Power Maximization Strategies:
1. Optimized Coil Design: The design of the coil plays a crucial role in maximizing power generation. Parameters
such as the number of turns, coil geometry, and coil size directly impact the induced voltage and hence the power
output. By optimizing these parameters based on the specific application and ambient electromagnetic source, the
efficiency of energy conversion can be improved.
Coil Design and Optimization of Its Dimensions
This section introduces the rectangular PSC used in this work as well as the mathematical formulation of its
electric parameters as a function of dimensions. Afterwards, through an example, the equations are used to optimize
the dimensions of a pair of transmitter–receiver coils, assuring a high efficiency for all positions of the receiver over
an entire surface. In other words, the optimization method forces the receiver to be able to be freely positioned over
the desired surface, assuring the efficiency to be greater than the defined threshold.
3.1. Coil Design
Seeking to design NFC coils, this work treats and optimizes a rectangular planar coil of rectangular
cross-section. Therefore, the coil can be easily manufactured as a PCB. Even though a rectangular shape
was selected, the study could be extended to other layouts, such as polygonal or circular. Figure
2 illustrates such a structure with its dimensions. In addition to the figure, two other parameters must
be considered: the number of turns NN and the conductor thickness tt.
Figure 2. Two-turn rectangular coil with its dimensional parameters.
A coil can be represented with an equivalent circuit composed by an inductance L with a series
resistance RAC and a capacitor Cp in parallel. Figure 3 illustrates the circuit.
Figure 3. Coil equivalent circuit.
3.1.1. Coil Inductance
The inductance of a rectangular planar coil can be calculated by the contribution of three
terms: 𝐿0𝐿0, which is the self-inductance of each segment of the coil, and 𝑀+𝑀+ and 𝑀−𝑀−, which are the
sum of the positive and negative mutual inductances between the segments, respectively. The authors
in [25,26] proposed a closed formula to calculate these terms, starting by the self-inductance, 𝐿0𝐿0,
which can be calculated by Equation (1).
𝐿0=800𝑁ℓ𝑎𝑣𝑔[ln(2ℓ𝑎𝑣𝑔𝑤+𝑡)+0.50049+𝑤+𝑡3ℓ𝑎𝑣𝑔],𝐿0=800𝑁ℓ𝑎𝑣𝑔[ln(2ℓ𝑎𝑣𝑔𝑤+𝑡)+0.50049+𝑤+𝑡3ℓ𝑎𝑣𝑔],
(1)
where ℓ𝑎𝑣𝑔=(𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛+𝑏𝑚𝑖𝑛)/2ℓ𝑎𝑣𝑔=(𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛+𝑏𝑚𝑖𝑛)/2 and 𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛 and 𝑏𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑚𝑖𝑛 are the internal length and width
of the coil, respectively. All parameters are in SI units.
Regarding the mutual inductance terms, approximative closed formulas can be found in [26].
Therefore, to the inductance of the coil can be calculated by
𝐿=𝐿0+𝑀++𝑀−.
2. High-Permeability Magnetic Materials: The selection of magnetic materials with high permeability, such as
ferrites or soft magnetic composites, enhances the magnetic flux density and thereby increases the power generated
by electromagnetic induction. These materials help in concentrating the magnetic field lines within the coil, resulting
in higher induced voltages.
It is useful to compare high magnetic permeability and low magnetic permeability materials to better
understand the difference in what magnets are attracted to.
Low permeability materials are materials that are not attracted to a magnet, such as air, wood, plastic, and
brass. There is no magnetism induced in them by an external magnetic field. Therefore, they are not
attracted by a magnet.
High permeability materials such as ferrous materials, Nickel, and Cobalt alloys have a high permeability.
Therefore, magnetic fields can be induced in them when exposed to an external magnetic field.
EXAMPLE OF MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY IN MILD STEEL
Figure 1: Mild Steel
Induced Magnetism in an alloy (B) = alloy’s permeability (μ) X external applied drive field
(H)
Using mild steel as an example, we see the equation B = μH thus: Induced (Internal Field) = ~15,000 Gauss
= (30) x 500 Oersted.
