to participate
- thus keeping them as passive listeners. Besides, most people are unable to concentrate for
more than a relatively short period. Thus assimilation tends to be haphazard and selective: parts
of the material may even be missed altogether or inaccurately recorded. Moreover, in the
absence of feedback it is difficult to judge whether or how much of the material covered is
actually taken in. Retention rates too tend to be alarmingly low: unless possibilities are
provided for discussion, practice, simulation or activities of the like, most of what is ‘heard’ in
the lecture room typically tends to be rapidly forgotten.

Useful Hints:

Despite its shortcomings, the effectiveness of lecture can be improved by taking a few practical
steps:

The quality of a lecture is closely controlled by the quality of the spoken word.
Make sure you are audible. Avoid jerky, irregular speech or one with a monotonous
tone. Speaking with a ‘tired’ voice too can cause a ‘switch off’ among listeners.
Avoid speaking too fast or too slowly (remember memory retention is aided by the
right speed of speech). Speaking from notes can help structure the lecture, and
improve its quality.

The right spoken word needs the right mannerism. Make sure your face can be
seen by most class members. Avoid distracting, irritating, or alienating habits
(chewing, pacing up and down, repeated use of the same phrases or catch words,
playing with pens, etc).

Provide an overview to help trainees appreciate the importance of the main points,
to locate them within the overall structure of a talk, and to see the inter-relationships
Training for Development 24

between its various elements. To assist this, the information may be grouped into
broad segments or parts.

Avoid overloading the lecture. Running short of teaching material during a lecture
may be embarrassing (a common fear for the novice lecturer!), yet overloading it
can reduce its effectiveness: it will hasten the pace of the presentation, and create
boredom and confusion among the participants.
The amount of material that can be viably presented will depend on the nature of the subject
and its complexity. For technical materials (which involve the use of equations and/or graphs),
a more step-by-step approach is required. Also sufficient time must be allowed to enable
participants to take notes. It will be necessary to slow down at times, to repeat the main points
and to recapitulate results, particularly before changing topic.

( Carefully choose the required type and level of visual support. As demonstrated, the
use of appropriate visual support can increase the effectiveness of training. Overhead
transparencies and slides can structure a lecture and give it a welcome respite from an
otherwise long monologue. They can also clarify and reinforce the points made, and help
learner retention. Similarly, the use of prepared handouts can improve the focus of lecture
and reduce the burden of frantic note-taking on listeners.

( Clarify from the start whether you would allow questions during the lecture. While it
may be good practice in general to allow (and encourage) questions during a lecture (such as
when the presentation is long), other considerations may in practice over-rule this: for short
presentations, or when retaining a tight focus is essential, it may be better to defer questions
until a suitable moment. Providing some opportunity for follow-up discussion too can increase
the effectiveness of lecture.

( Allowing for teaching method variations in the lecture room too can increase its
effectiveness. Creating opportunities for interruption was mentioned above. Buzz group is
another method: the lecturer stops for a few minutes and asks small groups of people sitting
next to each other to deliberate on a particular issue. They will then be asked to put forward
their ideas.

2.2.2.2 Demonstration

A demonstration is a classroom technique in which the trainer illustrates a certain technique or

skill under actual or simulated conditions.

As with lecture, demonstration is a presentation technique, intended to impart new knowledge

(skills in this case) to learners. In a demonstration, however, participants have the added
advantage of actually seeing the results of more abstract theories and concepts.

A demonstration may be conducted ‘live’ with the trainer performing the task in the presence
of the trainees (sometimes followed by trial sessions). Or, it may be assisted by visuals (slides,
film, video, etc), to illustrate how the task may be carried out under specified circumstances.
Training for Development 25

The main advantage of demonstration is that it shows learners how a task may be actually
conducted. In this sense, it can be both ‘convincing’ (raising learners’ confidence in the
trainer’s ability), and alerting (making them aware of the practical dimensions of heir training).
The visual aspect of demonstration also represents an improvement over lecture in that it
enables better assimilation and retention rates to be achieved.

The advantage of demonstration in teaching a range of ‘mechanical’ jobs and skills should be
evident (eg packaging, gardening, crop protection, fence-building, driving, painting and
decorating, etc). However, it can also be used to impart practical skills (of not always very
high intellectual level) in a number of other different contexts:

( Calculation techniques: the trainer can take time to demonstrate, through appropriate
examples and exercises, calculation techniques such as shadow prices, farm budgets, policy
analysis matrix, etc)

( Computer sessions: demonstrations are also very common for introducing new software
(data base, spreadsheet, survey analysis) or illustrating their usage for particular purposes (eg
electronic mail).

Much of the steps which raise the effectiveness of lecture (see above) also apply to a
demonstration session (pace of presentation, its structure and overview, the quality of speech
and mannerism, etc).

However, for demonstration to be particularly effective, a few more points should be observed:

( Given its practical angle, it may be helpful to actually start a demonstration session with
common and popular mistakes: showing how not to do things may be as, if not more,
instructive as showing how to do them.
( Demonstration sessions must provide ample opportunities for questions from
participants - to clarify ambiguities, to relate points raised to their own experiences, and to
consolidate their comprehension in general.
( Ideally they must be followed by trial sessions to give trainees an opportunity to
practice their observed instructions.

