CHAPTER 4 – ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY

Analytical Geometry deals with the study of geometry using the Cartesian Plane.
It is an algebraic approach to the study of geometry. In this chapter we will deal
with:
• Revision of Grade 10 concepts (distance between two points; midpoint of a
line segment; gradient of a line between two points)
• Inclination of a line
• Equation of a straight line
• Applications involving quadrilaterals
REVISION OF GRADE 10 CONCEPTS

In Grade 10 the formulae for the distance between two points, the midpoint of a
line segment and the gradient of a line were established. We will now revise
these formulae and their use. Please note that these formulae can also be used to
determine the coordinates of points.

DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

The distance formula can be used to determine the length of a line segment
between two points or the coordinates of a point when the length is known.

The formula to calculate the length of a line segment between two points
A ( xA ; yA ) and B ( xB ; yB ) is given by the formula:
2 2
AB2 = ( xB − xA ) + ( yB − yA ) or
2 2
AB = ( xB − xA ) + ( yB − yA )

MIDPOINT OF A LINE SEGMENT

The formula for point M, the midpoint of a line segment AB joining the points
A ( xA ; yA ) and B ( xB ; yB ) is given by the formula:
 x + x y + yA 
M ( xM ; yM ) = M  B A ; B 
 2 2 

GRADIENT OF A LINE
The gradient of a line between any two points on the line is the ratio:
change in y -values
m=
change in x-values

A formula to calculate the gradient of a line joining two points

A ( xA ; yA ) and B ( xB ; yB ) is given by the formula:
yB − yA
The gradient of line AB: mAB =
xB − xA

62
EXAMPLE 1 (Basic use of each of the above formulae)
In the diagram below line segments KL, MN, PQ and RS are sketched.

(a) Calculate the lengths of MN and RS

Solutions
2 2 2 2
MN 2 = ( xN − xM ) + ( yN − yM ) and RS2 = ( xS − xR ) + ( yS − yR )
2 2
∴ MN 2 = ( 7 − 1) + ( −3 − (−1) ) 2
∴ RS2 = ( 5 − (−2) ) + ( 5 − 5 )
2

∴ MN 2 = 36 + 4 ∴ RS2 = 49 + 0
∴ MN 2 = 40 ∴ RS2 = 49
∴ MN = 40 ∴ RS = 7
Alternatively RS could have been calculated by only considering the
distance between the x-values. This is possible because RS is a horizontal
line.
∴ RS = xS − xR = 5 − (−2) = 7
(b) Determine the midpoint of KL and PQ
Solutions
Let T be the midpoint of KL and that V the midpoint of PQ.
 x + x y + yK   xQ + xP yQ + yP 
T L K ; L  and V  ; 
 2 2   2 2 
 1 + (−4) 4 + (−1)   (−5) + (−5) (−2) + 4 
∴T  ;  and V  ; 
 2 2   2 2 
 3 3
∴T  − ;  and V ( −5;1)
 2 2
(c) State which line has a:
(i) negative gradient (ii) positive gradient
(iii) gradient of zero (iv) undefined gradient
Solutions
(i) MN has a negative gradient (sloping down from left to right)
(ii) KL has a positive gradient (sloping up from left to right)
(iii) RS has gradient of zero (horizontal line)

63
 (iv) PQ’s gradient is undefined (vertical line)
(d) Determine the gradient of KL and MN
Solutions
y − yK y N − yM
gradient KL = L and gradient MN =
xL − xK xN − xM
4 − (−1) 5 −3 − (−1) 2 1
∴ gradient KL = = =1 and gradient MN = =− =−
1 − (−4) 5 7 −1 6 3
REVISION EXERCISE (Revision of the basic Grade 10 formulae)
1. Determine the length of the line segment joining each pair of points:
(a) A (1; −4 ) and B ( −2; −7 ) . (b) A ( 3;0 ) and B ( −6;3) .
(c) A ( −2;1) and B ( 3;13) . (d) A ( 5; −3) and B ( −1; −3) .
2. (a) Determine the perimeter of ∆ABC with A ( 2;3) , B ( 3; −2 ) and
C(−2 ; − 3) .
(b) Show that ∆ABC is a right-angled triangle (Hint: Use Pythagoras)
3. Calculate the coordinates of the midpoint of the line joining the points.
(a) A (1; −4 ) and B ( −2; −7 ) (b) P ( 3;0 ) and Q ( −6;3) .
(c) (− 2;1) and (3;13) . (d) R ( 2;3) and S ( 2; −9 ) .
4. Calculate the gradients of the lines joining the following pairs of points.
(a) (1;−4) and (− 2;−7 ) . (b) (3;0) and (− 6;3) .
(c) ( −5;1) and ( −5;6 ) . (d) (− 2;1) and ( 3;1) .
(e) ( 2 p; q ) and ( p; q − 2 )
EXAMPLE 2

