Basic Computer Engineering

(BT-205)

By
Prof.Radha Rashmi Tiwari
Introduction
Basic Computer Engineering s a subject for all who want to know the complete
information about the basics of computers. It covers the essentials of
computers from computer basics such as Computer Definition, Operating
System, Programming Languages, OOPS, C+ +, Data Structures, Database
Management System, Computer Networking to advanced topics such as
Internetworking Concepts, Devices, TCP / IP Model, Internet, World Wide
Web, Network Security & E-Commerce, Neural Networks and Computing
Ethics
Units
• Unit I: talks about the basic of computers and operating systems and also covers
the basics of MS Word, MS PowerPoint and MS Excel.
• Unit II: lays the foundation of programming by talking bout algorithms, OOP
basics, Introduction to C+, Complexity etc.
• Unit III: is dedicated to the discussion of core C++ concepts like classes, objects,
constructors, destructors, friend functions, inheritance, polymorphism and Virtual
functions. This unit also gives introduction to data structures.
• Unit IV: talks about computer networking and computer security basics.
• Unit V: talks about database management system and cloud computing.
Syllabus According to RGPV
UNIT I
Computer: Definition, Classification, Organization i.e. CPU, register, Bus
architecture, Instruction set, Memory & Storage Systems, I/O Devices, and
System & Application Software. Computer Application in eBusiness,
Bio-Informatics, health Care, Remote Sensing & GIS, Meteorology and
Climatology, Computer Gaming, Multimedia and Animation etc. Operating
System: Definition, Function, Types, Management of File, Process & Memory.
Introdcution to MS word, MS powerpoint, MS Excel
UNIT II
Introduction to Algorithms, Complexities and Flowchart, Introduction to
Programming, Categories of Programming Languages, Program Design,
Programming Paradigms, Characteristics or Concepts of OOP, Procedure
Oriented Programming VS object oriented Programming. Introduction to
C++: Character Set, Tokens, Precedence and Associativity, Program Structure,
Data Types, Variables, Operators, Expressions, Statements and control
structures, I/O operations, Array and Functions.
UNIT III
Object & Classes, Scope Resolution Operator, Constructors & Destructors,
Friend Functions, Inheritance, Polymorphism, Overloading Functions &
Operators, Types of Inheritance, Virtual functions. Introduction to Data
Structures.
UNIT IV
Computer Networking: Introduction, Goals, ISO-OSI Model, Functions of Different
Layers. Internetworking Concepts, Devices, TCP/IP Model. Introduction to Internet,
World Wide Web, E-commerce.
Computer Security Basics: Introduction to viruses, worms, malware, Trojans, Spyware
and Anti-Spyware Software, Different types of attacks like Money Laundering,
Information Theft, Cyber Pornography, Email spoofing, Denial of Service (DoS),
Cyber Stalking, ,Logic bombs, Hacking Spamming, Cyber Defamation , pharming
Security measures Firewall, Computer Ethics & Good Practices, Introduction of
Cyber Laws about Internet Fraud and Good Computer Security Habits.
UNIT V
Data base Management System: Introduction, File oriented approach and Database
approach, Data Models, Architecture of Database System, Data independence, Data
dictionary, DBA, Primary Key, Data definition language and Manipulation Languages.
Cloud computing: Definition, cloud infrastructure, cloud segments or service delivery
models (IaaS, PaaS and SaaS), cloud deployment models/ types of cloud (public,
private, community and hybrid clouds), Pros and Cons of cloud computing.
Recommended Text Books
1. Fundamentals of Computers : E Balagurusamy, TMH
2. Basic Computer Engineering: Silakari and Shukla, Wiley India
3. Fundamentals of Computers : V Rajaraman, PHI
4. Information Technology Principles and Application: Ajoy Kumar Ray &
Tinku Acharya PHI.
 What is a Computer?
The term computer has taken from the computing. A computer can be defined
as an electronic device that takes data and instruction from the user as input
perform computing and give information as output to the user.

The electronic device is known as hardware & the set of instruction is known as
software.
Basic Computer Operation
1. INPUT: It accepts data and instruction through the input device.
2. PROCESS AND CONTROL: it performs the action as per the instruction
issued and process the given data.
3. STORAGE: it stores the data and instruction for future execution.
4. OUTPUT: it generates the desired output after executing the instruction
and processing the input data.
Advantages of Computer
ACCURACY: Computer performs complex and repetitive calculation with
accurate results.
MEMORY: Store large amount of data and information
USER-FRIENDLY: Provide information to the user in many different forms.
FAST: Perform fast execution or processing.
LESS MAN POWER: Manual requirement is less.
BEST RESULTS: Artificial intelligence, Decision-making best results.
Functional Components of a Computer
Input Unit
Computers need to receive data and instructions to solve any problem. The
input unit basically links the external world or environment to the computer
system. It consists of one or more input devices. The keyboard and mouse are
the most commonly used input devices.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Once the data and instructions are received from the input device, they are to
be processed in this unit. So it can be considered as the heart or brain of the
computer system
Memory Unit
The data and instructions required for processing have to be stored in the
memory unit before actual processing starts. Similarly, the results generated has
to be preserved before it is displayed. The memory unit thus provides space to
store input data, intermediate results and final output generated. eg: hard disks,
pen drives, floppy disks.
Output Unit
It is used to print or display the result obtained by the execution of a program.
Whenever the user wants output from the computer, the control unit sends a
signal to this unit to be ready to accept processed data from the memory and to
display it. Eg. Monitor, Printer, Speakers, etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER
Analog Computers
An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously
changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or
hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved.
Digital Computers
The digital computer works on discontinuous data. They convert the data into
digits (binary digits 0 and 1) and all operations are carried out on these digits at
extremely fast rates. A digital computer basically knows how to count the digits
and add the digits. Digital computers are much faster than an analog computer
and far more accurate.
Supercomputer
A supercomputer contains many CPUs which operate in parallel to make it
faster. They are used for massive data processing and solving very sophisticated
problems. They are used for weather forecasting, weapons research and
development, rocketing, aerodynamics, seismology, atomic, nuclear etc.
Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers are very powerful, large general-purpose computers.
They are used where a large amount of data is to be processed or very complex
calculations are to be made and these tasks are beyond the computing capacity
of minicomputers. They are used in research organizations, large industries,
large business, and government organizations, bank, and airline reservations
where a large database is required
Microcomputers
A Microcomputer is a low-cost, small, digital computer. It contains the
microprocessor as its CPU, a memory unit, an input device, and an output
device. Microcomputers have a wide range of applications like general purpose
calculations, industrial control, home application; Microcomputers are also
called personal computers
Minicomputers
Minicomputers are general purpose computers, smaller than mainframe and
give computing power without adding the prohibitive expenses associated with
large systems. They are used in accounting, word processing, database
management, statistical packages for social sciences, CAD, and numerical
analysis etc
Hybrid Computers
A hybrid computer is a combined complex of several electronic computer units built using
the different characterization of quantities (i.e., analog and digital features) and united by a
single control system.

