MOD 2
1. Message Integrity: Definition and Applications
Definition:
Message integrity ensures that the message has not been altered or tampered with during
transmission. It guarantees that the received message is exactly the same as the original
one sent by the sender.
Applications:
● Ensuring file and message authenticity in communication protocols (e.g., HTTPS,
SSL/TLS).
● Verifying software downloads (via hash/MAC codes).
● Secure email (e.g., PGP).
● Blockchain transaction integrity.
2. MAC (Message Authentication Code)
Definition:
A Message Authentication Code is a short piece of information used to authenticate a
message and provide integrity and authenticity. It is generated using a secret key and a
message.
Construction:
● Let MAC = F(K, M) where:
○ K is the secret key
○ M is the message
○ F is a deterministic function
Security:
A secure MAC ensures that without knowing the key, an attacker cannot create a valid MAC
for any new message.
Applications:
● Verifying message origin and integrity in network communications (e.g., IPsec, SSH).
● Secure payment systems.
3. PMAC (Parallelizable MAC)
Definition:
PMAC is a type of MAC that allows parallel processing, enhancing speed and performance.
It is suitable for high-speed applications.
Key Features:
● Based on block ciphers (e.g., AES).
● Allows multiple blocks of the message to be processed in parallel.
● Deterministic and secure under the assumption that the underlying block cipher is
secure.
Applications:
● High-performance computing environments.
● Systems requiring low-latency authentication.
4. HMAC (Hash-based MAC)
Definition:
HMAC uses a cryptographic hash function (like SHA-256) and a secret key to generate a
MAC.
Construction:
plaintext
CopyEdit
HMAC(K, M) = H((K' ⊕ opad) || H((K' ⊕ ipad) || M))
Where:
● H is a cryptographic hash function
● K' is the key (padded or shortened)
● ipad and opad are inner and outer padding constants
Properties:
● Resistant to length extension attacks.
● Can use any hash function (MD5, SHA-1, SHA-256, etc.).
Applications:
● TLS, IPsec, and other secure protocols.
● Data integrity checks in APIs and cloud storage.
5. Authenticated Encryption (AE)
Definition:
Authenticated Encryption simultaneously provides confidentiality (via encryption) and
authenticity/integrity (via MAC).
Types:
● Encrypt-then-MAC (EtM) – most secure and widely used
● MAC-then-Encrypt (MtE) – less common, used in older protocols
● Encrypt-and-MAC (E&M) – simple but not recommended
AEAD (Authenticated Encryption with Associated Data):
● Handles additional data (e.g., headers) that must be authenticated but not encrypted.
Examples:
● GCM (Galois/Counter Mode)
● CCM (Counter with CBC-MAC)
Applications:
● Securing data packets in protocols like TLS 1.2+, IPsec.
● Encrypting and authenticating files or tokens in secure storage systems.
6. Active Attacks and Chosen-Ciphertext Security (CCA-Security)
Active Attacks:
● The attacker can alter, inject, or replay messages.
● More dangerous than passive attacks (eavesdropping).
● Examples: Man-in-the-middle (MITM), replay attacks, injection attacks.
CCA-Security (Chosen-Ciphertext Attack Security):
● A cryptosystem is CCA-secure if it remains secure even when the attacker can
decrypt arbitrary ciphertexts (except the challenge one).
● IND-CCA2 (Adaptive CCA) is the standard model for modern encryption.
Importance:
● Prevents attacks like padding oracle attacks.
● Ensures robustness against real-world attacks.
Examples of CCA-secure systems:
● RSA-OAEP (Optimal Asymmetric Encryption Padding)
● Authenticated encryption schemes like GCM
7. Key Distribution Centres (KDCs)
Definition:
A Key Distribution Centre is a trusted third-party server that facilitates secure exchange of
secret keys between users in a network.
Working:
● Each user shares a secret key with the KDC.
● When two users want to communicate, the KDC provides a session key encrypted
with both users' keys.
Steps:
1. Request: User A asks KDC for communication with User B.
2. KDC Response:
○ Generates a session key.
○ Sends encrypted session key to both A and B using their respective keys.
Benefits:
● Simplifies key management in large networks.
● Minimizes the number of keys each user must store.
Drawbacks:
● Single point of failure.
● Scalability issues for very large systems.
Example Protocol:
● Kerberos (widely used in enterprise authentication systems)
Applications:
● Enterprise SSO (Single Sign-On)
● Secure communication in closed networks