In this example, we will determine the coordinates of points when information is

given with regard to length and midpoint.
(a) Determine the value(s) of k if the length of the line segment joining the
points A ( 2; −3) and B ( k ;5 ) is 80 .
(b) Determine the value(s) of x and y if the M (1; −2 ) is the midpoint of the
line joining the points D ( x; −5 ) and E ( 3; y ) .
y
Solutions
.
B(k ; 5)
.
B(k ; 5)
(a) In this example you are not expected to
find the length between two points
but to find the coordinates of the points
that will give you a certain length.
The value of k is the x-coordinate of B 80 80
2 2
AB2 = ( xB − xA ) + ( yB − yA ) x
Substitute the points A ( 2; −3) and B ( k ;5 )

.
A(2 ; − 3)

64
 2 2
AB2 k 2 5 ( 3)
But it is given that AB 80
2 2 2
80 k 2 5 ( 3) Substitute AB 80
80 k 2 4k 4 (8) 2
0 k 2 4k 4 64 80
0 k 2 4k 12 A quadratic equation is formed
0 k 6 k 2 Factorise
k 6 or k 2
B( 2 ; 5) or B(6 ; 5) y

(b) State the formula:

xE xD yE yD
.
E(3 ; y )

M xM ; yM M ; x
2 2
Substitute the points, M 1; 2 , D x; 5
and E 3; y into the formula above.
.M(1; 2)

3 x y ( 5)
M 1; 2 M ;
2 2
.
D( x ; 5)

Equate the x-coordinates and y-coordinates separately.

3 x y 5
1 and 2
2 2
2 3 x and 4 y 5
x 1 and y 1

EXERCISE 1
1. In this question, it would be helpful to sketch the diagrams.
Determine the values of k and p if:
(a) the distance between the points A(4 ; 2) and B(k ; 8) is
52 units.
(b) A 3; p is equidistant from the points C 7; 1 and D 4; 4 .
2. Determine the values of x and y if it is given that:
(a) ( 2 ; 4) is the midpoint of the line between the points ( x ; y ) and
6; 3 .
(b) ( 2 ; y ) is the midpoint of the line between the points (4 ; 3) and
( x ; 7) . y
3. Given DEF with vertices D 3; 4 , E 2; 3 D
and F x;1 with DE = DF.
Determine the value of x.
F
x

E
65
4. Show that the diagonals of the parallelogram ABCD bisect each other if
the points are A ( 2;3) , B ( 3; −2 ) , C ( −1;0 ) and D ( −2;5 ) .
5. On the Cartesian plane below M ( a;1) is the midpoint of line AB with
A ( −2; 4 ) and B ( 5; k ) . Point D lies on the x-axis. The length of MD is
21, 25 . A ( −2;4 ) y
This graph is not sketched according to scale.
(a) Determine the values of a and k.
(b) Determine the coordinates of D.
Show all calculations. M ( a ;1)
21, 25

x
D
B ( 5;k )

PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

In Grade 10 the following information regarding parallel and perpendicular lines
was established:
1. If two lines AB and DC are parallel, then their gradients are equal
∴ gradient AB = gradient DC if AB||DC
2. If two lines AB and DC are perpendicular, then the product of their
gradients equal −1
∴ gradient AB × gradient DC = −1 if AB ⊥ DC
EXAMPLE 3
In each of the following determine whether AB||CD, AB ⊥ CD or neither.
(a) A ( −1;5 ) , B ( −2;3) , C ( 9;10 ) , D ( 5; 2 )
yB − yA 3−5 −2 −2
Gradient AB = = = = =2
xB − xA −2 − (−1) −2 + 1 −1
y − yC 2 − 10 −8
Gradient CD = D = = =2
xD − xC 5 − 9 −4
∴ Gradient AB = Gradient CD
∴ AB||CD
(b) A ( 3; −3) , B ( 6; −7 ) , C ( −5;0 ) , D ( −1;3)
yB − yA −7 − (−3) −7 + 3 −4
Gradient AB = = = =
xB − xA 6−3 3 3
y − yC 3−0 3 3
Gradient CD = D = = =
xD − xC −1 − (−5) −1 + 5 4
−4 3
∴ Gradient AB × Gradient CD = × = −1
3 4
∴ AB ⊥ CD

66
EXAMPLE 4
Given: A ( −2;1) , B ( k ; −5 ) , C ( 4;6 ) , D ( −2;7 )
Calculate the value of k in each case if:
(a) AB||CD (b) AB ⊥ CD
Solutions
(a) AB||CD (b) AB ⊥ CD
∴ Gradient AB = Gradient CD ∴ Gradient AB × Gradient CD = −1
y − yA yD − yC y − yA yD − yC
∴ B = ∴ B × = −1
xB − xA xD − xC xB − xA xD − xC
−5 − 1 7−6 −5 − 1 7−6
∴ = ∴ × = −1
k − (−2) −2 − 4 k − (−2) −2 − 4
−6 1 −6 1
∴ = ∴ × = −1
k + 2 −6 k + 2 −6
∴ 36 = k + 2 1
∴ = −1
k+2
∴ k = 34
∴1 = −k − 2
∴ k = −3
COLLINEAR POINTS
Points that are collinear lie on the same line. The gradient between each pair of
points is the same. For example, if the points A, B and C are collinear, then:
Gradient AB = Gradient BC = Gradient AC
EXAMPLE 5
Show that the points A, B and C are collinear if the points are A ( 2; −2 ) , B (1;1)
and C ( −1;7 ) .
Solution
yB − yA 1 − (−2) 3 yC − yB 7 − 1 6
Gradient AB = = = = −3 Gradient BC = = = = −3
xB − xA 1− 2 −1 xC − xB −1 − 1 −2
∴ Gradient AB = Gradient BC
Therefore A, B and C are collinear

EXERCISE 2
1. Calculate the gradients of AB and CD and in each case state whether AB
and CD are:
(1) parallel (2) perpendicular (3) neither
(a) A ( 2; −1) , B ( 5; −3) , C ( −1;1) , D ( −4;3)
(b) A ( 4; 2 ) , B ( −1; −2 ) , C ( 2;0 ) , D (10; −10 )
(c) A ( 5; 4 ) , B ( 2;7 ) , C ( −7;1) , D ( −5;3)
(d) A ( −1; −5 ) , B ( −1; 4 ) , C ( −3; 2 ) , D ( 5; 2 )

67
2. Calculate the gradient of AB and then write down the gradient of a line
perpendicular to AB.
(a) A ( 6; −4 ) , B ( 3;1) (b) A ( 3;1) , B ( −1; 2 ) (c) A ( 0;1) , B (1;0 )
3. Calculate the value of x in each case if A, B, C and D are the points
A ( 3; 4 ) , B ( −1;7 ) , C ( x; −1) and D (1;8 ) and:
(a) AB||CD (b) AB ⊥ CD (c) B, C and D are
collinear

INCLINATION OF A LINE y
B
The inclination of a line is the angle formed θ
with the horizontal in an anti-clockwise direction.
On the Cartesian plane, the inclination of a line is θ x
calculated by finding the angle formed at O
the x-axis measured in anti-clockwise direction.
θ is the angle of inclination of line AB. A

Formula for finding the angle of inclination of a line y

If R( x; y ) is a point on the terminal arm of θ , then . R( x ; y)
y
by definition, tan θ = . But with O ( 0;0 ) , the
x
y−0 y θ
gradient of line OR = = . x
x−0 x O

tan θ = Gradient OR , where θ is the angle of inclination of line OR.

