OBJECTIVES

1. Understanding Composition and Properties

Coal: Analysing the types of coal (anthracite, bituminous, lignite) and
their properties helps determine their best use. Knowing carbon content,
sulphur levels, and calorific value guides applications in fuel and energy
production.
Coal Tar: A by-product of coal carbonization, coal tar has complex
hydrocarbons that, once studied, reveal valuable chemical structures for
further processing.
2. Chemical Extraction and Synthesis
Coal Tar Distillation: This process isolates chemicals like benzene,
toluene, xylene, naphthalene, and phenols, which serve as the base for
synthesising dyes, perfumes, and medicines.
Coal Gasification: Studying coal gasification allows the production of
synthetic gas (syngas), an alternative fuel and precursor for chemicals
like methanol and ammonia.
3. Energy Production and Efficiency
Optimising Coal Usage: Understanding coal's energy potential and
emissions enables more efficient use in power generation, minimising
environmental impact.
Alternative Energy Sources: Research on coal products aids the creation
of cleaner energy alternatives, such as liquid fuels from coal (coal
liquefaction) and hydrogen production.
4. Environmental Impact and Sustainability
Reducing Pollutants: Studying coal helps develop technologies to
capture pollutants like sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide, reducing the
negative impact on the environment.
Developing Eco-friendly Alternatives: By understanding the by-products
and emissions, researchers can innovate eco-friendly processes and
products, aiming for more sustainable energy sources.
5. Industrial Applications and Innovations
Coal-Derived Chemicals: Coal tar derivatives have roles in producing
plasticizers, resins, and specialty chemicals essential to various
industries.
Material Science: Researching coal tar by-products like pitch contributes
to advanced materials, including carbon fibres and electrodes used in
electronics and aerospace.
These objectives collectively support the responsible, innovative, and
sustainable utilisation of coal and coal tar in modern industries.
INTRODUCTION
Coal, a carbon-rich sedimentary rock, and coal tar, a by-product of coal
processing, have long been essential resources in energy and chemical
industries. Beyond being a major fuel source, coal also serves as a raw
material for producing a wide range of chemicals through processes like
gasification, liquefaction, and carbonization. Coal tar, obtained from coal
in the process of coke production, is an especially rich source of
chemicals such as benzene, toluene, naphthalene, and phenols. These
compounds play crucial roles in manufacturing everyday products like
plastics, dyes, medicines, and synthetic fibres.
Studying coal and coal tar is essential for unlocking their potential as
sustainable sources of industrial chemicals. This exploration helps
maximise resource efficiency and mitigate environmental impacts, as
well as promote innovation in developing alternative fuels and materials.
By understanding the composition, properties, and possible applications
of coal and coal tar, scientists and engineers can contribute to
sustainable energy and chemical production, paving the way for future
advancements in material science and environmental stewardship.
WHAT IS COAL?
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock primarily
composed of carbon, along with variable amounts of hydrogen, sulphur,
oxygen, and nitrogen. Formed over millions of years from the remains of
ancient plants, coal is one of the most abundant fossil fuels on Earth and
has been a critical source of energy for centuries. Its formation process,
known as coalification, involves the gradual decomposition of plant
material in swampy, oxygen-poor environments, which is then buried and
subjected to heat and pressure over geological time periods.
Types of Coal
There are several types of coal, classified based on carbon content,
energy density, and the degree of transformation:
Anthracite: The highest grade of coal, with the most carbon content
(86-97%) and the highest energy density. It burns cleanly and is used
primarily for heating and industrial purposes.
Bituminous: Has a moderate carbon content (45-86%) and is commonly
used in electricity generation and steel production.
Sub-bituminous: Lower in carbon (35-45%) and energy content than
bituminous coal, it is mainly used in power plants for electricity
generation.
Lignite: Also known as "brown coal," it has the lowest carbon content
(25-35%) and energy density. It is generally used for electricity
generation in areas close to where it is mined.
PROPERTIES OF COAL
Coal has a variety of properties that determine its utility and
classification. These properties are generally divided into physical,
chemical, and thermal characteristics, each influencing how coal is used
in different industries.