The purpose of designing hybrid computers is to provide functions and features that can be
found on both analog and digital devices.

This combined model (hybrid system) aims to create a work unit that offers the best of both
types of computers. Hybrid computers are extremely fast when driving equations, even when
those calculations are incredibly complex.
Generations of Computer
The development of computer systems is normally discussed as the
development over different generations.
First Generation
•The period 1940 to 1956, roughly considered as the First Generation of Computer.
•The first generation computers were developed by using vacuum tube or thermionic
valve machine.
•The input of this system was based on punched cards and paper tape; however, the
output was displayed on printouts.
•The first generation computers worked on binary-coded concept (i.e., language of
0-1).
•Examples: ENIAC, EDVAC, etc.
Second Generation
•The period 1956 to 1963 is roughly considered as the period of Second
Generation of Computers.
•The second generation computers were developed by using transistor
technology.
•In comparison to the first generation, the size of second generation was
smaller.
•In comparison to computers of the first generation, the computing time taken
by the computers of the second generation was lesser.
 Third Generation
•The period 1963 to 1971 is roughly considered as the period of Third
Generation of computers.
•The third generation computers were developed by using the Integrated Circuit
(IC) technology.
•In comparison to the computers of the second generation, the size of the
computers of the third generation was smaller.
•In comparison to the computers of the second generation, the computing time
taken by the computers of the third generation was lesser.
•The third generation computer consumed less power and also generated less
heat.
•The maintenance cost of the computers in the third generation was also low.
•The computer system of the computers of the third generation was easier for
commercial use.
 Fourth Generation
•The period 1972 to 2010 is roughly considered as the fourth generation of computers.
•The fourth generation computers were developed by using microprocessor technology.
•By coming to fourth generation, computer became very small in size, it became portable.
•The machine of fourth generation started generating very low amount of heat.
•It is much faster and accuracy became more reliable.
•The production cost reduced to very low in comparison to the previous generation.
•It became available for the common people as well.
 Fifth Generation
•The period 2010 to till date and beyond, roughly considered as the period of fifth
generation of computers.
•By the time, the computer generation was being categorized on the basis of hardware
only, but the fifth generation technology also included software.
•The computers of the fifth generation had high capability and large memory capacity.
•Working with computers of this generation was fast and multiple tasks could be
performed simultaneously.
•Some of the popular advanced technologies of the fifth generation include Artificial
intelligence, Quantum computation, Nanotechnology, Parallel processing, etc.
Basic Units of Measurement
BIT is a unit of information equivalent to the result of a choice between only 2
possible alternatives in the binary number system.
BYTE is a sequence of 8 bits (enough to represent one character of
alphanumeric data) processed as a single unit for information.
• A byte can be used to represent a single character, which can be:
• A letter
• A number
• A special character or symbol, or
• A space
• 1024 bytes = 1 kilobyte (K or KB)
• 1024 KB = 1 megabyte (MB)
• 1024 MB = 1 gigabyte (GB)
• 1024 GB = 1 Terabyte (TB)
Central Processing Unit
The CPU which is referred to as the brain of a computer is responsible for
processing the data inside the computer system. It is also responsible for
controlling all other components of computer system.
Central processing unit (CPU) is the central component of the PC. Sometimes
it is called as a processor. It is the brain that runs the show inside the Pc. All
work that is done on a computer is performed directly or indirectly by the
processor. Obviously, it is one of the most important components of the Pc. It
is also, scientifically, not only one of the most amazing parts of the PC but one
of the most amazing devices in the world of technology. The processor plays a
significant role in the following important aspects of your computer system;
Performance
The processor is probably the most important single determinant of system
performance on the Pc. While other components also play a key role in
determining performance, the processor's capabilities dictate the maximum
performance of a system. The other devices only allow the processor to reach
its full potential.
Software Support
Newer, faster processors enable the use of the latest software. In addition, new
processors such as the i3/i5/i7 with MMX Technology, enable the use of
specialized software not usable on earlier machines.
Reliability and Stability
The quality of the processor is one factor that determines how reliably your
system will run. While most processors are very dependable, some are not. This
also depends to some extent on the age of the processor and how much energy
it consumes. The CPU consists of Control Unit, Arithmetic and Logic Unit
(ALU) and register set.
Main Operation of the CPU Includes
1. FETCH: Fetching instruction from the memory issued by the user.
2. DECODE: Decoding the instruction to decide what operation to be
performed.
3. EXECUTE: Execute the instruction.
4. STORE: Store the result in the memory.
The structure of CPU:
Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)
ALU is the combination of arithmetic unit and logical unit is used to perform
an arithmetic operation on the input data (+, -, *, /). Logical unit is used to
perform logical operation on input data (, <=, >=, =, OR, NOT, AND)
Control Unit (CU)
CU is an important component that controls the flow of data and information.
It is important for the proper execution of the instruction.
Register (Memory Unit)
The register is used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and instructions
that are being used immediately by the CPU, there are various types of
Registers those are used for various purposes. Register are special purpose
high-speed temporary storage area for holding data, address, and instruction
during processing of the instruction. The register is always on the CPU.
Program Counter
PC: - The program counter (PC) just part of the instruction sequencer in some
computers is a processor register. It keeps track of the next memory address of
the instruction that is to be executed once the execution of the current
instruction is completed. In other words, it holds the address of the memory
location of the next instruction when the current instruction is executed.
Accumulator
AC: -Accumulator: This Register is used for storing the Results those are
produced by the System. When the CPU will generate Some Results after the
Processing then all the Results will be Stored into the AC Register.
Instruction Register
IR: - Instruction Register: store the instruction currently being executed.
Memory Address Register
MAR: - (Memory address register) this register holds the memory addresses of
data and instructions. This register is used to access data and instructions from
memory during the execution phase of an instruction. Suppose CPU wants to
store some data in the memory or to read the data from the memory. It places
the address of the required memory location in the MAR
Memory Buffer Register
MBR: - Memory buffer register: -MBR stands for Memory Buffer Register. This
register holds the contents of data or instruction read from, or written in the
memory. It means that this register is used to store data/instruction coming
from the memory or going to the memory.
Memory Data Register
MDR: - (Memory Data register) MDR is the register of a computer's control
unit that contains the data to be stored in the computer storage (e.g. RAM), or
the data after a fetch from the computer storage. It acts as a buffer and holds
anything that is copied from the memory ready for the processor to use it.
Computer Memory
The computer memory holds the data and instructions needed to process raw
data and produce output. The computer memory is divided into large number
of small parts known as cells. Each cell has a unique address which varies from
0 to memory size minus one.