Consider lines that do not pass through the origin.

y y
S( xS ; yS ) S( xS ; yS )

θ θ
x x
O O
R( xR ; yR ) R( xR ; yR )

∴ tan θ = gradient RS ∴ tan θ = gradient RS

y −y y −y
∴ tan θ = S R ∴ tan θ = S R
xS − xR xS − xR
Gradient of RS is positive (slopes right) Gradient of RS is negative (slopes left)
∴θ is acute ∴θ is obtuse (lies in 2nd quad)
∴θ = reference angle ∴θ = 180° − reference angle

68
Note: Refer to Trigonometry Chapter 6 (page 160) which deals with reference
angles.
EXAMPLE 6
Determine the inclination of the line segment in each case.

(a) P ( 2;1) and Q ( −3; −3) y

Let θ be the angle of inclination. P ( 2;1)
tan θ = gradient PQ (State the formula)
θ
yQ − yP x
∴ tan θ =
xQ − xP
−3 − 1
∴ tan θ = (Substitute the points)
−3 − 2 Q ( −3; −3)
−4 4
∴ tan θ = =
−5 5
∴θ = 38, 7° (Gradient is positive and therefore the angle of
inclination is acute)
(b) M ( −1; −1) and N ( 5; −4 ) y
Let θ be the angle of inclination.
tan θ = gradient MN θ
x
y − yM
∴ tan θ = N M ( −1; −1)
xN − xM
−4 − (−1)
∴ tan θ =
5 − (−1)
N ( 5; −4 )
−3
∴ tan θ =
6
1
∴ tan θ = −
2
∴θ = 180° − 26,5650...° (Gradient is negative and therefore the angle
∴θ = 153, 4° inclination is obtuse).

EXERCISE 3
1. Calculate, rounded off to two decimal places, the inclination of the line
joining the points in each case.
(a) A ( 3; −1) and B ( −2; −3) . (b) C ( −5;5 ) and E ( 2; −4 ) .
(c) F ( 4;5 ) and G ( 4;9 ) . (d) H ( 7; −2 ) and I ( 5;1) .
(e) J ( 0;0 ) and K ( 3; 4 ) .

2. Calculate the gradient (if possible) of a line with inclination

(a) 135° (b) 45° (c) 60° (d) 150° (e) 90°

69
 y
3. Calculate the angle of inclination of line AB and EF. E
4 B ( 2; 4 )

A ( −1;1)
x
3

F
EXAMPLE 7
Given A ( −5; −2 ) , B ( −1; 4 ) , C ( 2;3) and D ( 6; −3) . Determine the angle α
formed between lines AC and BD.
Solution y
Let the inclination of AC and BD be
equal to θ and β respectively. B ( −1; 4 )
C ( 2;3)
tan θ = grad AC tan β = grad BD
α
3 − (−2) −3 − 4
∴ tan θ = ∴ tan β =
2 − (−5) 6 − (−1) β
θ x
5 −7
∴ tan θ = ∴ tan β = = −1
7 7 A ( −5; −2 )
∴θ = 35,5376...° ∴β = 180° − 45° = 135° D ( 6; −3)
Now α + θ = β Exterior angle of ∆ .
∴α = β − θ
∴α = 135° − 35,5376...°
∴α = 99,5°

EXERCISE 4
1. Calculate the angle θ which is formed by the two lines in each of the
following sketches. Round off your answers to two decimal places.
y
y
(a) (b) D ( 3; 6 )
A ( 0;5 ) A ( −1;6 )

θ θ
B ( −3; 0 ) C ( 4;0 )
x x
C ( −2; 0 )
B ( 5; −1)

y
(c) y (d)
B (1;5 )
C ( 0; 4 ) 2 B
θ C x
θ 5
D ( 3; 2 )

x
A ( −2; −1) −6 A

70
 y
2. Refer to the diagram alongside. M(2 ; 4)
∆MNP is given with M ( 2; 4 ) ,
N ( −3; −2 ) and P ( −9; −1)
Determine the size of angle M. x
P( −9 ; − 1)