1. Physical Properties
Colour: Coal is usually black or brownish-black.
Density: The density of coal varies depending on its type, with anthracite
being denser than other types.
Hardness: Coal ranges in hardness from the soft, crumbly lignite to the
harder, denser anthracite.
Porosity: Coal’s porosity affects its ability to adsorb gases. Low-rank
coals like lignite are often more porous than higher-rank coals.
Lustre: Anthracite has a metallic lustre, while lower-grade coals, like
bituminous and lignite, are duller.
Moisture Content: Coal’s moisture content decreases as it becomes
more carbon-rich. Lignite has a higher moisture content, while anthracite
has very low moisture content.
2. Chemical Properties
Carbon Content: Coal's carbon content increases with rank, from lignite
(about 25-35% carbon) to anthracite (about 86-97% carbon). Higher
carbon content typically means higher energy content.
Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen Content: These elements are present
in various amounts, with lower-rank coals containing more hydrogen and
oxygen. As coal rank increases, carbon content increases, and hydrogen
and oxygen content decreases.
Sulphur Content: Sulphur can be found in coal as organic sulphur,
sulphates, and pyritic sulphur. High sulphur content can lead to sulphur
dioxide emissions, causing air pollution and acid rain. Low-sulphur coal
is preferable for environmental reasons.
Ash Content: Ash is the mineral residue left after coal combustion.
Higher ash content lowers the heating value of coal and can lead to
slagging and fouling in combustion systems.
Volatile Matter: This includes compounds that vaporise when coal is
heated. Higher volatile matter typically means coal is easier to ignite and
has a higher flame intensity, which is common in bituminous coal.
3. Thermal Properties
Calorific Value: Also known as heating value, it measures the energy
released when coal is burned. Higher-rank coals like anthracite and
bituminous coal have higher calorific values (24-30 MJ/kg) compared to
lignite (15-20 MJ/kg).
Ignition Temperature: The temperature at which coal begins to combust.
Low-rank coals tend to ignite at lower temperatures due to their higher
volatile matter.
Cooking Ability: This is the ability of coal to form coke, a high-carbon
residue used in steelmaking. Coking coal (bituminous) is ideal for
producing coke, whereas lignite and anthracite do not have this property.
Combustibility: Coals with higher volatile matter combust more easily.
Lignite and bituminous coal ignite quickly, while anthracite requires more
heat to burn.
4. Petrographic Properties
Maceral Composition: Macerals are organic components of coal, similar
to minerals in rocks. The main macerals are vitrinite, liptinite, and
inertinite, and their composition influences coal’s behaviour during
combustion and carbonization.
Reflectance: The reflectance of vitrinite (a type of mackerel) is often
used to determine the rank of coal. Higher reflectance corresponds to
higher rank and energy content.
USES OF COAL
Coal has a wide range of applications due to its high energy content and
ability to be processed into various by-products. Here are some of the
main uses of coal:
1. Electricity Generation
Coal is one of the most commonly used fuels for electricity generation.
Coal-fired power plants burn coal to produce steam, which drives
turbines connected to generators, converting thermal energy into
electrical energy. Bituminous and sub-bituminous coals are typically
used for this purpose due to their high heating value.
2. Steel Production (Coke Production)
Coke: Metallurgical (coking) coal is used to produce coke, a porous,
carbon-rich material that serves as a reducing agent in steel production.
When coking coal is heated in an oxygen-free environment (a process
known as carbonization), it yields coke, which is then used in blast
furnaces to smelt iron ore into iron.
This iron is then further processed to produce steel, making coal
essential to the steel industry.
3. Cement Manufacturing
Coal is used as a fuel source in cement manufacturing. It provides the
heat needed to convert raw materials, such as limestone and clay, into
clinker, which is then ground to make cement. The combustion of coal
supplies the energy for this high-temperature process.