The 15,000 Gauss field induced in the mild steel interacts with the applied magnetic field, and there is
attraction. In Figure 1, above, it can be observed how the flux lines are denser in the steel, showing the
induced field, as well as how the flux Lines “bend” in the steel alloy. The steel’s magnetic properties bias,
or interact with, the magnet’s magnetic flux lines — the field.
EXAMPLE OF MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY IN WOOD
Figure 2: Woo d
Using wood as an example, we see the equation thus: Induced (Internal Field) = 500 Gauss (1) x 500 Oersted.
The only field in the wood is from the externally applied magnetic field, and no new field is induced to interact
with the applied field. Therefore, there is no attraction.
In Figure 2, see how the flux Lines are not biased by the wood, and there is no induced field. The flux Lines do
not “bend” in the wood; they pass through, as if it is not there. There is no field-to-field interaction and no
attraction.
Magnetic Permeability Can Change
The magnetic permeability of a material is not constant. For a given temperature, it changes based on the intensity
of the applied external magnetic field (H). The relative aspect of permeability is more apparent when illustrated
with a graph depicting a material’s permeability relative to the applied external field.
Figure 3: Induced Magnetism and Permeability Plots for Mild Steel C-1018
Often, technical books will list a material’s magnetic permeability as a constant, but this can be inaccurate and quite
misleading. For instance, Figure 3 is a plot for mild steel C-1018 that illustrates the Induced Magnetism (G) for various
applied Field Strength levels (H). It also depicts the corresponding magnetic permeability at each applied field strength
level. The permeability for C-1018 may be advertised as 100 (in the CGS unit system), but this is the peak value, and it
is less than 20 over most of the curve.
Why Magnetic Permeability Is Important
A material’s permeability is important because it allows you to anticipate the performance of a magnet when used in a
design. For instance, a customer may want to pick up automobile exhaust tubing with a magnetic end effector on a robot-
arm. When the tube is made from an aluminized mild steel alloy, the magnet handling device may work effectively;
however, when the tube is 410 SS, the tube may be dropped. The force of attraction between the handling magnet and
the tube is greater with the aluminized mild steel than the 410 stainless because the mild steel has a higher permeability
than the 410 SS.
When designing a product or system that utilizes magnetic fields, always consider the quality of your material’s
magnetic permeability. Whether you’re looking for high-permeability or low-permeability materials, the experts at Dura
Magnetics are standing by to help. Contact us for professional consultation on your next project and request a quote.
3. Frequency Matching: Matching the resonant frequency of the energy harvester to the frequency of the ambient
electromagnetic source is critical for maximizing power extraction. This can be achieved through careful tuning of
the coil's inductance and capacitance or by employing frequency-selective circuits to enhance energy capture
efficiency.
4. Multi-Source Harvesting: In scenarios where multiple ambient electromagnetic sources are available, employing
multi-source harvesting techniques can further enhance power generation. By integrating multiple coils tuned to
different frequencies or orientations, the harvester can capture energy from diverse sources simultaneously,
maximizing overall power output.
5. Energy Storage and Management: Incorporating efficient energy storage elements, such as supercapacitors or
rechargeable batteries, coupled with power management circuits helps in storing and utilizing harvested energy
effectively. These components ensure a stable power supply for the target application, even during periods of low
ambient energy availability.
Micro-Scale Implementations:
1. RF Energy Harvesters: Micro-scale electromagnetic energy harvesters designed to capture RF energy from
ambient sources like Wi-Fi signals, cellular networks, or RFID readers are widely used in small electronic devices.
These harvesters typically consist of miniature coils integrated with RF rectifiers and energy storage elements,
enabling self-powered operation for low-power applications such as wireless sensors or wearable devices.
2. MEMS-based Harvesters: Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) based electromagnetic energy harvesters
utilize micro-scale structures and materials to capture energy from vibrations, magnetic fields, or ambient RF
sources. MEMS devices offer advantages such as high scalability, low power consumption, and compatibility with
existing microfabrication processes, making them suitable for integration into various microelectronic systems.