2.2.3 Participatory Techniques

As implied by their collective name, participatory techniques involve learners in the process of
learning, enable them to air their viewpoints, and encourage them to draw from their own
backgrounds and experiences in the course of training.

Moreover, whereas presentational methods involve participants mostly in ‘hearing’ about, and
at best ‘seeing’ the results of, new knowledge and information, many participatory techniques
involve them in active or experiential learning and ‘learning and ‘learning by doing’.

As we shall see, their possible drawbacks are mostly to do with their relatively time consuming
nature, preparation requirements and costs, and less direct trainer control over their execution.
Training for Development 26

Brainstorming

Brainstorming is a spontaneous and none-evaluative technique of generating innovative and

creative ideas by the facilitator and the group. A small group of persons is given a problem and
asked to produce as many solutions as possible within a given period. It aims at creativity and
encouraging thinking on new lines, so that all aspects of a problem are considered.

The ideas presented are recorded so that everyone can see them. When a large number of
suggestions are made and after the brainstorming session, the ideas can be discussed further,
for example listing the best options in a systematic way, and then evaluates their merits and
demerits. A reasonably small number of worthwhile final solutions may emerge from this
evaluation.

Advantages Limitation

1. Highly participatory 1. Group size - neither too small nor too big
2. Productive 2. Integration of ideas generated requires high
3. Synergistic skills on the part of the trainer
4. Non-Judgmental 3. Not all brainstorming exercises prove equally
5. Creative experience creative and innovative
6. Problem solving
7. Time saving
8. Idea pooling

Buzz Group

This technique is a modified form of brainstorming, which aims to generate new ideas and
solutions on the basis of small group discussions. This technique involves dividing a large
group into much smaller ones.

A buzz group normally consists of about 5-6 members. The group may be asked to produce
ideas on a narrow or an open-ended topic within a specified time limit. It is customary for the
group to appoint a reporter to convey their findings at the end of their deliberations.

The range of topics assigned for buzz group discussion may vary widely. Some examples are
given below:

Thinking about applications of a theory

Raising questions

Drawing a list of issues

Identifying the causes of a particular problem

This approach can also be used occasionally in the lecture room, where the lecturer stops for a
few minutes and asks small groups of people sitting next to each other to deliberate on a
Training for Development 27

particular issue. One advantage of this approach - apart from breaking the monotony of the
lecture and injecting a sense of participation - is to check learners' understanding of particular
issues before proceeding to other, more complicated, ones.

Buzz group, however, differs from brainstorming in two respects:

Smaller, more informal nature: as stated above, a buzz group consists of a small group
of
participants 'buzzing' together for a relatively short period of time (sometimes a few
minutes).

Discussions: contrary to brainstorming, where criticism is deferred until after ideas

have been
pulled together, in the buzz group, discussion features an important part of the process
of in-
group exchange of ideas.

The main obstacles to using buzz session lie in unfamiliarity with their use, the time, the need
for leaders or facilitators within each sub-group, and the need to have tables and chairs
arranged for quick and easy discussions. In particular, feedback may take time. Another way to
organize feedback is to have one group present their ideas with other groups only contributing
new ideas, avoiding any repetition.

Symposium

A Symposium is a meeting where a series of speeches by experts on a subject presented to the

audience. Each one speaks for a definite amount of time and presents a different sub-division
of a general topic. No discussion among the speakers is allowed. Interaction with the audience
is not expected. As a rule, this technique is used for exploration of topics, rather than for
problem solving or discussion.

Advantages Limitations

1. Simplicity and convenience 1. Not very effective in teaching skills or

2. Not much preparatory effort changing attitudes
3. The size of the group may be very large 2. One way communication process
4. May stimulate interest in a particular area 3. No real involvement of the group in the
5. Convenient device to bring diverse talents process
together at one platform 4. Some people regard it as a waste of time
6. Promotes professional contacts. 5. Not much serious learning impact.

Case Study

Case study involves detailed examination of a specific situation. The situation or experience
placed under scrutiny may be real or hypothetical, yet must be carefully chosen to reflect on,
and closely relate to, the core of the training program.
Training for Development 28

In studying a case trainees develop skills to analyze to situation and to think through the
consequences by applying (or failing to apply) relevant principles or practices. Thus the
methodological strength of case study is that it combines practical/problem solving approaches
to learning with detailed, in-depth analysis of particular situations.

By ‘bringing in a chunk of reality’ into the classroom, case studies are best used as
complementary activities to other training methods. For instance, whereas lecture is most
effective in communicating basic information on a subject (not much of which is subsequently
retained!), case study is best used as a supplementary activity for the application of that
knowledge.

Careful selection of case studies can thus make an important contribution to:

The development of understanding

Synthesis of ideas; and

Critical ability

Historically, the use of case study has reflected its overall appeal in dealing with real situations,
practical problems and policy decisions rather than with overarching development of
theoretical abstraction. No wonder that its use has been widely associated with such
professions as business studies, medicine, social work and law. Today, of course, case study is
a powerful and versatile teaching tool used in training contexts in a large number of disciplines
including agriculture.