Computer memory is of two types: Volatile (RAM) and Non-volatile (ROM).

The secondary memory (hard disk) is referred as storage not memory.
But, if we categorize memory on behalf of space or location, it is of four types:

1. Register memory
2. Cache memory
3. Primary memory
4. Secondary memory
Register Memory
Register memory is the smallest and fastest memory in a computer. It is not a part of
the main memory and is located in the CPU in the form of registers, which are the
smallest data holding elements. A register temporarily holds frequently used data,
instructions, and memory address that are to be used by CPU. They hold instructions
that are currently processed by the CPU. All data is required to pass through registers
before it can be processed. So, they are used by CPU to process the data entered by
the users.
Registers hold a small amount of data around 32 bits to 64 bits. The speed of a CPU
depends on the number and size (no. of bits) of registers that are built into the CPU.
Registers can be of different types based on their uses. Some of the widely used
Registers include Accumulator or AC, Data Register or DR, the Address Register or
AR, Program Counter (PC), I/O Address Register, and more.
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a high-speed memory, which is small in size but faster than
the main memory (RAM). The CPU can access it more quickly than the primary
memory. So, it is used to synchronize with high-speed CPU and to improve its
performance.
Cache memory can only be accessed by CPU. It can be a reserved part of the
main memory or a storage device outside the CPU. It holds the data and
programs which are frequently used by the CPU. So, it makes sure that the data
is instantly available for CPU whenever the CPU needs this data. In other
words, if the CPU finds the required data or instructions in the cache memory,
it doesn't need to access the primary memory (RAM). Thus, by acting as a
buffer between RAM and CPU, it speeds up the system performance.
Types of Cache Memory
1. Primary Cache: - It is also known as L1 cache or internal cache it is located
inside the CPU and provides quick access to the frequently provided data to
the microprocessor.
2. Secondary Cache: - - It is also known as L2 cache or External cache it is
located outside the CPU and positioned on the motherboard. It is slower as
compared to L1.
Primary Memory
The primary memory is available on the computer as a built-in unit of the
computer. The primary memory is represented as a set of location occupying 8
bits. Each bit in the memory is identified by a unique address. The data is
stored in the machine understandable binary form in these memory locations.
Primary Memory is of two types: RAM and ROM.
Random Access Memory
This is the primary memory from where data & instructions can be received in
a random manner (RAM). It is a volatile memory in which the contents are lost
once the power is turned off. The kind of memory is used to store the data
temporarily during the computer operations.
Types of RAM
1. Static random-access memory (SRAM): It is a volatile memory based on
traditional transistors using flip-flop gates to hold data if the power is on. The
contents are lost once the power is turned off. It is very fast and that’s used in the
cache memory. The SRAM takes more space and is expensive too, but it is easy to
use. It does not need to be refreshed periodically and synchronizes itself with the
timing of CPU.
2. Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM): It is a volatile memory based on the
capacitors that hold data if the power is on. Due to discharging capacitors, the
DRAM is refreshed periodically. This refreshing is done automatically, and due to
the time consumed in refreshing. The DRAM is slow. It is inexpensive and takes
less space; therefore, DRAM is used as the main memory.
Read Only Memory
ROM is a special type of memory which can only be read and contents of
which are
not lost even when the computer is switched off. ROM chips are used not only
in computers but in most
other electronic items such as washing machines, microwave ovens, calculators,
laser printers, media
players etc. It is not limited to electronic chips, CDROM and DVD ROM.
Types of ROMs
1. Programmable read-only memory (PROM): This is a kind of ROM has not been
pre-recorded by the manufacturer but is supplied empty. The user of this ROM
can store programs on it using a special tool. Once the empty ROM is
programmed, it behaves like any other ROM, that is, it cannot be rewritten.
2. Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM): This is a ROM which has
not been prerecorded by the manufacturer, but it is supplied empty. The user of
this ROM can store programs on it using a special tool. Once the empty ROM is
programmed, it can be rewritten repeatedly after erasing the previously written
entire contents using the ultraviolet light of specific frequency. EPROM is more
expensive than PROM.
Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM): This is a ROM
which has not been pre-recorded by the manufacturer, but it supplied empty. The user
of this ROM can store programs on it using a special tool. Once the empty ROM is
programmed, it can be rewritten repeatedly after erasing the previously written
contents using electric charge. This kind or ROM requires erasing the entire
previously written content, but it allows erasing one byte at a time before writing the
new content onto it. The EEPROM is more expensive than PROM, but it need not
be removed from the computer for rewriting. This is the most flexible type of ROM,
which is now commonly used for storing BIOS programs.
Secondary Memory
The secondary storage devices which are built into the computer or connected to the
computer are known as a secondary memory of the computer. It is also known as
external memory or auxiliary storage.