Macro-Scale Implementations:
1. Power Line Harvesters: Macro-scale electromagnetic energy harvesters designed for harvesting energy from power
lines or electrical infrastructure employ larger coils and higher-power rectifiers to capture energy from high-voltage
AC or DC sources. These harvesters can be installed in utility poles, substations, or along transmission lines to
supplement power from the grid or provide backup power for remote locations.
2. Industrial Applications: In industrial settings, macro-scale electromagnetic energy harvesters are used to harness
energy from electromagnetic fields generated by machinery, motors, or transformers. These harvesters can be
integrated into equipment or infrastructure to capture waste energy and reduce overall energy consumption,
contributing to cost savings and environmental sustainability.
By implementing these power maximization strategies and leveraging both micro and macro-scale implementations,
electromagnetic energy harvesting technology continues to advance, offering sustainable and reliable power
solutions for a wide range of applications in diverse environments.
Non-linear techniques – vibration control & steady state cases
Non-linear techniques play a crucial role in optimizing electromagnetic energy harvesting
systems, especially in scenarios involving vibration control and steady-state conditions. Let's
explore these techniques in detail:
Vibration Control:
1. Nonlinear Resonant Frequency Tuning: Traditional linear resonant frequency tuning
techniques may not be effective in dynamic environments with varying vibration frequencies.
Nonlinear resonant frequency tuning adjusts the stiffness or damping of the energy harvester
dynamically in response to changes in vibration frequency. This ensures that the harvester
remains at or near resonance, maximizing energy extraction efficiency.
2. Adaptive Impedance Matching: Nonlinear impedance matching circuits dynamically adjust the
electrical load of the energy harvester to match the varying mechanical impedance of the
vibrating source. By continuously optimizing the impedance matching, the harvester can
efficiently extract energy from vibrations across a wide frequency range, enhancing overall
power generation.
3. Nonlinear Damping Mechanisms: Incorporating nonlinear damping mechanisms into the
energy harvester can improve its performance in highly dynamic environments. Nonlinear
damping elements, such as magnetorheological or electrorheological dampers, adjust their
damping characteristics based on the intensity and frequency of vibrations, thereby enhancing
the resonance tracking capability of the harvester.
4. Harmonic Generation and Mixing: Nonlinear effects in the mechanical or electromagnetic
domain can lead to the generation of harmonics or mixing of multiple vibration frequencies.
Harvesting energy from these higher-order harmonics or frequency components can increase the
overall power output of the system, especially in situations where the ambient vibration spectrum
is broadband or contains multiple frequency components.
Steady-State Cases:
1. Nonlinear Energy Harvesting Circuits: Nonlinear energy harvesting circuits, such as those
incorporating nonlinear electrical elements like Schottky diodes or varactor diodes, are designed
to operate efficiently under steady-state conditions. These circuits exploit the nonlinear voltage-
current characteristics of the diodes to optimize power extraction from the ambient
electromagnetic source, even when the input signal amplitude or frequency varies.
2. Nonlinear Magnetic Materials: Employing nonlinear magnetic materials, such as magnetic
composites with hysteresis or saturation effects, can enhance energy harvesting performance in
steady-state cases. These materials exhibit nonlinear magnetization behavior under varying
magnetic fields, allowing for improved energy capture efficiency and power output stability over
a wide range of operating conditions.
3. Optimized Control Algorithms: Nonlinear control algorithms, such as adaptive or predictive
control techniques, can be employed to optimize the operation of electromagnetic energy
harvesting systems in steady-state scenarios. These algorithms adjust the system parameters
dynamically based on real-time sensor feedback, ensuring optimal energy extraction and system
stability under varying environmental conditions.
4. Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) Techniques: PLL techniques are commonly used in
electromagnetic energy harvesting systems to synchronize the harvester's resonant frequency
with the frequency of the ambient electromagnetic source in steady-state conditions. Nonlinear
PLL algorithms can improve the tracking accuracy and response speed of the synchronization
process, resulting in enhanced power generation efficiency and stability.
