ae Nate) (eere, eral te) oe a P| intro de Ic The affective filter acts ike a gate controlling the amount of input received. When leamers become defensive, the affective fitter is high and comprehensible ingut is prevented from entering. If they are relaxed and in a pleasant environment, more acquisition will fake place. This is why it is important to provide an appropriate environment in the classroom, eliminating anxiety and encouraging students. In recent years, Kreshen's theories have been repeatedly questioned. In spite of the many criticisms on a variety of points, his theories have had a strong influence on language teaching. Virtually everyone recognizes the need to provide learners with "comprehensible input’ and finds his recommendations that affective considerations are of primary importance very appealing. In this atmosphere of more specialized studies on second language acquisiton, language learning, and learning in general, a number of methods came into being. COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING (1972-1976) Curran's “Counseling-Learning" model of education was extended te foreign language leaming as Community Language Learning. This methed stresses the role of the affective domain in promoting cognitive leaming, it is founded on techniques borrowed from psychological counseling ‘The needs of both the client (student) and counselor (teacher) must be considered, and the clients decide what they want to learn; translation is. used in the initial stages until the siudent fests comfortable and capable of initiating or responding himself. A class starts.with the clients siting in a circle and saying things they wish to leam in their native language; the counselor translates them into the target language, The client repeats what has been said. Errors are corrected by the counselor merely repeating without error what the cent has produced. The five stages in the process go from the dependent (embryonic) to the independent stage, with leaming viewed as 8 maturation process TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE (1972) It is basically 2 structuralist, grammar-based view of language. This method is based on James ‘Asher's belief that meaning in the target language can often be conveyed through actions and that listening comprehension should be developed fully before any active oral participation from students is expected, it advocates the “silent Period”. The leamers ars never pressured to speak: thay do so only when thay ara ready. Skills can be more readily assimilated if the teacher appeals to the students’ Kinesthetic-sensory system, Students carry cut oral commands to show their understanding. The teacher consciously intraduces humor te break down affective barriers, especially while introducing unfamiliar commands. The target language is the exclusive language of instruction ie ee eT ewera Idiorn itp + Angloeducati oe a | A typical TPR activity might contain instructions such as "Walk to the door,” “Open the door,” "Sit down." and "Give Maria your dictionary". The students are required to carry out the instructions by physically performing the activities, Given a ‘supportive classroom environment, such activities can be both motivating and fun, and it is also likely that with even a fairly limited amount of repetition basic instructions such as these could be assimilated by the learners, even if they were unable to reproduce them accurately themselves. From a practical point of view, itis difficult to extend TPR beyond beginner level; however, the use of short TPR activities is entirely valid, and many classroom gamas are based on TPR principles. FE iaten “TPR and Language Acquisition” (or any similar video) on YouTube. &® In-small groups, take tums introducing the phrasal verbs below (a —f) Say the statement out loud and perform the action. Students watch and listen, Say the statement out loud and perform the action with the students. Say the statement out loud. Students perform the action (all together), Say the statements out loud, changing the order, Students perform the actions (all together). 5. Say the statements out loud, changing the order. Individual students take turns performing the actians, 6. Students practice giving each other instructions (e.g. in pairsi. ORs Instructions: ‘Stand up and then sit down again. Pick up your pen and then put it dawn Put away your book(s), Erase the words on the hoard. Tum your cell phone off and then on. Take out your book. Open itto page 15 sepogm COMMANDS al sal healedIn Gattegno’s view, the mind is an agent capable of constructing its own inner criteria for learning The teacher supplies @ minimal amount of oral support and information; the learner is required to work with his or her own inner resources to absorh leaming from the environment. The three basic principles of this approach are that learning is facilitated if the learner discovers rather than remembers or repeats, that learning is aided by physical objects, and that problem- solving is central to learning. The teacher, as the name implies, remains essentially silent; itis the students who should be practicing the language, not the teacher. Correction is seldom offered by the teacher, since learners are assumed to have developed their own inner cnteria of correctness and are capable of correcting their own errors. The method is best known for its use of colored rods, called Culssnarie rods, for teaching the basic structures of the language. ‘A set of color-coded phonemic and word charts is also essential to the Silent Way classroom, and the target language Is the exelusive language of instruction. THE NATURAL APPROACH (1977, 1982} Terrell, one of Krashen's