N( −3 ; − 2)

THE EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE

Different forms of the straight line equation

(a) y = mx + c where m is the gradient and c is the y-intercept
(b) y − y1 = m( x − x1 ) where m is the gradient and ( x1 ; y1 ) a point on the line
x y
(c) + =1 where a and b are the x-intercept and y-intercept respectively
a b
(d) x = number Equation of a vertical line
(e) y = number Equation of a horizontal line

EXAMPLE 8
(a) Determine the equation of the line with a gradient of − 2 passing through
the point (3;−4 ) . (Gradient and a point on the line is given)
(b) Determine the equation of the line passing through the points F ( −4; 2 )
and G ( −1; −2 ) . (Line passes through two given points)

Solutions
(a) The first step is to find the gradient of the line. In this case the gradient is
given.
∴ m = −2
Substitute m = −2 into the straight line equation: y − y1 = m ( x − x1 )
∴ y − y1 = −2 ( x − x1 )
Then substitute the point ( x1 ; y1 ) = (3 ; − 4)
∴ y − (−4) = −2 ( x − 3)
∴ y + 4 = −2 x + 6
∴ y = −2 x + 2 y
F ( −4; 2 )
(b) Determine the gradient first:
y − yF −2 − 2 −4 4
mGF = G = = =−
xG − xF −1 − (−4) 3 3
4 x
Substitute m = − : y − y1 = m ( x − x1 )
3
4
∴ y − y1 = − ( x − x1 )
3
Now it is important to note that any of the two G( − 1; − 2)
points that lie on the line can be substituted into the equation.

71
 Substitute F ( −4; 2 ) or Substitute G ( −1; −2 )
4 4
∴ y − (2) = − ( x − (−4) ) ∴ y − (−2) = − ( x − (−1) )
3 3
4 4
∴y−2= − ( x + 4) ∴ y + 2 = − ( x + 1)
3 3
4 16 4 4
∴y−2= − x− ∴y+2= − x−
3 3 3 3
4 10 4 10
∴y =− x− ∴y =− x−
3 3 3 3
Note: The point you substitute into the equation must be a point on the
line.
EXERCISE 5
1. Determine the equation of the line if the gradient and a point on the line
are given.
2 1 
(a) −3; ( −1; 2 ) (b) ; ( 6; −4 ) (c) −1;  ; −5 
3 2 
(d) undefined; ( −8; 2 ) (e) 0; ( −2;7 )
2. Determine the equation of the line through the two given points:
(a) ( −1; −7 ) and ( −2; −5) (b) ( 3; 2 ) and (1;6 )
(c) ( 5;0 ) and ( −3; 2 ) (d) ( −1;6 ) and ( −1; −2 )
(e) ( −5;3) and (1;3) (f) ( 0,5; 4 ) and ( −2;8 )
3. In the diagram below, the vertices of ∆DEF are D (1;6 ) , E ( −3; −2 ) and
F ( 5;1) . y
D(1 ; 6)
(a) Determine the coordinates of
the midpoints H and G of DE
and DF respectively.
(b) Determine the equation of lines G
EG and FH which are two medians
H P
of the triangle.
(A median is a line from the vertex F(5 ; 1)
of a triangle to the midpoint of x
the opposite side).
(c) Determine the coordinates of P.
E(−3 ; − 2)

MORE ON PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

EXAMPLE 9
(a) Determine the equation of the line that is parallel to 3 y − 2 x = 6 and
passes through the point (9;−1)
1
(b) Determine the equation of the line that is perpendicular to y = x + 1 and
2
passes through the point ( −6; 2 )