Focus areas:

To maximize learning opportunities, five areas need to be focused when dealing with case
studies:

Problem identification: This requires a detailed scrutiny of the case so as to

understand its features, and to highlight its principal problem(s). This stage is the
‘set up’ stage, involving a test of trainees’ ability to process details and to apply
analytical and critical thinking to disparate situations.

Possible solutions: Identifying problems inevitably leads to the need to formulate
possible solutions. Here, trainees acquire skills in problem solving and decision
making.

Problem prevention: ‘Prevention is often the best cure’. A case study should also
contribute to the trainees’ ability to foresee problems and to prevent them from
arising in the first instance. This is arguably as important as acquiring skills in
handling problems after they have occurred and merits to feature as an important
part of the discussions.

General issues opened up by the case: Beyond its narrower confines what other
general issues are raised by the case? Often cases can be useful springboards into
more general discussions of principles and policy (eg the importance of appropriate
macro policies for successful project management, the social implications of
Training for Development 29

introducing user charges, the gender dimensions of technical projects, and so on).
These general issues can usefully extend the span of discussions and should,
therefore, not be lost sight of.

Relation to theory and knowledge: This requires relating the case to the theories
rules and knowledge covered in training. For instance, how does a particular case of
training needs assessment being considered reflect on the general discussion of
manpower planning techniques covered earlier in the guide? How would you relate
the particular case of an irrigation project to the general theories of water resource
management? And so on.

More Useful Hints:

Apart from the above broad areas of focus, a number of other considerations can be
instrumental in raising the effectiveness with which case studies are used:

Suggest an overview of the case by way of introduction. This will also help stimulate
trainees'
thoughts and sensitize them to particular areas of thinking.

Suggest the need for accurate and clear understanding of underlying issues before
problems are
identified, and solutions offered.

Encourage justifying the solutions in terms of the key principles of the course.

Provide an opportunity for debriefing the case so that learners can explore the relevance
of the
points arising from the case to their application environment.

Many problems in the use of case studies can be traced to the selection stage.

More often than not, even when there are compelling reasons for the use of case material in
teaching, trainers' efforts at locating suitable study material are frustrated. This raises the
possibility of either editing and adapting available material, or preparing and developing
new ones. Both these options can be highly costly and time-consuming. On the other hand,
more often than not trainers may be surprised at the ready availability of suitable material
that can be used for specific purposes. Some searching around, and networking with other
experienced trainers, can often pay off and is well worth serious consideration before a
more drastic course of action is adopted.

Group Discussion

Discussion allows trainees to exchange ideas among themselves and/or with the trainer. It
stimulates interest and, if conducted skillfully, can encourage participants to draw on their own
experiences to contribute to the topic under discussion. Used at an early stage in the course,
discussion can also help break the ice and to provide participants an opportunity to practice
self-expression.

Discussions may be held either in a structured or in an informal manner.

Training for Development 30

Structured discussions

These are normally organized around some reading, an activity, written or verbal questions or a
combination of these. Structured discussions should be clearly built into the agenda for
training, with sufficient time for preparation, relevant and adequate materials, and clear
instructions for all participants.

In conducting discussions, two different types of questions may be used to different effects.

( Open questions may be used to encourage spontaneity. These allow participants to use
their own language, categories, and expressions when responding to questions. This may
prove a particularly useful tactic in getting discussions going, sustaining interest and
encouraging involvement.

( Closed questions are more useful in sharpening up and maintaining a tight focus in
discussions. They seek specific answers to specific questions, and will usefully remind
participants of the key points in the discussions.

Discussions are unlikely to be effective if the group exceeds a reasonable size (about 20-25
people in most cases). In general, the larger the group size, the greater the trainer skills needed
to manage a successful discussion session.

One way round the size problem is to divide up the group into smaller (syndicate) groups of
about 7 to 10 people. If divisions reflect a particular purpose, care should be taken to ensure
the right mix and match (eg combining enthusiasts with unenthusiastic, those with good
technical skills such as drawing graphs or reading maps with those lacking them, and so on).
This information should be available from individual training needs assessment.

However, divisions are often made on purely ad hoc basis. In this case, groups may be
obtained simply through (a verbal) allocation of random numbers to participants around the
table (numbers vary between one and the number of groups required - eg between one and
three, if three groups are to be formed). The process is repeated until everybody has been
assigned a number. All those with identical numbers will then form a group.

Clear instructions to each group will be necessary to define their tasks. Indication should also
be given as to how much time may be allocated to initial preparation (reading the material,
reflecting on the questions), and how much to spend on sub-group discussions before reporting
back.

Once the groups have been formed and a start has been made, it will be necessary for the
trainer to monitor them to ensure that all members are reasonably clear about their tasks.

After the report back discussions, the trainer should try to consolidate the findings by
summarizing discussions (if necessary periodically) and providing some concluding remarks.
Training for Development 31

Informal discussions

Occasionally, it is useful to hold informal discussions which allow participants to air their
opinions or to seek help and advice on particular issues of concern to them. These differ from
structured discussion in that they are not built into the training agenda, and do not require
preparatory work by participants either in whole or syndicate groups.