colleagues, based his methodology on Krashen's theory of second language acquisition. The teacher provides comprehensible input, that is, spoken language that is understandable to the learner or just a litle beyond the leamer’s level, In early stages, students are not corrected during oral production since the teacher is focusing on meaning rather than form. lt advocates a preproduction stage (or silent period), during which leamers develop listening comprehension skils, and places heavy emphasis on comprehensible input. Fer Terrell, the key to comprehension and oral production is the acquisition cf vocabulary, which allows the learner to comprehend and speak a great deal in spite of a lack of knowledge of structures, * ital Ben A Bria ifentro de pr Angloeducativo oi SUGGESTOPEDIA (1979); This method was derived from Bulganan psychologists Georgi Lozanov's argument that the human brain could process great quantities of material if simply given the right conditions for learning, among which are a state of relaxation and giving over of control to the teacher. Drawing on insights on Soviet psychological research on axtrasensary perception and from Yoga, Lozanov capitalized on the relaxed state of mind crested by the soft playing of Baroque music $0 that leamers could take in tremendous amounts of material due to an increase in alpha brain waves and a decrease in blood pressure and pulse rate. Certain elements of Suggestopedia have been incorporated into the more eclectic approach to language teaching widely in evidence today. The use of music both in the background and as an accompaniment to certain activities can be motivating and relaxing, Attention to factors such as décor, lighting and furniture can create an environment in which learners are alert and receptive, ‘Watch "Suggestopedia” on YouTube. Community Language Leaming, the Silent Way, and Suggestopedia are proprietary, with their own commercial publishing and educational companies. Nowadays. no single method is looked to for a final answer on how to teach a foreign language. Method, as a unified, cohesive, finite set of features, is now given only minor attention, The complexity of language learners in diverse contexts demands an eclectic blend of tasks, each tailored for a particular group of jearners studying for particular purpose in a given ameunt af time. @® Match the following typical techniques with one of the methods or appreaches. Classroom Technique Method oF Approach 1. Frequent use of pattern drills a, Sol Pipe Racer 2. Tape-recorded group conversations, with the teacher (TPR) acting 88 counseler-informant. bi thie Manural Aoprbacti 3. Musical accompaniment to language-learning activities. |. ges nmar-Translation 4. Translation of reading passages from native to target language ang vice-versa, 5. Use of colored word charts and Cuisenaire rods. d_ Reading Method 2. The Silent Way 6. Frequent use of commands. 7. Observance of the “natural order” in language teaching activities, 8. Reading aloud and writing down dictation by the teacher, f, The Audiolingual Appreach 9. Community Language Learning h. Suggestopedia Esoe Angloeducative ie Communicative language teaching has continued to evolve as our understanding of the processes of second language learning has developed. Current communicative language teaching theory and practice draws on @ number of different educational paradigms. and traditions. And sinca it draws ‘on 3 number of diverse sources, there is no single or agreed upon set of practices that characterize current. = communicative language teaching. Instead, communicative language teaching today refers to a set of generally agreed upon principles that can be applied in different ways, depending on the teaching context, the age of the learners, their level, their learning goals.and so on, Ten Principles of Communicative Language Teaching 1, Second lenguage leaming is facilitated when leamers ere engaged in interaction end meaningful communication 2 Effective classroom leaming tasks and exercises provide opportunities for students to negotiate meaning, expand their language resources, notica how language is used, and take part in meaningful intrapersenal exchange. 3. Meaningful communicaton results from students processing content that is relevant, purposeful, interesting and engaging. 4, Communication is a holistic process that often calls upon the use of several language skills or modalities 5. Language learning is facilitated both by activities that involve inductve or discovery learning of underlying rules of language use and organization, as well as by those invalving language analysis and refiection 6, Language learning is a gradual process that involves creative use of language and trial and error. Although errors are a normal product of learning the ultimate goal of learning is to be able to use the new language both accurately and fluently. 7. Leamers develop their own routes to language learning, progress at different rates, and have different needs and motivations for language learning. 