72
Solutions
(a) Firstly, it is important to note that an equation has been given. Refer to
this equation as the “OLD” equation. In this example, 3 y − 2 x = 6 is the
“OLD’ equation. Refer to equation you are required to find as the “NEW”
equation. Rewrite the “OLD” equation in the standard form y = mx + c .
∴3 y = 2x + 6
2
∴y = x+2
3
2
∴ mold =
3
2
∴ mnew = (OLD line || NEW line)
3
“NEW” equation: y − y1 = mnew ( x − x1 )
2
∴ y − y1 = ( x − x1 ) Substitute mnew
3
2
∴ y − (−1) = ( x − 9 ) Substitute the point (9;−1)
3
2
∴ y +1 = x − 6
3
2
∴y = x−7
3
1
(b) Refer to the equation y = x + 1 as the “OLD” equation.
2
Refer to the equation that you are required to find as the “NEW” equation.
1 1
The “OLD” equation is in standard form y = x + 1 and mold =
2 2
mold × mnew = −1 (OLD line ⊥ NEW line)

1
∴ × mnew = −1
2
∴ mnew = −2
“NEW” equation: y − y1 = mnew ( x − x1 )
∴ y − y1 = −2 ( x − x1 ) Substitute mnew in first
∴ y − 2 = −2 ( x − ( −6 ) ) Substitute the point ( −6; 2 )
∴ y − 2 = −2 ( x + 6 )
∴ y − 2 = −2 x − 12
∴ y = −2 x − 10

73
EXERCISE 6
1. Determine the equation of the line:
(a) passing through the point ( −4;3) and perpendicular to 2 y = 3x + 6 .
(b) passing through the point ( −8; −1) and parallel to x − 2 y + 2 = 0 .
(c) parallel to 2 y − x = 4 and passing through ( −1; −2 ) .
(d) perpendicular to 3x − y = 4 and passing through ( 6; 4 ) .
(e) through the point ( −2;5 ) with inclination of 135° .
(f) through the point ( 0; −4 ) with inclination of 60° .
2. Determine the equation of the line:
(a) perpendicular to the y-axis and going through the point ( 2; −2 )
(b) parallel to the y-axis and going through the point ( 2; −2 )
3. Determine the equation of CD in each case.

(a) y (b) y
B ( −2; 4 ) D
B ( 2;3)
C
x x
 1
D 1; −1 
A ( −6; −2 )  2 C ( −5; −3)
A ( −2; −5)

P ( −2;5 ) A y
(c) y
(d)

C 153,435°
D
x
−2
x B
R ( 6; −1) D
C

4. The line PQ’s inclination with the horizontal y

is increased by 25° at Q. The equation of line R
3
RQ is y − x = 2 .
2
(a) Calculate the inclination of line RQ. 25°
(b) Find the gradient of PQ correct to one Q
decimal place.
x
P

74
INTERSECTING LINES
EXAMPLE 10 y
B ( 4;6 )
Consider the lines AB and line FG with equation F
4 y + 5x = 3 .
(a) Determine the equation of line AB. P
(b) Determine the coordinates of P.
(c) Show that line FG is perpendicular to line 4 y + 5x = 3
AB and bisects line AB. x

Solutions A( − 6 ; − 2)
G
6 − (−2) 8 4
(a) Gradient AB = = =
4 − (−6) 10 5
4
∴ Equation of line AB: y − y1 = ( x − x1 )
5
4
∴y−6 = ( x − 4 ) Substitute B ( 4;6 ) :
5
4 16
∴y−6 = x−
5 5
4 14
∴y = x+
5 5
(b) Write the given equation in standard form:
4 y + 5x = 3
∴ 4 y = −5 x + 3
5 3
∴y =− x+
4 4
At P the two lines intersect. Therefore we have to solve the two equations
simultaneously.
4 14 5 3
x+ =− x+
5 5 4 4
∴16 x + 56 = −25 x + 15 LCD is 20 (multiply each term by 20)
∴16 x + 25 x = 15 − 56
∴ 41x = −41
∴ x = −1
4 14
∴ y = (−1) + = 2
5 5
∴ P(−1; 2)

(c) In order to show that the two lines are perpendicular, show that the product
of their gradients is equal to −1 .
5 4
Gradient FG = − and Gradient AB =
4 5
∴ Gradient FG × Gradient AB = −1
∴ FG ⊥ AB

