EFFECTIVE NUCLEAR CHARGE
In a multi electron atom, the outermost electrons do not experience
the full positive charge of the nucleus. The inner electrons shield the
outer electrons from the nucleus. Therefore the outer electrons
experience reduced positive charge and this charge is called effective
nuclear charge, represented by Zeff.
Penetration of Orbitals
Penetration describes the ability of an orbital to penetrate into other
orbitals to get close to the nucleus. Within the same subshell, the
penetration power of different orbitals are in the order:-
s>p>d>f
Electrons in orbitals having more penetration experience more
effective nuclear charge.
TRENDS IN PERIODIC TABLE
Variation of s, p, d and f orbital energies of atoms
The s, p, d, f orbitals arranged in increasing energy is as follows:-
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p <
7s < 5f < 6d < 7p
The energy of orbitals depends upon the values of both the principal
quantum number (n) and the azimuthal quantum number (l). Hence,
the lower the value of (n + l) for an orbital, the lower its energy.
Electronic Configuration
Based on where the outermost electron is located the periodic
table is divided into s-block, p-block, d-block and f-block
elements.
S-Block:- The general electronic configuration is n s 1-2. The
outermost electron is present in the s orbital. It consists of
Group I and Group II elements.
P-Block:- The general electronic configuration is n s2 n p1-6. The
outermost electron is present in the p orbital. It consists of
elements of group 13 to 18
D-Block:- The general electronic configuration is (n-1) d 1-10ns1-2.
The outermost electron is present in the d orbital. It consists of
elements of group 3 to 12.
F-Block:- The general electronic configuration is (n-2) f 1-14 (n-1)
p0-1 n s2. The outermost electron is present in the f orbital. It
consists of two series of elements:-
1) 4f series – Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Td, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm,
Yb, Lu
2) 5f series – Th, Pa, U, Np, Pu, Am, Cm, Bk, Cf, Es, Fm, Md,
No, Lr
Atomic Size
Along the period, atomic radii decreases as we move from left
to right. This is because as we move from left to right, the no of
electrons in the same shell increases and due to imperfect
shielding the effective nuclear charge increases and hence size
of the atom decreases.
Down the group, atomic radii increases as we move from top to
bottom. This is because down the group the no of shells
increases and therefore the effective nuclear charge decreases
and hence the atomic size increase.
Ionic Radii
The radii of cations as well anions increase as we move down
the group and decreases as we go from left to right along a
period. Therefore ionic and atomic radii show same trends.
Ionization Energy
Ionization energy is the energy required to remove the electron
from the outermost shell.
Along a period, the first ionization energy of the atoms
increases. The alkali metals have the least and noble gases have
the highest ionization energy. This is because the removal of
electron is easier for metals than non-metals and noble gases.
But the trend is not regular and there are some exceptions. For
example in second period, the ionization energy of oxygen is
less than that of nitrogen. This is because nitrogen has half filed
and fully filed subshells and has more stability than oxygen. So
oxygen has less ionization energy than nitrogen. Similar
exceptions follow in other periods as well.
Down the group the ionization energy of the atoms decreases.
This is because as the size of atoms increases down the group
the removal of electron becomes easier and hence ionization
energy decreases.
Electron Affinity
Electron Affinity is the ability of an atom to gain electron in the
outermost shell.
Electron affinity becomes more negative as we go from left to
right in a period. This is because as the size of atom decreases it
becomes easier to gain an electron. Metals and noble gases
have a positive electron affinity while non-metals have negative
electron affinity.
Down the group, the electron affinity becomes less negative.
This is because as size of atom increases it becomes difficult for
the atom to gain electron. But their lies some exceptions. For
example, the third period elements have more electron affinity
than second period elements. This is because the elements of
second period have more electron repulsion due to their small
size. Third period elements have vacant 3d orbitals. So electron
repulsion decreases and therefore electron affinity is higher for
third period elements.
Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the measure of the ability of atom to attract
shared pair of electrons towards itself.
Electronegativity increases as we move from left to right along
a period. Down the group the electronegativity decreases.
Fluorine has been the highest electronegativity among all the
elements.
Coordination Number and Geometry
Coordination number is the number of neighboring atoms
around an atom.
The following table shows the geometry shown by molecules
having following coordination number:-