8 Successfull language leaming involves the use of effective learning and communication strategies, 9. The role of the teacher in the Janguage classroom is that of a facilitator, who creates a classroom climate conducive to language: leaming and provides opportunities for students to use anc practice the language and ta reflect on language use and language learning 10.The classroom is a community where leamers lam through collaboration and sharing from Communioatve Language Taxehiag Today by Jack C Richards, CUP, @ 2007 = bt = hen! BelayIdiomas This shift in language teaching paradigms has brought about eight major changes. in language teaching today: 4. Learner autonomy: giving learners greater choice over their own learning, both in terms of the content of learning as well as processes they might employ. ‘The use of small groups is one example of this, as. well as the use of self assessment, 2. The social nature of learning: learning is not an individual private activity but @ social one that depends upon interaction with others, The movernent known a8 cooperative leaming reflects this viewpoint, 3. Curricular integration: the connection between different strands of the ‘curriculum is emphasized, so that English is not seen asa stand-alone subject but is linked to other subjects in the curriculum. Project work in language teaching requires students to explore issues autside of the language classroom, 4. Focus on meaning: meaning is viewed as the driving force of learning. Content-based teaching reflects this view and seeks to make the exploration of meaning through content the core of language learning activities (see. chapter 5). 5. Diversity: learners leam in different ways and have different strengths. ‘Teaching needs to take these differences into account rather than try to force students into @ single mold. In language teaching this has led to an emphasis ‘on developing students’ use and awareness of leaming strategies. 6. Thinking skills: language should serve a a means of developing higher-order King skills, also known as-critical and creative thinking, In language teaching this means that students do not learn language for its own sake but in order to develop and apply their thinking skills in sitwations that go beyond the language classroom 7. Altemative assessment: new forms of assessment are needed to replace ‘traditional multiple-choice and other items that test lower-order skills. Multiple forms of assessment (e.g. observation, interviews, journals, portfolios) can be used to build up @ comprehensive picture of what students can do in a second language. 8. Teachers as facilitators of learning: the teacher is viewed as a facilitator who is constantly tying out different alternatives, i.e. learning through doing. In language teaching this has led to an interest in action research and other forms of classroom investigation ‘ror Commumicatne Language Teaching Taday by lack C. acharés. CUR, ©2007 = ital enh BA rldadliE¥ Angloeducativo cies ere TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING Why do people leam a language? To distinguish between gerunds and infinitives, or so they can talk about what they enjoy doing? To use the past tense, or to talk about past events in their lives? ~w ¥ Task-based language teaching had its origins ~ in the philosophical differentiation of “knowing wf that" (grammar rules) and “knowing how’ a (being able to use that grammatical knowedge + to communicate effectively) that also underpin Communicative Language Teaching. Ancther . = important conceptual basis was Kalb's model — of experiential leaming. Although it began to be mentioned in the mid 1980s; one of the earliest users was Prabhu, who fan an experimental project in India in the late 19805. A number of authors and researchers have been involved in developing different versions of task-basad language teaching, among them David Nunan (1989, 1991, 2004), Jane Willis (199, 2007), Andrew Littlejohn (1997), and Rod Ellis (2003), Tasks are defined es goaloriented communication activities with a specific outcome (e.9., writing 8 report, negotiating conditions in a contract, taking partin a discussion, or suggesting what places someone should visit in a city). It involves learners in authentic, practical, and functional use of language for meaningful purposes. In task-based language teaching, language is a means to achieve the goal, not an end in itself Task-based language teaching grew out of the insight thet language can be thought of as a tool for communication (vs, sets of lexical, phonological, and grammatical items). Experiential learning, with its emphasis on “learning by doing’ is also a strong component in the foundations of task-based language teaching. A third influence was the fact that learning has increasingly come to be seen 2s a sacial process, In task-based learning, the tasks generate the language to be used, nat vice versa In other words, the goal of the lesson is making a mini-guide to a city, not the use of “should.” Principles of Task-Based Language Teaching: 4, Scaffolding. Lessons should provide supporting frameworks within which the learning takes place. There should also be opportunities for learners to build up their schema 2. Task dependency. Within a lesson, a task should grow out of and build up on the ones that have been taught before. 3, Recycling. Recycling language maxi = bts tn! BAelladl izes opportunities for learning.eer sel eu Te iteifeluites 4. Active learning. Leamers learn best by actively using the language they are learning. 5. Integration of grammatical form, meaning, and use. Learners should be taught in ways that make clear the relationships between grammatical form, communicative functon, and semantic meaning. 6. Tasks can be reproductive or creative. In reproductive tasks, learners reproduce language ferms from models in the textbook, and they are designed to give learners opportunities to practice and master the accurate form, meaning and use of the language. In creative tasks, learners expand on their use of the language in new ways. 7. Reflection. Learners need opportunities to reflect on what thay have learned and how well they are doing In TBLT, the lesson is based on the completion of the central task and language study is determined by what is needed to complete this task The lesson follows certain stages: Pre-Task: The teacher introduces the topic and provides a supporting framework for students to activate their background knowledge and build up their schema about the topic and manipulate lexical items needed for the task. While-Task: (or Comprehension-Task}: Students process the input, focusing on comprehension and understanding of meaning of a spoken (oral) or written text, Language Work: grows out of language items found in the input. Here, leamers are provided with opportunities to master the accurate form, meaning, and use of the grammatical structure. Post-Task: Students focus on communication. on the pedagogic task that simulates what goes on in the real-world Note: Tasks are identified according to the type of input, ¢.g,, while-listening / whilo-reading, # Match the following examples to the appropriate stage of a Task-Based lesson. Example ‘Stages of a Task-Based lesson 1. Learners listen to twa people describing customs in their countries and complete a chart. 2. Learners answer a questionnaire asking whether they wauld visit someone's home without an invitation, use their cell phone in class, put heir feet on the back ofa |b. While-Listening Task 2, Pre-Listening Task seela ste: c. Language Work 3. Learners discuss whether certain customs are true or tate different cecoetion, 4, Post-Listening Task 4. Learners give advice for specific situations, deciding whether someone should / doesn't have to leave a tip. = Ll en Bernal hea Angloeducativo ‘i entro de idiomc THE LEXICAL APPROACH ji The lexical approach concentrates on developing learners’ proficiency with lexis = words and word combinations. The ‘ lexical approach makes a distinction between vocabulary = taditionally e understood as a stock af individual words with fixed meanings — and Ie includes not only the single words but also én ‘the word combinations that we store in our mental lexicons. In the words of Michael Lewis, language consists of grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar, Lexical approach advocates argue that language consists of meaningful chunks that, when combined, produce a continuous coherent text. For example, for a beginner, “How are you?” becomes a single chunk, and thus less of a load on working memory. Michael Lewis argues that instead of having a foundation of grammatical structures into which we fit individual words, we store an enormous variety of words, phrases, and collocations, along with their associated “grammer.” In other words, to maintain conversational fluency, we first select the chunks we need, then fine-tune it for grammar (instead of thinking “present simple for daily activities," we first think of the type of activity word, and then adjust it grammatically to be used in the present simple). Within the lexical approach, special attention is directed to collocations and expressions. Teaching should be based on the idea that language production is the piecing together cf ready-made units appropriate for a particular situation. Comprehension of such units is dependent on knowing the patterns to use in different situations. Leamers need to know these patierns and the ways they can be pieced together, along with the ways they vary and the situations in which they occur, # Malch a word in column Axwith a nord # ‘What do you spend your meney on’? Match from colurs Blo form cornpaund nour the two colurnns.. There is more than one sorrect ansiver. A 8 A B 4. shopping a. store 1. bet money 4. in a bank acoount 2! depantment bs comple 2 borow money —_—_—b. on cigarettes 3. apartment ©. patie 3. eam money .0n clothes 4. traffic J hour 4. inves! money 4. toma friend 5. industrial 2: sladium 5. save money eon a horse race 6. sports {mal 8. spend money ——_f, on the lottery 7.thema 4. park 7 maste monoy 9. at vor. 8. rust jam 8. nin money 1 inthe latory ei ote Ban ballsCORPUS LINGUISTICS The growth of corpus linguistics has demonstrated that lexis has a powerful influence on the organization and meaning of language. A corpus is an enormous databese of language collected from a variety of written and spoken sources, This allows linguists to explore the regular, patterned preferences of language used in given contexts, helping them understand how people use language clearly and precisely when they speak or write. => Corpus trivia: Phone is 6 times mare common than telephone ‘Yeah is 10 times more common than yes. Don't and doesn't are more common than do not and does not. Peopie say Sometimes I...7 times more often than I sametimes... The top expressions for good news are: That's good / great f nice / interesting / cool / wondertul. ‘The top expressions for bad news are: Oh, that's too bad / terrible. I don't know is the most common three-word expression, You know what! mean? |s the most common five-word expression. It is five times more frequent than You know what I'm saying? which is the seventh mest common five-word expression, COMPETENCY-BASED INSTRUCTION Competency-based teaching is an educational movement that focuses on the outcomes or outputs of leaming (what the leamer “can do” wth the language). It describes the learners’ ability to apply their language skills in specific situations, CBLT is based on a functional view of language and is most often used where leamers have specific needs or where the skills they need can be easily determined, Designers of CBLT courses need to accurately predict the vocabulary and structures likely to be encountered in particular situations, and they are used to organize teaching / learning units. This approach has been embraced by numerous programs that teach English as a Second Language and by Reforma Secundaria in SEP en be. wal fen BS tall