4. Chemical Production
Coal can be a source of various chemicals that are used as raw
materials in multiple industries. For instance:
Coal Tar: A by-product of coke production, coal tar is a rich source of
aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g., benzene, toluene, and naphthalene), which
are used to produce dyes, perfumes, plastics, synthetic fibres, and
pharmaceuticals.
Ammonium Sulphate: This is another by-product of coke production,
used in fertilisers.
Synthetic Gas (Syngas): Through coal gasification, coal can be
converted into syngas, a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
Syngas can be further processed into ammonia, methanol, and synthetic
fuels.
5. Liquid Fuel Production
Coal can be transformed into liquid fuels through processes such as coal
liquefaction and Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. These processes convert
coal into synthetic petroleum products like diesel and gasoline, which
can be used in transportation and other applications where liquid fuels
are needed.
6. Industrial Heating
Coal is commonly used for heating in industries where high
temperatures are required, such as in the production of cement, glass,
ceramics, and paper. Anthracite, which burns hotter and cleaner than
other types of coal, is often preferred for industrial heating.
7. Gasification and Hydrogen Production
Coal gasification is a process that converts coal into syngas, which can
then be used to produce hydrogen, a clean-burning fuel with growing
applications in various industries, including transportation and power
generation.
8. Activated Carbon Production
Activated carbon is used in water and air purification systems to remove
contaminants and pollutants. Certain types of coal, particularly
bituminous coal, can be processed to make activated carbon due to its
high porosity and surface area.
9. Carbon Fibre Production
Coal tar pitch, a by-product of coal, can be used to make carbon fibres,
which are used in lightweight, high-strength materials in the aerospace,
automotive, and construction industries.
10. Agriculture and Soil Amendment
Coal by-products like fly ash are used in agriculture as a soil amendment
to improve soil structure and water retention. They also provide trace
minerals that can benefit soil health.
11. Household and Domestic Use
Although less common today due to environmental concerns, coal is still
used in some areas for home heating and cooking, particularly in rural or
developing regions where other fuel sources may be limited.
12. Research and Development (R&D)
Coal serves as a valuable research material for developing alternative
fuels, cleaner combustion technologies, and advanced materials. For
example, researchers study coal gasification and liquefaction to develop
cleaner fuels and innovative products from coal-derived chemicals.
COAL AS A SOURCE OF CHEMICAL
Coal is an important source of a wide range of chemicals used in
industries such as pharmaceuticals, dyes, plastics, and agriculture.
Through processes like carbonization, gasification, and liquefaction, coal
can be transformed into various chemical compounds and intermediates.
Here’s a detailed look at how coal serves as a source of chemicals:
1. Coal Carbonization and By-Products
Coal Tar: One of the primary by-products of the carbonization (coke
production) process, coal tar is a rich source of aromatic hydrocarbons.
These chemicals are essential for various applications and include:
Benzene: Used as a starting material in the production of plastics,
resins, synthetic fibres, and rubber.
Toluene: Used as a solvent and in the production of dyes, explosives
(TNT), and other chemicals.
Xylene: Used in paints, varnishes, and as a precursor to other
chemicals.
Naphthalene: Used in mothballs and as a starting material in the
synthesis of dyes and resins.
Phenol: An important compound used in the production of plastics,
resins (such as phenolic resins), and antiseptics.
Ammonia and Ammonium Compounds: The coke-making process also
produces ammonia, which can be converted into ammonium sulphate, a
nitrogen-rich fertiliser for agriculture.
Pitch: The residue left after coal tar distillation, pitch is used in
waterproofing, roofing, and as a binder in electrodes for the aluminium
and steel industries.
2. Coal Gasification and Synthetic Gas (Syngas)
Synthetic Gas (Syngas): When coal is gasified, it produces syngas, a
mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and methane. Syngas serves as
a raw material in the production of several chemicals, including:
Methanol: Used in producing formaldehyde, acetic acid, and other
industrial chemicals.
Ammonia: A precursor to fertilisers, ammonia is synthesised from
syngas through the Haber process.
Hydrogen: Extracted from syngas, hydrogen is used in refining, fertiliser
production, and as a clean fuel source.