The main values of informal discussions are in:

Providing useful feedback on participant views and feelings

Monitoring their progress

Consolidating results and providing opportunities for revision at useful intervals; and

Encouraging involvement among trainees

Although these discussions may be held at any point in the course, they are especially effective
at ‘natural’ break points, ie when changing topics, or before moving on to new activities.

To avoid being embroiled in lengthy discussions (often dominated by the more articulate few),
trainers will need to exercise particular skills in shaping up and guiding discussions. As in
structured discussions, a careful combination of open and closed questions should be used to
spark off exchanges, to keep them focused, and to direct them to a satisfactory end.

Role Play

Role play is a training technique in which participants ''act out'' hypothetical or real life
situations in front of an audience. The trainees are given necessary background information and
some ideas about how to organize their roles. There is no set dialogue or script: the parts are
made up as the activity proceeds. The group or audience (or both) then discuss the role play
and its implications for the problem under consideration.

Most people are familiar with the idea of role play from a passive position (watching plays and
TV, observing or recalling children's games, and so on). Yet, involving them in active role
plays in training can positively induce their interest, arouse emotional involvement, and
develop their spontaneity and problem solving skills.

Specifically, role plays can be used to:

Change or develop attitudes (eg putting an aid recipient in the shoes of the donor, or
vice versa -
the so-called reverse role play

Develop negotiation skills (as in project funding submissions)

Explore delicate human relations (eg in project management and monitoring)

Bring out the social and political environments of projects, the questions of human
constraints to
Training for Development 32

implementation, multiple and often conflicting objectives, the identification of

externalities,
hidden costs and benefits and the wider effects of a project.

Foster 'learning by doing', by making mistakes (in the face of inadequate data and time
pressure)
and benefiting from subsequent feedback. There is also scope for capturing the role
play scene
on video for feedback

The drama aspect in role plays enables the purely intellectual experience gained in most other
discussion techniques to be extended into an emotional experience as well. This can make role
plays a valuable support activity in many training contexts.

Role plays can take two forms:

1. Spontaneous role plays: group members discussing a situation may highlight a

problem area (such as those encountered in interviewing beneficiary farmers for collection
of monitoring data in a project area). Two members of the group may then act out the
interview, attempting to demonstrate how the problem arises, and how it may be resolved.

2. Structured role plays: a more common and possibly more useful type of role play. This is
based on prepared material (written, video, audio or a combination of these) with structured
goals. The necessary information must be provided for the participants (unless one role
player has knowledge of a hidden agenda). In this case, participants need sufficient time for
studying the material and for preparing their role plays.

Advantages Limitations
1. Good technique to depict delicate and 1. For good results, you need competent players
conflicting situations. 2. Lack of planning may lead to disastrous results.
2. May be used to supplement learning of 3. Many role plays suffer from artificiality of the
concepts and theories. situation.
3. Provides insight into behavioral patterns. 4. Players and the audience may be non-serious.
4. Encourages on-the -spot problem solving. 5. Time consuming.
5. Learning by doing. 6. You need competent and experienced facilitator.
6. Dramatic impact. 7. May be hurtful to sensitive people.
7. Effective way to change attitudes.

Workshop

Workshop is a meeting organized with the principal objective of promoting experiential

learning and producing identifiable results/solutions to problems. It may be held for a day or a
number of consecutive days. In workshop method the participants exchange ideas, experiences
and skills, and on this basis produce a product or prepare a program for future action. It helps
in correctly doing a job and proper shaping of action oriented program.
Training for Development 33

Advantages Limitations
1. Productive 1. Outcomes depend on the quality of
2. Participative facilitator and participants
3. Interesting and absorbing 2. It may sometime give rise to simplistic
4. Self-learning solutions to problems under ‘critical’
5. Creative 3. Less effective when organized under
6. Relevant to job needs ‘critical’ circumstances
7. Useful for all levels of participants
8. Sharing of knowledge/ experiences.

Seminar

A Seminar is a meeting arranged to share research outcome of a particular project through

lectures, papers, reports and discussions. It is conventional to have some discussion leaders.
The discussion papers prepared and presented by the participants on the bases of their study
and research, and discussion is based on primarily on these papers. This method has the
advantage of pooling together the opinion of a large number of persons. At the end, some
conclusions and recommendations are arrived at, for taking action.

Advantages Limitations
1. Pooling of expertise 1. The concept is not clear and many people
2. Research based findings confuse it with workshop or symposium.
3. Sharing of knowledge and experience 2. Quality of a seminar depends upon the quality
4. Productive ideas of principal speakers.
5. Problem centered solutions and strategies 3. Outcomes in many cases are not realistic.
6. Multi-dimensional analysis of a given
problem.