The secondary memory is accessed indirectly via input/output operations. It is

non-volatile, so permanently stores the data even when the computer is turned off or
until this data is overwritten or deleted. The CPU can't directly access the secondary
memory. First, the secondary memory data is transferred to primary memory then the
CPU can access it.
Magnetic Storage Device
The magnetic storage devices store information that can be read, erased and
rewritten many times. These include a floppy disk, hard disk, and magnetic
tapes.
Optical Storage Device
The optical storage devices are secondary storage devices that use laser beams
to read the stored data. These include CD-ROM, rewritable compact disk
(CD-RW). Digital video disks with read-only memory, etc.
Magneto-Optical Storage Device
The magneto-optical devices are generally used to store information, such as
large programs, files and backup data. The end user can modify the information
stored in magnetooptical devices multiple times. These devices provide higher
storage capacity as they use laser beams and magnets for reading and writing
data to the device.
Memory Hierarchy
The computer requires different kinds of memory for its proper functioning.
Since the fast memories are very expensive, therefore they cannot be used in
excess. There is a hierarchy of memories considering their speed and cost. The
registers are the fastest storage devices; even faster than the cache memory
(SRAM), which is faster than the main memory.
Bus Architecture
A bus is a set of wire that is used to connect the different internal components
of a computer system for transferring data, address, and control. There may be
several buses in a computer system broadly divided into categories.
1. Serial Bus
2. Parallel Bus
The speed of any type of bus is measured in terms of the number of bits
transferred per second, between two components.
In Serial Bus only one bit of data is transferred at a time, amongst the various
hardware components.
In Parallel Bus, several bits of data can be transferred at a time, amongst the
various hardware components.
Based on the Type of data it carries
Control Bus manages the transfer of data and address among various
components by transferring appropriate control signals.
The Data Bus in a computer system is used to transfer data amongst the different
internal components. The speed of the data bus also affects the overall processing
power of a computer system. The modern computer system uses 32-bit data buses for
data transfer. This means that these buses can transfer 32 bits of data at a time. The
data bus implemented between the main memory and the processor of a computer
system. The above figure shows that a bidirectional data bus is implemented between
the main memory and processor of the computer system. The bidirectional data bus
allows the transfer of data in both the directions. The data bus is generally
bi-directional in nature in the most computer system.
The Address Bus is also known as the memory bus. It transfers the memory
address for reading and writes memory operations. It contains many address
lines that determine the range of memory addresses that can be referenced
using the address bus. For Example-a 32-bit address bus can be used to
reference 2 Memory locations. Like data bus, the address bus can also be a
serial or a parallel bus.
Instruction Set
The instruction set, also called instruction set architecture (ISA), is part of a
computer that pertains to programming, which is basically machine language.
The instruction set provides commands to the processor, to tell it what it needs
to do. The instruction set consists of addressing modes, instructions, native
data types, registers, memory architecture, interrupt, and exception handling,
and external I/O.
Examples of instruction set :
• ADD - Add two numbers together.
• COMPARE - Compare numbers.
• IN - Input information from a device, e.g. a keyboard.
• JUMP - Jump to designated RAM address.
• JUMP IF - a Conditional statement that jumps to a designated RAM address.
• LOAD - Load information from RAM to the CPU.
• OUT - Output information to device, e.g. monitor.
• STORE - Store information to RAM.
Complex Instruction Set Computer
CISC is a computer where a single instruction can perform numerous low-level
operations like a load from memory and a store from memory, etc. The CISC
attempts to minimize the number of instructions per program but at the cost of an
increase in the number of cycles per instruction.
The design of an instruction set for a computer must take into consideration not only
machine language constructs but also the requirements imposed on the use of high
level programming languages.
The goal of CISC is to attempt to provide a single machine instruction for each
statement that is written in a high level language.
Characteristics of CISC architecture
• A large number of instructions typically from 100 to 250 instructions.
• Some instructions that perform specialized tasks and are used infrequently.
• A large variety of addressing modes- typically from 5 to 20 different modes.
• Variable length instruction formats.
• Instructions that manipulate operands in memory.
• Example For performing an ADD operation, CISC will execute a single ADD command
which will execute all the required load and store operations. RISC will execute each
operation for loading data from memory, adding values and storing data back to memory
using different low-level instructions.
Reduced Instruction Set Computer
A number of computer designers recommended that computers use fewer
instructions with simple constructs so that they can be executed much faster
within the CPU without having to use memory as often. This type of computer
is called a Reduced Instruction Set Computer.
The concept of RISC involves an attempt to reduce execution time by
simplifying the instruction set of computers.
Characteristics of RISC architecture
• Relatively few instructions.
• Relatively few addressing modes.
• Memory access limited to load and store instructions.
• All operations done within the register of the CPU.
• Fixed length, easily decoded instruction format.
A characteristic of RISC processors’ ability is to execute one instruction per clock cycle.
This is done by overlapping the fetch, decode and execute phases of two or three
instructions by using a procedure referred as pipelining.
Functional Components of a Computer
Input Unit
Input unit is formed by the input devices attached to the computer. Input
devices take the raw data from the user to the computer for processing.
Keyboard
In computing, a keyboard is a typewriter-style device, which uses an
arrangement of buttons or keys, to act as mechanical levers or electronic
switches.
Mouse
In computing, a mouse is a pointing device that functions by detecting
two-dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface. Physically, a mouse
consists of an object held under one of the user's hands, with one or more
buttons
Light Pen
A light pen is a computer input device in the form of a light-sensitive wand
used in conjunction with a computer's CRT display
Touchscreen
A touchscreen is an electronic visual display that the user can control through
simple or multi-touch gestures by touching the screen with one or more fingers.
Some touchscreens can also detect objects such as a stylus or ordinary or
specially coated gloves.
Joystick
A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and
reports its angle or direction to the device it is controlling. A joystick, also
known as the control column, is the principal control device in the cockpit of
many civilian and military aircraft, either as a center stick or sidestick. It often
has supplementary switches to control various aspects of the aircraft's flight.
Microphone
A microphone is an example of a transducer, a device that changes information
from one form to another. Sound information exists as patterns of air pressure;
the microphone changes this information into patterns of electric current. The
recording engineer is interested in the accuracy of this transformation, a
concept he thinks of as fidelity.
Scanner
In computing, an image scanner—often abbreviated to just scanner—is a
device that optically scans images, printed text, handwriting, or an object, and
converts it to a digital image.
Output Unit
The output generated by the computer is sent to the output device.
Monitor
A monitor or a display is an electronic visual display for computers. The
monitor comprises the display device, circuitry, and an enclosure. The display
device in modern monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid crystal display
(TFT-LCD) thin panel, while older monitors use a cathode ray tube (CRT)
about as deep as the screen size.
Printer
In computing, a printer is a peripheral which produces a representation of an
electronic document on physical media such as paper or transparency film. Many
printers are local peripherals connected directly to a nearby personal computer.
Individual printers are often designed to support both local and network connected
users at the same time.
Types of printer:
• Inkjet Printers
• Laser Printers
• Dot Matrix
Speakers
Computer speakers, or multimedia speakers, are speakers external to a