Fischer-Tropsch Liquids: Syngas can be converted to liquid fuels like
diesel and gasoline through the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis process.
3. Coal Liquefaction and Liquid Fuels
Direct and Indirect Liquefaction: Coal can be converted into liquid
hydrocarbons, which serve as alternatives to petroleum-derived fuels.
These liquid fuels, like synthetic diesel, gasoline, and kerosene, are
produced via two methods:
Direct Liquefaction: Coal is dissolved in solvents under high pressure
and temperature to produce liquid hydrocarbons.
Indirect Liquefaction (Fischer-Tropsch Process): Coal is first gasified to
produce syngas, which is then converted into liquid fuels. This process
yields a range of hydrocarbon products that can be further refined.
Liquid Fuels for Industry: Liquid fuels from coal can be used in industrial
heating and transportation as well as in chemical manufacturing
processes.
4. Other Chemical Products from Coal
Activated Carbon: Derived from certain types of coal, activated carbon is
used in water and air purification systems, as it can adsorb impurities
and pollutants due to its high surface area.
Carbon Black: A fine carbon powder used in the manufacture of rubber,
especially in tires, and as a pigment in inks and paints.
Graphite and Carbon Fibres: Coal tar pitch, a by-product of coal tar
distillation, is used to produce graphite and carbon fibres. These
materials are crucial in aerospace, automotive, and electronics industries
due to their strength and lightweight properties.
5. Fertilisers and Agricultural Chemicals
Ammonium Sulphate: Produced as a by-product of coke ovens,
ammonium sulphate is used as a fertiliser that provides essential
nitrogen and sulphur to plants.
Nitrogen-Based Fertilisers: Ammonia derived from coal gasification is
converted into urea and other nitrogen fertilisers, which are essential for
modern agriculture.
6. Dyes, Drugs, and Perfumes
Dyes and Pigments: Aromatic compounds like benzene, toluene, and
naphthalene derived from coal tar are essential in producing synthetic
dyes and pigments used in textiles, plastics, and cosmetics.
Pharmaceuticals: Phenol, cresols, and other coal tar derivatives serve as
precursors for antiseptics, pain relievers, and other medicinal
compounds.
Fragrances and Flavouring Agents: Coal tar-derived chemicals are used
as bases for synthetic fragrances and flavouring agents.
COAL TAR
Coal tar is a thick, dark, and viscous liquid that is produced as a
by-product during the carbonization (or coking) of coal, typically in the
process of coke production for steel manufacturing. It is rich in a variety
of organic compounds and hydrocarbons, primarily aromatic
compounds, which can be separated and refined to produce a wide
range of useful chemicals and materials.
Key Characteristics of Coal Tar
Colour and Consistency: It is dark brown to black, highly viscous, and
sticky, similar to thick oil.
Odour: Coal tar has a distinctive, pungent smell due to its complex
mixture of organic compounds.
Composition: Coal tar contains a mixture of hundreds of organic
compounds, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
phenols, cresols, naphthalene, benzene, toluene, xylene, and
anthracene.
Production Process
Coal tar is generated as a by-product when coal is heated to high
temperatures in the absence of air (a process known as destructive
distillation) to produce coke. During this process, coal decomposes,
releasing volatile compounds, which condense to form coal tar, along
with coal gas and other by-products.
Components of Coal Tar
Coal tar is a complex mixture of various chemical compounds, mainly
hydrocarbons. The main classes of compounds include:
Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Compounds like benzene, toluene, xylene,
naphthalene, and anthracene.
Phenolic Compounds: Phenol and cresols, which are used in the
production of resins, plastics, and disinfectants.
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): A group of chemicals that
include pyrene and phenanthrene, often used in research and industrial
applications.
Heterocyclic Compounds: Compounds containing nitrogen, oxygen, or
sulfur, such as pyridine and quinoline, used in pharmaceuticals and other
industries.
PROPERTIES OF COAL TAR
Coal tar is a complex mixture with unique physical and chemical
properties that make it valuable in industrial, medicinal, and construction
applications. Here are some of its main properties:
1. Physical Properties
Appearance: Coal tar is a dark brown to black, thick, viscous liquid. It
resembles thick oil or asphalt.