Participation in Development

Types of ‘Participation’

In recent years, there have been an increasing number of analyses of development projects
showing that ‘participation’ is one of the critical components of success in development
activities. All the evidence points towards long-term economic and environmental success
coming about when people’s ideas and knowledge are valued, and power is given to them to
make decisions independently of external agencies. The result has been the adoption of the
terms people’s participation’ and ‘popular participation’. The term ‘participation’ has different
meanings for different people. The term has been used to build local capacity and self-reliance.
It has been used to develop power and decision-making away from external agencies, but also
to justify external decisions. It has been used for data collection and also for interactive
analysis

There are basically seven ways that development organisations interpret and use the term
participation.
Training for Development 34

1 Passive Participation

People participate by being told what is going to happen or has already happened. It is a
unilateral announcement by an project management or extension agent without listening to
people’s responses. The information being shared belongs only to external professionals.

2 Participation in Information Giving

People participate by answering questions posed by extractive researchers using questionnaire

surveys or similar approaches. People do not have the opportunity to influence proceedings, as
the findings of the research are neither shared nor checked for accuracy

3 Participation by Consultation

People participate by being consulted, and external people listen to views. These external
professionals define both problems and solutions, and may modify these in the light of people’s
responses. Such a consultative process does not allow any share in decision-making, and
professionals are under no obligation to take on board people’s views.

4 Participation for material incentives

People participate by providing resources, for example, labor, in return for food, cash or other
material incentives. Much on-farm research falls in this category, as farmers provide the fields
but are not involved in the experimentation or the process of learning. It is very common to see
this called participation, yet people have no take in prolonging activities when the incentives
end.

5 Functional Participation

People participate by forming groups to meet predetermined objectives related to the project,
which can involve the development or promotion of externally initiated social organization.
Such involvement does not tend to be at early stages of project cycles or planning, but rather
after major decisions have been made. These institutions tend to be dependent on external
initiators and facilitators, but may become self-dependent.

6 Interactive participation

People participate in joint analysis, which leads to action plans and the formation of new local
institutions or the strengthening of existing ones. It tends to involve interdisciplinary
methodologies that seek multiple perspectives and make use of systematic and structured
learning processes. These groups take control over local decisions, and so people have a stake
in maintaining structures or practices.
Training for Development 35

7 Self-Mobilization

People participate by taking initiatives independent of external institutions to change systems.

They develop contacts with external institutions for resources and technical advice they need,
but retain control over how resources are used.

2.2.4 Exploratory Techniques

Other than the classroom techniques discussed in previous pages, trainers may also use a
number of other outside activities to enhance and enrich the process of training.

In practice these can take a variety of forms. However, three of the most common methods are
discussed below:

Field trip/visit

Assignment

The attractions they can offer as supplementary training activities are not difficult to see:

The reinforcement of classroom learning

Assessment and evaluation both by the learner and trainer

Feedback to the trainer

Increased attention to the needs of separate individuals and groups within the class

Another important advantage of providing out-of-class learning opportunities is that trainees

are encouraged to stretch their learning commitment beyond the hours spent in the classroom.

Field Trip/Visits

Field trips or visits enable learners to see at first hand, or try for themselves, some of the things
they have learnt in a training course.

To be effective and successful, field trips or visits need to be incorporated into the training
program with a clear sense of purpose. This in turn requires some effort on the part of the
trainer:

to communicate clearly the objectives of the activity from the start (or in advance),

to plan and administer it effectively; and

to provide ample opportunities for discussion and debate afterwards.

Not so infrequently, however, visits and field trips turn out to be mere 'social' events. The
possibility of this inherent drawback, which faces even the more serious and well though-out
outside activities, cannot be taken lightly even by the more competent trainers.
 Training for Development 36

These activities may take any of the following two common forms:

Visits: are mainly opportunities for learners to observe. Despite its passive nature, this
nevertheless has the advantage of enabling an activity or project to be seen in terms of its
environment. Some common, and useful, visit sites are:
- meetings(village assemblies, user groups or associations gatherings)
- exhibitions (civil works, handicrafts)
- trade fairs and markets
- project sites, etc.

Field studies: field activities can be turned into active learning experiences (involving
'doing' rather than merely 'seeing'). This can, for instance, be a valuable experience for
participants in a Survey Methods course dealing with various data gathering techniques.
Participants can be asked to prepare and test experimental questionnaires designed for a
particular purpose (such as measuring rural household income or livestock ownership), or
conduct interviews (with key informants) to gain insights into environmental problems of a
given region. For Project Planning, Monitoring & Evaluation, too, there are many purposeful
field study possibilities, which can enrich theoretical and abstract classroom discussions. For
instance, if used in conjunction with the trainees' project work, the learning value of a field trip
can be enhanced several fold.

Whether intended as mere observations, or designed to involve 'action', field trips are bound to
require a certain amount of trainer preparation ahead of time - particularly if their educational
value is not to give way to their entertainment appeal:

- Some written material may be needed for adequate guidance of visitors and project
writers.
- The administrative arrangements may appear to be burdensome, yet prove to be
worthwhile. For
instance, advance communication of details of participants, the course, purpose and the
expectations of the visit, etc to the receiving institution can often make visits much
more fruitful.
- For best results, participants need to be briefed beforehand and debriefed afterwards.