Basic Configuration: Clock Clean-Up Circuit
In its most basic configuration, a phase-locked loop compares the phase of a reference signal
(FREF) to the phase of an adjustable feedback signal (RFIN) F0, as seen in Figure 1. In Figure 2
there is a negative feedback control loop operating in the frequency domain. When the
comparison is in steady-state, and the output frequency and phase are matched to the incoming
frequency and phase of the error detector, we say that the PLL is locked. For the purposes of
this article we shall only consider a classical digital PLL architecture as implemented on the
Analog Devices ADF4xxx family of PLLs.
The first essential element in this circuit is the phase frequency detector (PFD). The PFD
compares the frequency and phase of the input to REFIN to the frequency and phase of the
feedback to RFIN. The ADF4002 is a PLL that can be configured as a standalone PFD (with the
feedback divider N = 1). As such, it can be used with a high quality voltage controlled crystal
oscillator (VCXO) and a narrow low-pass filter to clean up a noisy REFIN clock.
Figure. 1 Basic PLL configuration.
Figure 2. Basic PLL configuration.
Phase Frequency Detector
Figure 3. Phase frequency detector.
The phase frequency detector in Figure 3 compares the input to F at +IN and the feedback signal at
REF
–IN. It uses two D-type flip flops with a delay element. One Q output enables a positive current source,
and the other Q output enables a negative current source. These current sources are known as the charge
pump. For more details on PFD operation, consult “Phase-Locked Loops for High Frequency Receivers
and Transmitters.”
Using this architecture, the input to +IN below is at a higher frequency than the –IN (Figure 4), and the
resultant charge pump output is pumping current high, which, when integrated in the PLL low-pass
filter, will push the tuning voltage of the VCO up. In this way, the –IN frequency will increase as the
VCO increases, and the two PFD inputs will eventually converge or lock to the same frequency (Figure
5). If the frequency to –IN is higher than +IN, the reverse happens.
Figure 10. Ideal LO spectrum.
Figure 11. Single sideband phase noise.
Figure 12. PLL with dual modulus N counter.
Table 1. Dual Modulus Prescaler Operation
N Value P/P + 1 B Value A Value
90 9 11 2
81 9 10 1
72 8 9 0
64 8 8 0
56 8 7 0
48 8 6 0
40 8 5 0
32 8 4 0
24 8 3 0
16 8 2 0
8 8 1 0
0 8 0 0
The in-band (inside the PLL loop filter bandwidth) phase noise is directly influenced by the value of N,
and in-band noise is increased by 20log (N). So, for narrow-band applications in which the N value is
high, the in-band noise is dominated by the high N value. A system that permits a much lower N value,
but still permits fine resolution is enabled by a fractional-N synthesizer, such as
the ADF4159 or HMC704. In this manner, the in-band phase noise can be greatly reduced. Figures 13
through 16 illustrate how this is achieved. In these examples, two PLLs are used to generate frequencies
suitable for a 5G systems local oscillator (LO) in a range between 7.4 GHz to 7.6 GHz, with 1 MHz of
channel resolution. The ADF4108 is used in an integer-N configuration (Figure 13) and the HMC704 is
used in a fractional-N configuration. The HMC704 (Figure 14) can be used with a 50 MHz PFD
frequency, which lowers the N value and, hence, the in-band noise, while still permitting a 1 MHz (or
indeed smaller) frequency step size—an improvement of 15 dB (at 8 kHz offset frequency) is noted
(Figure 15 vs. Figure 16). The ADF4108, however, is forced to use a 1 MHz PFD to achieve the same
resolution.
Care needs to be taken with fractional-N PLLs to ensure that spurious tones do not degrade system
performance. On PLLs such as the HMC704, integer boundary spurs (generated when the fractional
portion of the N value approaches 0 or 1, like 147.98 or 148.02 are very close to the integer value of
148) generate the most concern. This can be mitigated by buffering the VCO output to the RF input,
and/or careful frequency planning in which the REF can be changed to avoid these more problematic
IN
frequencies.
Figure
13. Integer N PLL.
Figure 14. Fractional-N PLL.