computer that disables the lower fidelity built-in speaker.
Software
A set of instructions that enables physical components of a computer to work
in a synchronize way is known as Software.
This set of instructions is often called a program.
Computers cannot do any useful work without instructions from software.
Types of Software
Computer Software is also divided in four major types:
• System Software
• Programming Software
• Application Software
• Utility Software
System Software
System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run a
computer's hardware and application programs. If we think of the computer
system as a layered model, the system software is the interface between the
hardware and user applications. The operating system is the best-known
example of system software.
Programming Software
Computer programmers use programming software to write code.
Programming software and programming tools enable developers to develop,
write, test and debug other software programs. Examples of programming
software include assemblers, compilers, debuggers and interpreters.
Application Software
An application program (software application, or application, or app for short)
is a computer program designed to carry out a specific task other than one
relating to the operation of the computer itself, typically to be used by
end-users. Word processors, media players, and accounting software are
examples.
Utility Software
Utility Software performs certain tasks like virus detection, installation, and
uninstallation, data backup, deletion of unwanted files, etc. Some examples
are antivirus software, file management tools, compression tools, disk
management tools, etc.
Computer Applications
Computer Application in e-Business
E-Business is the administration of conducting business via the internet. This would
include the buying and selling of goods and services, along with providing technical or
customer support through the Internet. E-Business is a term often used in
conjunction with e-commerce but includes services in addition to the sale of goods.
Electronic business commonly referred to as "E-Business" or "E-business", or an
internet business, may be defined as the application of information and
communication technologies (ICT) in support of all the activities of the business.
Commerce constitutes the exchange of products and services between businesses,
groups, and individuals and is one of the essential activities of any business. Electronic
commerce focuses on the use of ICT to enable the external activities and relationships
of the business with individuals, groups and other businesses.
Bio Informatics
Bioinformatics is the field of science which applies computer-based tools and
technologies on biological research and development. It primarily involves collection
and storage of biological and genetic data on which statistical techniques are applied
to arrive at the required solution. Bioinformatics has become an important part of
many areas of biology. In experimental molecular biology, bioinformatics techniques
such as image and signal processing allow extraction of useful results from large
amounts of raw data. In the field of genetics and genomics, it aids in sequencing and
annotating genomes and their observed mutations. It plays a role in the textual mining
of biological literature and the development of biological and gene ontologies to
organize and query biological data. It plays a role in the analysis of gene and protein
expression and regulation.
Health Care
Now a day, computers are being used to cater to several different aspects of
healthcare. The use of a computer is evident right from the beginning when a patient
approaches healthcare facility. The most significant use of computers within
healthcare has been its amalgamation with medical equipment. Most of the medical
equipment is now computer-based, thus enabling accurate capture of data in digital
form. Further, a device like CT scanner helps the physicians to view a 3-D image of
body organs. Health care (or healthcare) is the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of
disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in humans. Health
care is delivered by practitioners in medicine, chiropractic, dentistry, nursing,
pharmacy, allied health, and other care providers. It refers to the work done in
providing primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, as well as in public health.
Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is the technique of acquiring information about a subject
(material or spatial) without coming in direct contact with it. Since there are no
direct contact involved, wireless devices are used for performing remote
sensing task. Such devices are typically real-time systems that continuously
gather and store data related to the subject under observation. A RADAR
system can be considered as a good example of remote sensing device that
measures the time delay between sending and receiving of signals to detect
information related to the objects.
GIS
Geographic information system (GIS) is a system that gathers location-specific data
present it is various meaningful forms. It is basically a computer-based information
system that captures and stores location specific data against different parameters. A
geographic information system (GIS) lets us visualize, question, analyze, interpret, and
understand data to reveal relationships, patterns, and trends. Geographic information
system (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and
present all types of geographical. The acronym GIS is sometimes used for
geographical information science or geospatial information studies to refer to the
academic discipline or career of working with geographic information systems. In the
simplest terms, GIS is the merging of cartography, statistical analysis, and database
technology.
Meteorology and Climatology
Metrology is the study of the atmosphere and the related weather condition
over short time intervals aims at making routine weather forecasts. Meteorology
is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere. Studies in the field
stretch back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not
occur until the 18th century. The 19th century saw breakthroughs occur after
observing networks developed across several countries. After the development
of the computer in the latter half of the 20th century, breakthroughs in weather
forecasting were achieved.
Computer Gaming
Computers are widely used for playing games that are like video or console-
based games. A computer must process graphics and animations support for
ensuring rich gaming experience to the user. The computer gaming industry has
evolved tremendously over the experience over the past decade. Computer and
video games are a maturing medium and industry and have caught the attention
of scholars across a variety of disciplines. By and large, computer and video
games have been ignored by educators.
Multimedia
Multimedia is media and content that uses a combination of different content
forms. This contrasts with media that use only rudimentary computer displays
such as text-only or traditional forms of printed or hand-produced material.
Multimedia includes a combination of text, audio, still images, animation, video,
or interactivity content forms. Multimedia is usually recorded and played,
displayed, or accessed by information content processing devices, such as
computerized and electronic devices, but can also be part of a live performance.
Multimedia devices are electronic media devices used to store and experience
multimedia content.
Animation
The animation is the rapid display of a sequence of images to create an illusion of
movement. The most common method of presenting animation is as a motion picture
or video program, although there are other methods. This type of presentation is
usually accomplished with a camera and a projector or a computer viewing screen
which can rapidly cycle through images in a sequence. Animation can be made with
either hand rendered art, computer-generated imagery, or three-dimensional objects,
e.g. puppets or clay figures, or a combination of techniques. The position of each
object in any image relates to the position of that object in the previous and following
images so that the objects each appear to fluidly move independently of one another.
The viewing device displays these images in rapid succession, usually 24, 25, or 30
frames per second.
Operating System
Operating System is software that works as an interface between a user and the
computer hardware. The primary objective of an operating system is to make
computer system convenient to use and to utilize computer hardware in an
efficient manner. The operating system performs the basic tasks such as
receiving input from the keyboard, processing instructions and sending output
to the screen.
Various types of operating systems are UNIX/LINUX/REDHAT/UBUNTU,
MS-DOS, MS-Windows - 98/XP/Vista/windows7/windows8/windows10,
Windows-NT/2000/2003/2005, OS/2 and Mac OS.
The operating system manages overall activities of a computer and the
input/output devices attached to the computer. It is the first software you see