75
 In order to show that FG bisects line AB, show that P(−1; 2) is the
midpoint of AB.
 4 + (−6) 6 + (−2) 
Midpoint of AB:  ;  = (−1; 2)
 2 2 
The coordinates of P are (−1; 2)
Therefore, P is the midpoint of AB.
EXERCISE 7
(a) Determine the coordinates of the point of intersection of the lines
y − 3x = 3 and 2 y + 4 x = 16
(b) Determine the coordinates of Q, the point of intersection in each case.
(1) y (2) y N
R( − 2 ; 3) 3 y = 4 x + 16
U H(4 ; 6)
Q Q
x G( − 6 ; 2)
x
S(4 ; − 1)
T( − 2 ; − 2)
M
y
(3) P( − 2 ; 5)

Q
R(4 ; 2)
x

−1

APPLICATION TO QUADRILATERALS

The following is a summary of all the properties of the different type of

quadrilaterals.

Quadrilateral Definition Properties

Trapezium A trapezium is a • One pair of sides
> quadrilateral with parallel
one pair of
opposite sides
> parallel.

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 Parallelogram A parallelogram • Two pairs of opposite
A > D is a quadrilateral sides equal and parallel
with both pairs of • Opposite angles equal
|||
E opposite sides • Diagonals bisect
= = parallel
>

>
|||

B > C

Rectangle A rectangle is a • All the properties of

A D parallelogram with
=

a parallelogram AND
||| ||| all interior angles • Diagonals are
E equal to 90° . equal in length
||| |||
• Interior angles are
right angles
=

B C

Rhombus A rhombus is a • All the properties of

parallelogram with a parallelogram AND
=

A D
equal sides • Diagonals bisect at
right angles.
|||

= = • Diagonals bisect the

E
opposite angles
|||

• All sides are equal in

=

B C length
Square A square is a • All the properties of
rectangle with a rectangle AND
=

A D
45° 45° equal sides. • All sides equal in
45° 45°
length.
|||

|||

= E = • Diagonals bisect each

other at right angles.
• Diagonals bisect
|||

|||

45° 45°
45° 45°
interior angles (each
=

B C
bisected angle equals
45° )
Kite A kite is a • Adjacent pairs of sides
A quadrilateral with are equal in length
two pairs of • The longer diagonal
|||
adjacent sides bisects the opposite
|||

equal in length angles.

=

B E D
• The longer diagonal
bisects the other
diagonal.
• The diagonals intersect
C
at right angles.

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EXAMPLE 11
Use analytical methods to show that PQRS is a parallelogram if P(−3; 2) ,
Q ( 3;6 ) , R (10; −1) and S ( 4; −5 ) .
Solution
For PQRS to be a parallelogram
the diagonals PR and QS have to
bisect. Q(3 ; 6)
This means that the two P( − 3 ; 2)
diagonals have the same
midpoint.
Midpoint of QS:
 xS + xQ yS + yQ 
 ; 
 2 2  R(10 ; − 1)
 4 + 3 (−5) + 6   7 1  S(4 ; − 5)
= ;  = ; 
 2 2  2 2
Midpoint of PR:
 xR + xP yR + yP 
 ; 
 2 2 
 10 + (−3) −1 + 2   7 1 
= ;  = ; 
 2 2  2 2
∴ Midpoint of QS = Midpoint of PR = the point M
∴ PQRS is a parallelogram (Diagonals bisect)

We could have also proven PQRS a parallelogram by showing that

PQ||RS and PS||QR or PQ = RS and PS = QR as well.
The method used above is simpler and faster.

EXAMPLE 12

DEFG forms a rhombus with D ( −1;1) and F ( 3;5 ) being two of the vertices.
(a) Find the midpoint of diagonal DF.
(b) Determine the equation of diagonal EG.
Solutions y F ( 3;5 )
 x + x y + yD 
(a) M F D ; F 
 2 2  E
 3 + (−1) 5 + (−1)  M
= M ; 
 2 2 
2 4
= M ;  G
2 2 x
= M (1; 2 ) D ( −1; −1)

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