Advantages Limitations
1. Seeing is believing; doing is remembering 1. The entertainment aspect may dominate, or
2. Greater confidence in relating theory to even overwrite, its educational value
practice 2. Time may be a real constraint (especially
3. Extends the learning process to environments for
that are difficult to capture in the classroom short courses)
3. Elaborate arrangements may be needed
ahead
of time

Assignments

Assignments are probably the most familiar form of out-or-class activities. Most trainees will
have a good idea of what assignments are and what purposes they may serve from their school
Training for Development 37

days. In the professional, adult, learning context, too, the use of assignments can be usefully
explored to

Reinforce individual learning

To provide continuity between different sessions

To enrich and extend learning beyond the confines of classroom

Assignments can take a variety of forms, among which some of the most important are:

Reading: This is probably the simplest form of assigning work in between two
training sessions (over night or over the week-end). For many subjects, reading is an
important form of individual work, and most training contexts will require reading of some
sort. Specified as an assignment, a required or recommended reading is given the additional
advantage of being explicitly incorporated into the sequence of training.

There are many examples of such readings in this Guide. Selected readings can be used to a
variety of purposes:

- As a follow-up activity (eg updating a case study)

- To 'set the scene' for an ensuing discussion or lecture

The use of readings as assignments has the added advantage that it does not require much
preparatory work by the trainer: only careful selection and a clear signal at what point in the
training the required reading has to be completed.

Writing: Just as the habit of regular and (prompted) reading should be carefully
fostered in training, so should writing be used as an additional method in the armory of
learning activities intended to stretch and extend learning beyond the classroom.

The use of writing too can be flexible: it can take different forms and it may be used for
different purposes. For instance, writing can precede group discussions (eg as in preparing
summaries for case studies); it may be used as a follow-up (reflecting on and summing up
discussions); or it may be used as a basis for learner presentations.

Writing encourages learners to focus on particular issues and fosters their ability to
develop arguments clearly and creatively producing a piece of work is also regarded by many
learners as a considerable achievement - at times a much - needed boost to their morale!

Exercises: Exercises too can be used to consolidate learning, and/or to stretch it beyond
class contact hours. They are also ideal for providing practice opportunities for learners, and to
enable them to assess their progress.

To make exercises effective, a number of points need to be taken into account:

- the purpose needs to be clear
- The procedure for completing them needs to be clearly explained
- An idea of the expected outcome should be furnished beforehand.
Training for Development 38

Exercises are particularly valuable in fostering learners' ability to apprehend and apply
technical subjects and methods. They are also useful for revision and, if carefully selected and
appropriately used, as confidence building material.

Advantages Limitations
1. Reinforces individual learning 1. Marking may be time
2. Can provide continuity between different sessions consuming
3. Generates additional learning time 2. Success depends on learner
4. Can enrich and extend learning beyond the classroom commitment
5. Can act as morale booster
6. Does not always require much preparatory work by the
trainer

2.2.4 The Choice of Method

The preceding pages have discussed in some detail the pedagogic features of a
variety of training methods. This inevitably leads us to the question of what
method or methods are likely to be most appropriate?

Given the range of available techniques - and the diversity of circumstances in

which they are likely to be employed - it is all too easy to agonise over the
choice of 'a' suitable training method. In fact, it is doubtful whether any one
single method can be a panacea. In practice, it is a combination of the right
methods - and the interaction between them - that is likely to reinforce and
consolidate learning in the desired way. Besides, as demonstrated in Chapter 2,
varying methods reduces boredom and is likely to improve memory retention.
These tallies with the principle of 'using different methods and media to convey
the same message' common in distance and open learning.

The actual choice of method(s) will depend on trainer familiarity with the
'intrinsic' features of each technique plus considerations of the wider
circumstances in which they are to be employed (trainee characteristics, subject
matter, resources, etc). The former set of issues has already been covered. This
section takes up the latter, i.e. the wider determinants of the choice of training
methods.

Trainee Characteristics

Methods to be used should take into account the trainees' age, sex, educational
and social backgrounds, experiences, and considerations of the like - both
individually and in terms of the class mix and composition they give rise to.

We saw earlier why lecture is likely to be more beneficial to the more

experienced body of students. Similarly, some participatory techniques such as
role plays, games, and simulations are often found to give rise (at least initially)
Training for Development 39

to a certain amount of skepticism, or even active resentment, among the more

senior trainees (in terms of age or position).

The success of these methods is also closely tied with the group dynamics, in
turn controlled by class composition. For instance, techniques which require a
measure of discussion and exchange of opinion (eg discussion methods, case
study, brainstorming) are likely to benefit from groups with a good spread of
abilities, views, experiences and backgrounds.

Trainees' preconceptions and attitudes too affect the outcome of training. For
instance, they may be hostile to untried techniques (e.g. role play), or place
undue emphasis on what they are traditionally more at ease with (e.g. note -
taking).. Clearly, this can reduce the trainers' freedom of action and puts
additional burden on them to secure trainees' conviction in the value of
alternative methods.

Important useful information about participant abilities and their characteristics

can be obtained from the results of the training needs assessment, particularly if
conducted at the level of the individual.

Training Circumstances

Group size has already been singled out as an important determining factor in the choice of
training method. Despite its low retention success, for instance, the popularity of lecture was
attributed to its appeal to training for large and very large groups. On the contrary, it is
unlikely that any of the participatory techniques discussed so far will have much success with
large groups.

Here are some other relevant factors:

Time available: participatory techniques in general tend to be more time consuming, as are
activities outside the classroom. No matter how good a technique, it will not be effective if
there is simply not sufficient time for it (for preparation and/or delivery). Very often, 'ideal'
training techniques have to give way to practical considerations of the amount of time
available. The shorter and the more intensive the training, the more pressing will these
considerations be.

Facilities and resources: the amount of space (eg separate rooms for group work), the type of
seating, the availability of power points, the adequacy to heating and ventilation, and other
physical factors also need to be taken into account. Concentration elapses in overheated, noisy
and cramped rooms. Too large or too small a training room can be a handicap; uncomfortable
chairs distract; and inappropriate lighting can impede the visual aids used.
Training for Development 40

Subject Matter

The subject matter of training is another important consideration for the choice of suitable
training method(s). For instance, decision making or problem solving topics are best taught
through practical techniques with active trainee involvement (e.g. games and simulation). The
dissemination of facts and information is best achieved through presentational techniques (e.g.
lecture). Skills are best transmitted through demonstration, followed, if possible, by trial and
practice sessions. To depict the range of opinion or diversity of experiences, case studies and
discussion methods would be useful. Likewise, visits and field trips are suitable as action
learning tools, and as reinforcements for classroom learning.

Trainers' ''Comparative Advantage''

Naturally, not everybody is good at everything. Some trainers may be better at lecturing, others
at handling focused discussions and questions. Some are more at ease inside the training room,
yet others have a special flair for arranging outside activities.

The ultimate choice of training method(s) should allow for these differences. Trainers should
assess their own skills so that they can choose those methods which reflect best their areas of
confidence, and competence, and for which they feel they have suitable talents.

2.3 EVALUATION OF TRAINING

2.3.1 WHAT IS EVALUATION

Evaluation is a process which attempts to determine as systematically and objectively as

possible the relevance, effectiveness and impact of activities in the light of their objectives, i.e.
their aims and purposes.

Definition of Training Evaluation

Training Evaluation is a systematic process of collecting and analysing information for and
about a training activity which can be used for planning and guiding decision making as well as
for assessing the relevance and effectiveness of various training components. It is also used to
determine the immediate results of the activity.
Process implies that it must be undertaken before, during and after training

Tyler, who developed the objectives approach to curriculum design, sees evaluation as a
mechanism for the analysis of the effectiveness of the objectives. He states that evaluation is
essentially the process of determining to what extent the training objectives are actually being
realised by the program of curriculum and instruction.
Training for Development 41

2.3.2 Benefits of Evaluation

Feedback from evaluation work brings substantial benefits in terms of improved training and
curriculum planning decisions.

It may be used to feed into policy decision, to act as a springboard for further research, as
grounds for continued or discontinued founding for public information

2.3.3 Types of Training Evaluation

Basically, there are five types of evaluation. These are:

- Evaluation for Planning

- Evaluation of Methods and Materials
- Process Evaluation
- Terminal Evaluation
- Follow-up Evaluation

Evaluation for Planning

Training needs assessment is a tool for evaluation for planning. It provides the baseline date
upon which all planning decisions are made. This information will enable to make critical
decisions regarding formulation of training objectives and course content, etc.

Evaluation of Methods and Materials

There are many instructional methodologies and types of materials from which to choose.
However, not all are equally effective for reaching all types of trainees or for teaching specific
content.

Each instructional method/material has specific characteristics and advantages and depending
on such factors as types of trainees, subject matter being taught. It is therefore suggested that
all instructional methods intended to be used should be evaluated for their effectiveness with
the target audience.

Process Evaluation

Process evaluation is conducted to detect or predict defects in the procedural design of a

training activity during the implementation phase. Key elements of a training activity are
monitored in a systematic manner with the goal of identifying potential problems before they
become serious.

It is also used to measure trainee progress toward the objectives set during the planning phase.

Process evaluation is a tool to help improve the efficiency and effectiveness of a training
program. The overall process evaluation strategy identifies and monitors on a continuous basis
Training for Development 42

the potential sources of failure and also tells about trainee progress towards achieving training
objectives.

Process evaluation is conducted periodically throughout the duration of the training. It focuses
on anything that occurs during implementation that has an important effect on success of the
training activity. It examines such contributing factors as:

- Change in trainee knowledge, attitude or skill

- Effectiveness of training methods and materials
- Interpersonal relationship among trainees
- The performance of trainers
- The extent to which people involved in and the training activity are in
agreement with its intent.
- Adequacy of the resources, the physical facilities, staff and the time
schedule.

Both formal and informal methods are commonly used in process evaluation. formal method
include knowledge, attitude or skill tests (exam) and instruments that may require trainees,
instructors, administrative staff, and service personnel, to give their opinions on various aspects
of the training activity. Informal methods such as round table discussions and individual
interviews can also used. There are no hard and fast rules on selection of methods.