when you turn on the computer, and the last software you see when the
computer is turned off. It is the software that enables all the programs you use.
At the simplest level, an operating system does two things: The first, it manages
the hardware and software resources of the computer system. These resources
include the processor, memory, disk space, etc. The second, it provides a stable,
consistent way for applications to deal with the hardware without having to
know all the details of the hardware.
Functions of Operating System
Process Management:- Process Management support operating system to create
and delete processes. Process management also offers a mechanism for
synchronization and communication among processes. An operating system performs
the following activities for process management:
• The operating system maintains the track of the processor and the status of a
process. The software which performs this task is referred to as a traffic controller.
• It assigns the processor to the process.
• It also performs the task of the de-allocated processor, if a process is no longer
needed for the processor.
Functions of Operating System
Memory Management:- Memory Management is used to manage Primary memory as well as
secondary memory. The memory management module performs the allocation job and de-allocation of
memory to the program. The operating system performs various activities for memory management
are:
• It keeps track of memory means which part of the memory is in use, and what part of the memory
is not in use.
• Operating system helps to allocate the memory at the time when the process request for memory.
• If process no longer needs memory, then de-allocates the memory.
• In multiprogramming, the task of memory allocation to the processes is done with the help of
Operating System.
Functions of Operating System
File Management:- For fast or simple navigation and easy usage file system is
organized into directories. These directories consist of directories and other
files. It helps to handle all the file-related tasks like organization storage,
retrieval, sharing, naming and files protection. It preserves track of information,
location, status, user, etc.
Device Management:- Operating System performs the task of allocations and
de-allocations of the devices. It helps to keeps the track of all the devices. With
the help of Operating system, device communication via their respective drivers
is performed. It manages the device in an effective manner.
Functions of Operating System
Secondary Storage Management:- Operating System is responsible for secondary storage
management. The System has various levels of storage that consist of primary storage,
secondary storage, and cache storage. The set of instruction and data are stored in primary
memory or cache memory so that the program which is running can reference it.
Security:- The Operating system is responsible for security means the operating system
prevents the data and information from unauthorized access and threats.
Coordination between other software and user:- The operating system also performs the
task of coordination between other software and users. OS directs as well as allocates
assemblers, interpreters, compilers, and other software to different computer system users.
Functions of Operating System
Networking:- A distributed system means a bunch of processors which do not
share memory hardware devices and clock. With the help of the network, the
processor communicates with each other.
Job accounting:- Operating system performs the function of job accounting
by keeping the track of time and resource used by several jobs and users.
Error detecting aids:- The operating system also performs the task of error
detection. It continuously monitors the system to find or detect errors and
prevents the system from the error.
Simple Batch operating system
In the simple batch operating system, there is no direct communication
between the user and the computer. In this, firstly, the user submits a job to the
computer operator, and after submitting the job, the computer operator creates
a batch of the jobs on an input device. The batch of jobs is created on the basis
of the type of language and needs. After the batch of the job is created, then a
special program monitors and manages each program in a
batch. Example: Bank Statements, Payroll system, etc.
Advantages of Simple Batch Operating System
1. There is no mechanism to prioritize the processes.
2. There is no communication between the user and the computer.
3. The ideal time is very less for a batch operating system.
Disadvantages of a Simple Batch Operating System
1. It is hard to debug.
2. The Batch operating systems are costly.
Multiprogramming Batch Operating System
In Multiprogramming Batch Operating System, the Operating system
first selects the job, and after selecting the job, it begins to execute one of
the jobs from memory. When this job requires an I/O operation
operating system, it switches to another job (operating system and CPU
always busy). In this, the jobs present in memory are always minimum
than the jobs present in the job pool.
If different jobs are ready to execute at the same time, then the job is
selected for CPU scheduling. In a simple batch operating system,
sometimes CPU is idle and doesn’t perform any task, but in the
multiprogramming batch operating system, CPU is busy and will never
sit idle and always keeps on processing.
Time Sharing Operating System
The Time-sharing systems are also called Multitasking systems. In Time-sharing operating
system, we assign some time to each job so that all the jobs work efficiently and smoothly.
The task may be from a single user as well as multiple users. The time taken by each job to
execute the job is known as quantum. After the interval of time is over, the operating system
moves to the next task. Time-sharing allows the various number of users to be placed at
various terminals so that they can use a particular system at the same time. Time-sharing is
sharing the processor’s time with multiple users simultaneously.
The major difference between Time-sharing operating system and Multiprogramming batch
operating system is that the time-sharing operating system aims to minimize the response
time, whereas the Multiprogramming batch operating system is to increase the use of the
processor.
Advantages of Time-Sharing Operating System
• CPU remains idle for less time.
• No partiality occurs between the jobs.
• It quickly responses.
Disadvantages of Time-Sharing Operating System
• The Problem of Data commination.
• Not reliable
Multiprocessor Operating System
A Multiprocessor Operating System means the use of two or more processors within a single
computer system. These multiple processors are in close communication and share the
memory, computer bus, and other peripheral devices. These systems are known as tightly
coupled systems. It offers high speed and computing power. In Multiprocessor operating
system, all the processors work by using a single operating system.
Advantages of Multiprocessor
• Improved performance.
• By maximizing the number of processors, more work is done in less time. In this way,
throughput is increased.
• Increased reliability.
Distributed Operating System
Distributed systems are also known as loosely coupled systems. In this type of
operating system, multiple central processors are used to serve multiple real-time
applications and multiple users. In this, the jobs of data processing are shared in the
processors accordingly. In this processor, interaction with each other takes place via
communication lines like telephone lines, high-speed buses, etc. The processors can be
different in function and size.
There are two types of Operating System:
• Client-server Systems.
• Peer-to-Peer system
Advantages of a Distributed Operating System
• Speed is increased by the exchange of information with the help of electronic mail.
• It offers better services to customers.
• Reduce delays in the processing of data.
• By resource sharing ability, a user at one site can access the resources that are available at another site.
• It offers reliability. If, in any case, one site fails then, the rest of the other sites work properly.
• Reduces load on the host computer.
Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System
• Distributed systems are more expensive.
• Failure of the central network stops the whole communication.
Network Operating System
• The network operating systems are also called tightly coupled systems. A
network operating system is a type of operating system which is created to
help personal computer, workstations. Network operating systems are
operated on a server and offer the facility of security, users, applications, data
management, and other networking related functions. Its objective is to
permit file sharing and printer access among various computers in a network,
i.e., local area network (LAN), Private network, etc.
• Example of Operating System: Unix, Linux, Novell NetWare, BSD,
Microsoft Windows Server 2008.
Advantages of Networking Operating System
• Provide the facility of remote access to servers from different locations.
• Allows easy upgradation of new technologies.

• Improves scalability.
• Security is managed via the servers.
Disadvantages of Networking Operating System
• Needed regular updates and maintenance.
• It is expensive.
• Many operations depend on a central location.
Real Time Operating System
Real-time operating systems are the operating systems that are used in real-time
applications where the data processing must be done in a fixed interval of time. The
Real-time operating system gives the response very fast and quick. The Real-time
operating system is used when a large number of events are processed in a short
interval of time.
It is based on clock interrupts. In the real-time system, the process is executed on the
basis of priority. The high priority process always executes first. When a high priority
process enters into the system, the low priority process preempts to serve a high
priority process. The task of synchronizing the process is done by the real-time
operating system so that the process can interact with each other efficiently. In this
way, resources are used effectively without time-wasting.
There are three types of Real-time operating system:
Hard-Real time: - In Hard-Real time system, there is some deadline for executing the task, which
means that the task must start its execution on the particular scheduled time, and should complete
within the assigned duration of time. Example: - Aircraft systems, Medical critical care System, etc.
Soft-Real time: - In the Soft-Real time system also, we assign a time to each process, but some
delaying in time is acceptable. So, in Soft-real time, deadlines are handled softly. That’s why it is called
Soft-Real time. Example: - Live stock price and Online Transaction System.
Firm-Real time: - In the Firm-Real time system, there is also a deadline for every task to execute. But
in this, due to missing deadlines, there may be no big impact, but there can be chances of undesired
effects such as problems in the quality of a product. Example: - Multimedia Applications.
Advantages of Real-Time Operating System
• Real-time operating systems are error-free.
• Real-time operating systems offer the facility of memory allocation management.
• It offers better utilization of devices and systems and produces more output from all the resources.
• The real-time operating system more focuses on running the applications and give less importance to those
applications which are present in the queue.
Disadvantages of a Real-Time Operating System
• In Real-Time Operating System, the task of writing the algorithm is very challenging and complex.
• Real-Time Operating System is expensive because it is using heavy system resources.
Mobile Operating System
Mobile Operating System is the type of operating system which is mainly
designed to power smartphones, wearables devices, and tablets.
Example: - Android, BlackBerry, etc.
Process Management
A Program will not do anything unless a CPU executes its instructions. An
executing program is called a process. The Process requires computer resources
to complete its task. More than one process can exist in the system, which
needs the same resources at the same time. So, the operating system handles all
the resources and processes effectively.
There may be situations where many resources may need to be executed at the
same time by one process so that consistency is maintained; otherwise, the
system may become inconsistent, and there may be chances of deadlock.
The operating system performs the following tasks for process management:
• Suspending and restarting the process.
• Offering mechanisms for process communication.
• Offering mechanisms for process synchronization.
• Process scheduling and threads on the CPU.
• Create and delete system and user processes.
Process: - A process is defined as a program in execution.
Types of Process
There are two types of Processes:
• I/O-Bound Process: - It is a type of process in which the process execution
time is calculated with the help of the amount of time a process spends to
complete the input/output operations.
• CPU-Bound Process: - CPU-Bound Process is another type of process in
which the process execution time is calculated with the help of the CPU
speed. If we use a faster processor, then the CPU-Bound Process may
execute faster.
Components of Process
There are four components of the process:
• Text: - Text consists of the value of the program counter
and the processor’s registers content that is represented by
the current activity.
• Data: - Data contains both static as well as global variables.
• Stack: - Stack contains temporary data like local variables,
return addresses, and method/function.
• Heap: - Heap is a dynamic memory which is allocated during
the run time of a process.
Attributes of Process
The attributes of a process are also called the
context of the process. These attributes design
the Process Control Block (PCB).
Process ID: - Process ID is a unique ID that is assigned to the process at that
time when the process was created.
Program counter: - The Program counter holds the address of the last
instruction of the process.
Process State: - The process state may be one of the following states, i.e.,
running, ready, waiting, terminate, etc.
Priority: - Some priority is assigned to every process in the memory. The
process that has the highest priority between the processes gets the CPU first.
General Purpose Registers: - These registers are used to store the data which is
generated at the time of process execution.
List of Open Files: - A list of open files contains some files that require to be
present in the main memory when the process is executing
List of Open Devices: - List of open devices contains the list of devices that are
used when the process is executing.
Process State
• New: Newly Created Process (or) being-created process.
• Ready: After creation process moves to Ready state, i.e. the process is ready for execution.
• Run: Currently running process in CPU (only one process at a time can be under execution
in a single processor).
• Wait (or Block): When a process requests I/O access.
• Complete (or Terminated): The process completed its execution.
• Suspended Ready: When the ready queue becomes full, some processes are moved to
suspended ready state
• Suspended Block: When waiting queue becomes full.
Diagram:
File System in OS
A file is a collection of related information that is recorded on secondary
storage. Or file is a collection of logically related entities. From user’s
perspective a file is the smallest allotment of logical secondary storage.
The name of the file is divided into two parts as shown below:
• name
• extension, separated by a period.
Files attributes and its operations:
Attributes Types Operations
Name Doc Create
Type Exe Open
Size Jpg Read
Creation Data Xis Write
Author C Append
Last Modified Java Truncate
Protection Class Delete
Close
File type Usual extension Function

Executable exe, com, bin Read to run machine language program

Object obj, o Compiled, machine language not linked

Source Code C, java, pas, asm, a Source code in various languages

Batch bat, sh Commands to the command interpreter

Text txt, doc Textual data, documents

Word Processor wp, tex, rrf, doc Various word processor formats

Related files grouped into one

Archive arc, zip, tar
compressed file

Multimedia mpeg, mov, rm For containing audio/video information

Markup xml, html, tex It is the textual data and documents

It contains libraries of routines for

Library lib, a ,so, dll
programmers

It is a format for printing or viewing a

Print or View gif, pdf, jpg
ASCII or binary file.
File Directories
Collection of files is a file directory. The directory contains information about
the files, including attributes, location and ownership. Much of this
information, especially that is concerned with storage, is managed by the
operating system. The directory is itself a file, accessible by various file
management routines.
Information contained in a device directory are:
• Name
• Type
• Address
• Current length
• Maximum length
• Date last accessed
• Date last updated
• Owner id
• Protection information
Operation performed on directory are:
• Search for a file
• Create a file
• Delete a file
• List a directory
• Rename a file
• Traverse the file system
Advantages of maintaining directories are:
• Efficiency: A file can be located more quickly.
• Naming: It becomes convenient for users as two users can have same name
for different files or may have different name for same file.
• Grouping: Logical grouping of files can be done by properties e.g. all java
programs, all games etc.
File Access Methods
The way that files are accessed and read into memory is determined by Access
methods. Usually, a single access method is supported by systems while there
are OS's that support multiple access methods.
Sequential Access
• Data is accessed one record right after another is an order.
• Read command cause a pointer to be moved ahead by one.
• Write command allocate space for the record and move the pointer to the
new End of File.
• Such a method is reasonable for tape.
Direct Access
• This method is useful for disks.
• The file is viewed as a numbered sequence of blocks or records.
• There are no restrictions on which blocks are read/written; it can be done in
any order.
• The user now says, "read n" rather than "read next".
• "n" is a number relative to the beginning of the file, not relative to an
absolute physical disk location.
Indexed Sequential Access
• It is built on top of Sequential access.
• It uses an Index to control the pointer while accessing files