Odor: It has a strong, pungent smell due to its complex mix of volatile
organic compounds.
Density: Coal tar has a high density, generally between 1.1 and 1.3
g/cm³, making it heavier than water.
Viscosity: Coal tar is highly viscous and sticky, which makes it
challenging to handle and pump without heating.
Boiling Point: It has a high boiling range due to the variety of
components it contains. The boiling point of individual components
varies widely but typically falls between 100°C and 400°C (212°F to
752°F).
Solubility: Coal tar is insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents
like benzene, toluene, and acetone. This allows it to dissolve many
organic compounds.
Melting Point: It does not have a single melting point due to the diverse
chemicals present, but it becomes more fluid at high temperatures.
2. Chemical Properties
Complex Composition: Coal tar is a mixture of hundreds of organic
compounds, mainly hydrocarbons, including:
Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Compounds like benzene, toluene, xylene, and
naphthalene.
Phenolic Compounds: Phenol and cresols, which are used in
disinfectants and resins.
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): Compounds like anthracene,
phenanthrene, and pyrene. Many PAHs are toxic and carcinogenic.
Heterocyclic Compounds: These contain elements other than carbon
and hydrogen, such as nitrogen and sulphur, which are found in
compounds like pyridine and quinoline.
Combustibility: Coal tar is flammable and can burn at high temperatures,
releasing toxic fumes that contain PAHs.
Acidity: Coal tar contains acidic compounds, primarily phenols, which
give it slightly acidic properties.
Chemical Reactivity: Coal tar is reactive with strong acids, bases, and
oxidising agents. Due to its aromatic compounds, it undergoes typical
aromatic substitution reactions.
3. Thermal Stability
Coal tar is thermally stable up to certain high temperatures, making it
suitable for applications in paving and roofing. However, at extreme
temperatures, it decomposes to release toxic fumes and smoke.
4. Water Resistance
Coal tar is hydrophobic (water-repellent), which makes it useful in
waterproofing applications. This property is also why coal tar pitch, a
solid residue from coal tar, is used in roofing and other moisture-resistant
coatings.
5. Antifungal and Antibacterial Properties
Due to its phenolic content, coal tar has antiseptic properties, which is
why it has been traditionally used in medical products to treat skin
conditions like psoriasis, eczema, and dandruff. It helps reduce itching
and inflammation.
6. Binding Properties
Coal tar is sticky and adhesive, which makes it a good binder in asphalt,
roofing products, and paving materials. Coal tar pitch, a by-product of
coal tar distillation, is particularly useful as a binder in products like
electrodes and carbon composites.
USES OF COAL TAR
Coal tar is a valuable by-product of the coal carbonization process and
has a wide range of industrial, medicinal, and agricultural applications.
Here are some of the primary uses of coal tar:
1. Industrial and Construction Applications
Waterproofing and Roofing: Coal tar pitch, a by-product of coal tar
distillation, is used to waterproof buildings, bridges, and other structures.
It serves as a durable, water-resistant coating for roofing materials,
making it ideal for protecting surfaces from weather damage.
Pavement and Road Construction: Coal tar is used in producing sealants
and coatings for roadways, airport runways, and parking lots. It provides
a smooth, durable surface that is resistant to water and chemical spills,
although its use in road construction has declined due to environmental
concerns.
Asphalt Binder: Coal tar pitch is used as a binder in asphalt, enhancing
its durability and longevity. This application is particularly useful for
paving roads and driveways.
2. Production of Chemicals
Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Coal tar is a source of chemicals like benzene,
toluene, xylene, and naphthalene, which are used as solvents and in the
production of plastics, resins, dyes, and synthetic fibres.
Phenolic Compounds: Phenol and cresols derived from coal tar are used
in disinfectants, antiseptics, and the production of plastics and resins.
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): Coal tar is rich in PAHs,
which, although toxic, are used in chemical research and the production
of other industrial chemicals.