Remember that process evaluation is conducted so as to have some idea of the progress and to
identify potential problems before the end of the training activity. If done early, there will be
time to make adjustments and corrections.

Terminal Evaluation

The primary objective of terminal evaluation is to determine the degree to which the intended
training objectives and goals have been met and to relate these findings to evaluation
information collected earlier in the training process. It is conducted at the end of the training
activity.

The major focus of a terminal evaluation is learner performance. Learner performance can be
assessed in various ways. One way is by comparing pre-training measurements with post-
training measurements. In this method, the trainer will present results as learning gains.
Another way is by comparing the objectives of the training activity with what has actually been
learnt. Trainers who resort to the latter procedure tend to concentrate on full competency. The
first method is closely related to norm-referenced evaluation while the second is known as
criterion-referenced evaluation.

Terminal evaluation focuses on many of the same areas as process evaluation, including
organization, facilities and resources. Terminal evaluation, however, tends to concentrated
more on trainees overall impression of the training activity.
Training for Development 43

By far the most common method used in terminal evaluation is to test knowledge, attitudes and
skills. Test results are then compared either with pre-determined standards (as specified in
objectives) or with entry level knowledge (as measured by a pretest).

As in process evaluation, training activity evaluation forms completed by trainees can also
provide valuable information on such organizational factors as length, focus, facilities and
resources.

This means that two general methods are used in terminal evaluation:

• Actual measurement of change in trainee knowledge, attitude or skill competence,

• Measurement of trainee perceptions about the training activity.

Many training activities use trainee perceptions as the base for this evaluation. This kind of
evaluation information can reveal a great deal about a training activity. Trainee perceptions can
be very valuable in pinpointing reasons for training activity success or failure.

Potential problem areas about which trainees should be asked include:

- Training activity organization and management

- Physical resources and facilities
- Appropriateness of objectives
- Training content
- Trainers
- Training methods and materials

Follow-up Evaluation

Follow-up evaluation is a method of assessing changes in on-the-job behaviour (i.e. improved

performance) as a result of training efforts. It attempts to measure the adequacy of a training
activity in preparing individuals for job tasks in real life and trying to discover areas where it
can be improved. It is a valuable tool for gathering information on the strengths and
weaknesses of a training activity from those who are in the best position to judge former
trainees and their employers. It provides feedback on how well the training has prepared
trainees for actual job, and tells the trainee which aspect of the training activity might benefit
from improvement.

A follow-up evaluation focuses on measuring change. Development projects, programs, and

training activities are all efforts designed to produce changes, and the change desired is
outlined in the stated goals and objectives.

In measuring change (impact), a follow-up evaluation of a training activity would concentrate

on answering such questions as:

- Are trainees actually using their newly acquired knowledge, attitude or skill?
- Do employers notice any differences in trainee behaviour?
Training for Development 44

- How do employers feel about the changes in trainee knowledge, attitude or

skill?
- Do trainees feel more confident and better equipped?

The methods most commonly used in a follow-up evaluation are:

- Trainee follow-up survey
- Employer survey

Questionnaires, telephone interviews, and personnel visits are all valuable tools which can be
used in surveys.

Collecting information from trainees who have participated in a training activity can provide
valuable insights into the strengths and weaknesses of a training program. Such information is
extremely helpful in preparations for future training activities.

The most commonly used information collection technique involves sending out mail
questionnaires. Many trainers who have adopted the technique of mailed follow-up
questionnaires have learned that the biggest problem they encounter in carrying out a trainee
follow-up involves the low response rate of trainees. It is very difficult to draw valid
conclusions when only a small fraction of former trainees filled out and returned the
questionnaires.

Some suggestions on how to develop an effective follow-up instrument and increase the rate of
return questionnaires are:

1. Prepare trainees before graduation concerning the purpose of follow-up studies and
the kinds of information they will be expected to provide.
2. Use short and uncomplicated questionnaires and ask only necessary and relevant
questions.
3. Provide prepaid return mail
4. Avoid personnel information as much as possible
5. Place difficult questions last
6. Use colored or unusual types of questionnaires to attract their attention.
7. Include a personalized cover letter

Employers will usually cooperate and provide accurate evaluation of the trainee or employee
and the changes they can see as a result of participation in the training program. They are also
in a position to know what changes are coming in the work place.

2.3.4 Using Evaluation Results

You have reached the end of your training activity. What is next? Well, if you have decided to
stay in the training field, you are back to where you started planning. But planning now is a bit
different. You have gained valuable experience and previously collected evaluation
information in an attempt to find problems and weaknesses in the earlier plan. Once this is
done you are ready to develop a new plan which incorporates changes based on rational,
Training for Development 45

objective interpretation, of what you have learned during the course of the training activity
recently completed. Information gained through evaluation activities provides a sound basis
upon which to base decisions regarding possible changes and, modifications in training activity
design. In fact, it is often said that the sole purpose of evaluation is to facilitate the planning
and execution of change. Regardless of how well an evaluation is conducted, it has little use
unless the results are used.

Therefore, all the evaluation information collected previously should be used for making
planning decisions about the next training activity.