3. Medical and Pharmaceutical Uses
Dermatological Treatments: Coal tar is commonly used in medicated
ointments, creams, and shampoos for treating skin conditions like
psoriasis, eczema, and dandruff. It has anti-inflammatory and antipruritic
(anti-itch) properties that help reduce redness, itching, and scaling.
Topical Products: Over-the-counter and prescription products containing
coal tar are available for treating various skin issues. These include coal
tar shampoos, ointments, and lotions, which provide relief from itching
and irritation.
4. Wood Preservation
Creosote: A distillate of coal tar, creosote is used as a wood
preservative. It protects wood from decay and insect damage, making it
ideal for treating outdoor structures like utility poles, railroad ties, fences,
and marine pilings. However, due to its toxicity, creosote is restricted and
must be handled carefully.
5. Production of Carbon Products
Electrodes and Graphite: Coal tar pitch is used as a binder in the
production of carbon electrodes, which are essential in aluminium and
steel manufacturing.
Carbon Fibre: Coal tar derivatives are used in the production of carbon
fibres, which are lightweight, strong materials used in aerospace,
automotive, and other high-performance applications.
Activated Carbon: Certain types of coal tar derivatives are processed to
produce activated carbon, which is used in water and air purification due
to its high surface area and adsorption properties.
6. Dye, Perfume, and Flavour Production
Synthetic Dyes and Pigments: Aromatic compounds derived from coal
tar, such as naphthalene, benzene, and toluene, are used in the
manufacture of synthetic dyes and pigments. These dyes are widely
used in textiles, plastics, cosmetics, and food industries.
Fragrances and Flavors: Some coal tar derivatives are used as bases for
synthetic fragrances and flavouring agents.
7. Agricultural Applications
Fungicides and Pesticides: Coal tar products are used in agriculture as
fungicides and pesticides to protect crops. However, their use has
become limited due to environmental and health concerns.
Soil Treatment: Some coal tar products are occasionally used for soil
treatment to improve soil quality and kill harmful bacteria and fungi,
though this is less common today.
8. Research and Development
Coal tar’s diverse composition makes it valuable for research in
chemical synthesis and material science. Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) found in coal tar are studied for their chemical
properties, toxicity, and potential applications in various fields.
COAL TAR AS A SOURCE OF CHEMICAL
Coal tar is a viscous black liquid that is a byproduct of the carbonization
of coal, particularly during the production of coke for the steel industry. It
is rich in organic compounds and is an important source of various
chemicals. Here are some key points about coal tar as a source of
chemicals:
Composition
Coal tar contains a complex mixture of over 10,000 different compounds,
primarily aromatic hydrocarbons, phenolic compounds, and heterocyclic
compounds. The exact composition can vary depending on the source of
the coal and the method of production.
Important Chemicals Derived from Coal Tar
Phenols: Used in the production of plastics, resins, and pharmaceuticals.
Naphthalene: Commonly used as a moth repellent and as a precursor
for the synthesis of other chemicals.
Aniline: A key intermediate in the manufacture of dyes, plastics, and
pharmaceuticals.
Benzene: A fundamental building block in the chemical industry for
producing solvents, detergents, and polymers.
Toluene: Used as a solvent and in the production of chemicals like
benzene and xylene.
Xylenes: Used in the production of plastics, fibres, and other chemicals.
Pyridine: Utilised in the synthesis of agrochemicals and pharmaceuticals.
Coal Tar Pitch: A solid residue that can be used in the manufacture of
electrodes and other carbon products.
Applications
Pavement Sealants: Coal tar is often used in sealants for asphalt
pavements.
Medicinal Uses: Coal tar is used in dermatological products for treating
skin conditions such as psoriasis and eczema.
Chemical Manufacturing: Coal tar serves as a feedstock for the
synthesis of various chemicals, including dyes, explosives, and
pesticides.
Environmental Considerations
Coal tar and its derivatives can pose environmental and health risks due
to the presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are
known carcinogens. Proper handling, disposal, and remediation
measures are necessary to mitigate these risks.

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT