MODULE 5

Unit 1: Baseband Transmission of Digital Signals

INTRODUCTION:

In baseband transmission, a data stream in the form of discrete Pulse amplitude modulated
(PAM) signal is transmitted directly (without modulation) over the low pass channel.
A baseband channel or lowpass channel (or system, or network) is a communication
channel that can transfer frequencies that are very near zero. Examples are serial cables
and local area networks (LANs), as opposed to passband channels such as radio frequency
channels and passband filtered wires of the analog telephone network.

Digital data have a broad spectrum with a significant low-frequency content. Baseband
transmission of digital data therefore requires the use of a low-pass channel with a bandwidth
large enough to accommodate the essential frequency content of the data stream. Typically,
however, the channel is dispersive in that its frequency response deviates from that of an ideal
low-pass filter. The result of data transmission over such a channel is that each received pulse
is affected somewhat by adjacent pulses, thereby giving rise to a common form of interference
called inter symbol interference (ISI).

Inter symbol interference is a major source of bit errors in the reconstructed data stream at the
receiver. To correct for it, control has to be exercised over the pulse shape in the overall system.

Another source of bit errors in a baseband data transmission system is the ubiquitous receiver
noise (channel noise). Naturally, noise and ISI arise in the system simultaneously.

INTERSYMBOL INTERFERENCE

Intersymbol interference is a form of distortion of a signal in which one symbol interferes with
subsequent symbols. Inter symbol interference (ISI), arises when the communication channel
is dispersive. When a channel is dispersive, then it has a frequency dependent amplitude
spectrum. The simplest example of a dispersive channel is the band-limited channel. For
example, a brick wall band-limited channel passes all frequencies |f |< W without distortion,
while it blocks all frequencies |f | > W.

However, for the baseband transmission of digital data, the use of discrete pulse-amplitude
modulation (PAM) is the most efficient one in terms of power and bandwidth utilization.

Base band binary data transmission system

Consider a baseband binary PAM system, as shown in above Figure.

The incoming binary sequence {bk} consists of symbols 1 and 0, each of duration Tb.

The pulse-amplitude modulator transforms this binary sequence into a new sequence of short
pulses (approximating a unit impulse), whose amplitude ak is represented in the polar form

(1)

The sequence of short pulses so produced is applied to a transmit filter of impulse response
g(t), producing the transmitted signal
(2)

The signal s(t) is modified as a result of transmission through the channel of impulse response
h(t). In addition, the channel adds random noise to the signal at the receiver input. The noisy
signal x(t) is then passed through a receive filter of impulse response c(t). The resulting filter
output y(t) is sampled synchronously with the transmitter, with the sampling instants being
determined by a clock or timing signal that is usually extracted from the receive-filter output.

Finally, the sequence of samples thus obtained is used to reconstruct the original data sequence
by means of a decision device. Specifically, the amplitude of each sample is compared to a
threshold λ.

If the threshold λ is exceeded, a decision is made in favour of symbol 1.

If the threshold λ is not exceeded, a decision is made in favour of symbol 0.

If the sample amplitude equals the threshold exactly, the flip of a fair coin will determine which
symbol was transmitted (i.e., the receiver simply makes a guess).
The receive filter output is written as

(3)

where µ is a scaling factor, and the pulse p(t) is to be defined

The scaled pulse µp(t) is obtained by a double convolution involving the impulse response g(t)
of the transmit filter, the impulse response h(t) of the channel, and the impulse response c(t) of
the receive filter, as shown by

(4)

where the star denotes convolution. We assume that the pulse pit) is normalized by setting

(5)

Applying fourier transform to the equation (4)

(5)
where P( f ) , G( f ) , //(/), and C( f ) are the Fourier transforms of pit), g(t), h(t), and c(t),
respectively. Finally, the term n{t) in Eq. (8.44) is the noise produced at the output of the receive
filter due to the additive noise w(t) at the receiver input. It is customary to model w(t ) as a
white Gaussian noise of zero mean. The receive filter output y(t) is sampled at time ti = iTb
(with i taking on integer values), yielding [in light of Eq. (8.46)]

(5)

In Eq. (5), the first term µai represents the contribution of the ith transmitted bit.

The second term represents the residual effect of all other transmitted bits on the decoding of
the ith bit

This residual effect due to the occurrence of pulses before and after the sampling instant ti is
called Intersymbol interference (ISI). The last term n(ti) represents the noise sample at time ti
In the absence of both ISI and noise, we observe from Eq. (5) that

which shows that, under these ideal conditions, the ith transmitted bit is decoded correctly.
The unavoidable presence of ISI and noise in the system, however, introduces errors in the
decision device at the receiver output. Therefore, in the design of the transmit and receive
filters, the objective is to minimize the effects of noise and ISI and thereby deliver the digital
data to its destination with the smallest error rate possible.
EYE PATTERN

Figure 1: Interpretation of the eye pattern

An operational tool for evaluating the effects of ISI in an insightful manner is the so-called eye
pattern. The eye pattern is defined as the synchronized superposition of all possible realizations
of the signal of interest (e.g., received signal, receiver output) viewed within a particular
signaling interval.

The eye pattern derives its name from the fact that it resembles the human eye for binary waves.

The interior region of the eye pattern is called the eye opening.

An eye pattern provides a great deal of useful information about the performance of a data
transmission system, as described in Figure 1.

• The width of the eye opening defines the time interval over which the received signal
can be sampled without error from intersymbol interference.
• The preferred time for sampling is the instant of time at which the eye is open the
widest.
• The sensitivity of the system to timing errors is determined by the rate of closure of
the eye as the sampling time is varied.
• The height of the eye opening, at a specified sampling time, defines the noise margin
of the system.

When the effect of intersymbol interference is severe, traces from the upper portion of the eye
pattern cross traces from the lower portion, with the result that the eye is completely closed. In
such a situation, it is impossible to avoid errors due to the presence of intersymbol interference
in the system.
In the case of an M-ary system, the eye pattern contains (M — 1) eye openings stacked up
vertically one on the other, where M is the number of discrete amplitude levels used to construct
the transmitted signal.
NYQUIST'S CRITERION FOR DISTORTIONLESS
TRANSMISSION
In practice, we typically find that the transfer function of a channel and the transmitted pulse
shape are specified, and the problem is to determine the transfer functions of the transmit and
receive filters so as to reconstruct the original binary data sequence [b k].

The receiver does this by extracting and then decoding the corresponding sequence of
coefficients {ak}, from the output y(t).

The extraction involves sampling the output y(t ) at time t = iTb.

The decoding requires that the weighted pulse contribution akp(iTb - kTb) for k = i be free
from ISI due to the overlapping tails of all other weighted pulse contributions represented by
k ≠ i. This, in turn, requires that we control the overall pulse p(t) ,as shown by

(1)

where p(0) = 1, by normalization. If p(t) satisfies the condition of Eq (1), the receiver output
y(ti) given in Eq. (1) simplifies to (ignoring the noise term)
(2)

which implies zero intersymbol interference. Hence, the condition of Eq. (1) ensures perfect
reception in the absence of noise.
Consider,

(3)

Using sifting property of impulse function, we have

p(0)=1

From eq. (3),

(4)

Rb=1/Tb

Nyquist criterion for distortionless baseband transmission in the absence of noise is stated as
follows:

The frequency function p( f ) eliminates intersymbol interference for samples taken at

intervals Tb provided that it satisfies Eq. (4)

IDEAL NYQUIST CHANNEL

(5)

(5)

The special value of the bit rate Rb = 2W is called the Nyquist rate, and W is itself
called the Nyquist bandwidth.
The ideal baseband pulse transmission system described by Eq. (4) in the
frequency domain or, equivalently, Eq. (5) in the time domain is called the ideal
Nyquist channel.

The function p(t) can be regarded as the impulse response of an ideal low-pass
filter with passband amplitude response 1/2W and bandwidth W. The function
p(t) has its peak value at the origin and goes through zero at integer multiples of
the bit duration Tb. It is apparent that if the received waveform y(t) is sampled at
the instants of time t - 0, ±Tb, ±2Tb,..., then the pulses defined by µp(t-iTb) with
arbitrary amplitude p and index i = 0, ±1, ±2,..., will not interfere with each other.
RAISED COSINE SPECTRUM
To overcome the practical difficulties encountered with the ideal Nyquist channel, the
bandwidth can be extended from the minimum value W = Rb/2 to an adjustable value between
W and 2W. A particular pulse spectrum which has desirable properties and has been widely
used in practice is the Raised Cosine Spectrum.

The time response p(t) is given by

Normalized Frequency Response

Time Response
BASEBAND M-ARY PAM TRANSMISSION

In the baseband binary PAM system , the pulse-amplitude modulator produces binary pulses,
that is, pulses with one of two possible amplitude levels.

On the other hand, in a baseband M-ary PAM system, the pulse-amplitude modulator produces
one of M possible amplitude levels

With M for the case of a quaternary {M = 4) system and the binary data sequence 0010110111.
The corresponding electrical representation for each of the four possible pairs of bits is shown
in Figure b. In an M-ary system, the information source emits a sequence of symbols from an
alphabet that consists of M symbols. Each amplitude level at the pulse-amplitude modulator
output corresponds to a distinct symbol, so that there are M distinct amplitude levels to be
transmitted.

In case of Quaternary PAM, the four possible symbols may be identified with the bit pairs 00,
01, 10, and 11. We thus see that each symbol represents 2 bits of information, and 1 baud is
equal to 2 bits per second.
We may generalize this result by stating that in an M-ary PAM system, one baud is equal to
log2 M bits per second, and the symbol duration T of the M-ary PAM system is related to the
bit duration Tb of the equivalent binary PAM system as

Therefore, in a given channel bandwidth, we find that by using an Mary PAM system, we are
able to transmit information at a rate that is log2M faster than the corresponding binary PAM
system.
However, to realize the same average probability of symbol error, an M-ary PAM system
requires more transmitted power. Specifically, we find that for M much larger than 2 and an
average probability of symbol error small compared to 1, the transmitted power must be
increased by a factor of M /log2M, compared to a binary PAM system.

In a baseband M-ary system, the sequence of symbols emitted by the information source is
converted into an M-level PAM pulse train by a pulse-amplitude modulator at the transmitter
input. Next, as with the binary PAM system, this pulse train is shaped by a transmit filter and
then transmitted over the communication channel, which corrupts the signal waveform with
both noise and distortion. The received signal is passed through a receive filter and then
sampled at an appropriate rate in synchronism with the transmitter.

Each sample is compared with preset threshold values (also called slicing levels), and a
decision is made as to which symbol was transmitted. We therefore find that the designs of the
pulse-amplitude modulator and the decision-making device in an M-ary PAM are more
complex than those in a binary PAM system.

Intersymbol interference, noise, and imperfect synchronization cause errors to appear at the
receive output. The transmit and receive filters are designed to minimize these errors. In
particular, the raised cosine pulse shape, which is ISI-free for binary signaling, is also ISI-free
for M-ary signaling.
Unit 2: Noise
Noise is an electronic signal that is a mixture of many random frequencies at many amplitudes
that gets added to a radio or information signal as it is transmitted from one place to another or
as it is processed. Noise is not the same as interference from other information signals.

The noise level in a system is proportional to temperature and bandwidth, and to the amount of
current flowing in a component, the gain of the circuit, and the resistance of the circuit.
Increasing any of these factors increases noise. Therefore, low noise is best obtained by using
low-gain circuits, low direct current, low resistance values, narrow bandwidths and keeping the
temperature low.

But in most communication systems, weak signals are normal, and noise must be taken into
account at the design stage. It is in the receiver that noise is the most detrimental because the
receiver must amplify the weak signal and recover the information reliably. Noise can be
external to the receiver or originate within the receiver itself. Both types are found in all
receivers, and both affect the signal-to-noise ratio.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio
The signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio, also designated SNR, indicates the relative strengths of the
signal and the noise in a communication system. The stronger the signal and the weaker the
noise, the higher the S/N ratio.

If the signal is weak and the noise is strong, the SIN ratio will be low and reception will be
unreliable. Communication equipment is designed to produce the highest feasible S/N ratio.
Signals can be expressed in terms of voltage or power. The S/N ratio is computed by using
either voltage or power values:
Classification of Different types of Noise
Noise

External Noise Internal Noise

Man Natural
Intermodula
Made Noise Therma Semicon tion
l Noise ductor Distortion
Noise

Industrial Atmospheric Extra

Noise Noise Terrestrial
shot Transit Flickering
Noise
Noise time Noise
Noise

Solar Cosmic
Noise Noise

1. External Noise
External noise comes from sources over which we have little or no control industrial,
atmospheric, or space. Regardless of its source, noise shows up as a random ac voltage and can
be seen on an oscilloscope. The amplitude and frequency varies over a wide range. One can
say that noise in general contains all frequencies, varying randomly. This is generally known
as white noise. Atmospheric noise and space noise cannot be eliminated. Some industrial noise
can be controlled at the source, but because there are so many sources of this type of noise,
there is no way to eliminate it. The key to reliable communication, then, is simply to generate
signals at a high enough power to overcome external noise. In some cases, shielding sensitive
circuits in metallic enclosures can aid in noise control.

A. Industrial Noise
Industrial noise is produced by manufactured equipment, such as automotive ignition systems,
electric motors, and generators. Any electrical equipment that causes high voltages or currents
to be switched produces transients that create noise. Noise pulses of large amplitude occur
whenever a motor or other inductive device is turned on or off. The resulting transients are
extremely large in amplitude and rich in random harmonics. Fluorescent and other forms of
gas-filled lights are another common source of industrial noise.
 B. Atmospheric Noise
The electrical disturbances that occur naturally in the earth's atmosphere are another source of
noise. Atmospheric noise is often referred to as static. Static usually comes from lightning, the
electric discharges that occur between clouds or between the earth and clouds. Huge static
charges build up on the clouds, and when the potential difference is great enough, an arc is
created and electricity literally flows through the air. The voltages involved are, however,
enormous, and these transient electric signals of megawatt power generate harmonic energy
that can travel over extremely long distances. Like industrial noise, atmospheric noise shows
up primarily as amplitude variations that add to a signal and interfere with it. Atmospheric
noise has its greatest impact on signals at frequencies below 30 MHz.

C. Extraterrestrial Noise
Extraterrestrial noise, solar and cosmic, comes from sources in space.

One of the primary sources of extraterrestrial noise is the sun, which radiates a wide range of
signals in a broad noise spectrum. The noise intensity produced by the sun varies with time.

The sun has a repeatable 11-year noise cycle. During the peak of the cycle, the sun produces
an large amount of noise that causes tremendous radio signal interference and makes many
frequencies unusable for communication. During other years, the noise is at a lower level.
Noise generated by stars outside our solar system is generally known as cosmic noise. Although
its level is not as great as that of noise produced by the sun, because of the great distances
between those stars and earth, it is nevertheless an important source of noise that must be
considered. It shows up primarily in the 10-MHz to 1.5-GHz range, but causes the greatest
disruptions in the 15- to 150-MHz range.

2. Internal Noise
Internal Noise Electronic components in a receiver such as resistors, diodes, and transistors are
major sources of internal noise. Internal noise, although it is low level, is often great enough to
interfere with weak signals. The main sources of internal noise in a receiver are thermal noise,
semiconductor noise, and intermodulation distortion. Since the sources of internal noise are
well known, there is some design control over this type of noise.

A. Thermal Noise
Most internal noise is caused by a phenomenon known as thermal agitation, the random motion
of free electrons in a conductor caused by heat. Increasing the temperature causes this atomic
motion to increase. Since the components are conductors, the movement of electrons
constitutes a current flow that causes a small voltage to be produced across that component.
Electrons traversing a conductor as current flows experience fleeting impediments in their path
as they encounter the thermally agitated atoms. The apparent resistance of the conductor thus
fluctuates, causing the thermally produced random voltage we call noise.
The motion of the electrons due to room temperature in the resistor causes a voltage to appear
across it. The voltage variation is completely random and at a very low level. The noise
developed across a resistor is proportional to the temperature to which it is exposed.

Thermal agitation is often referred to as white noise or Johnson noise, after J. B. Johnson, who
discovered it in 1928. Just as white light contains all other light frequencies, white noise
contains all frequencies randomly occurring at random amplitudes. A white noise signal
therefore occupies, theoretically at least, infinite bandwidth. Filtered or band-limited noise is
referred to as pink noise.

In a relatively large resistor at room temperature or higher, the weaker amplitude signals will
be totally masked by this noise. Filtering can reduce the noise level, but does not eliminate it
entirely.

The amount of open-circuit noise voltage appearing across a resistor or the input impedance to
a receiver can be calculated according to Johnson's formula

The resistor is acting as a voltage generator with an internal resistance equal to the resistor
value.

If a load is connected across the resistor generator, the voltage will decrease as a result of
voltage divider action.
Since noise voltage is proportional to resistance value, temperature, and bandwidth, noise
voltage can be reduced by reducing resistance, temperature, and bandwidth. In many cases, the
values of resistance and bandwidth cannot be changed. But temperature is controllable to some
extent. Anything that can be done to cool the circuits will greatly reduce the noise. Heat sinks,
cooling fans, and good ventilation can help lower noise. Many low-noise receivers for weak
microwave signals from spacecraft and in radio telescopes are supercooled; i.e., their
temperature is reduced to very low (cryogenic) levels with liquid nitrogen or liquid helium.
➢ Thermal noise can also be computed as a power level. Johnson's formula is then

Problems:
1.

2.

3.
B. Semiconductor Noise
Electronic components such as diodes and transistors are major contributors of noise. In
addition to thermal noise, semiconductors produce shot noise, transit-time noise, and flicker
noise.

➢ Shot Noise
The most common type of semiconductor noise is shot noise. Current flow in any device is
not direct and linear. The current carriers, electrons or holes, sometimes take random paths
from source to destination, whether the destination is an output element, tube plate, or collector
or drain in a transistor. It is this random movement that produces the shot effect. Shot noise is
also produced by the random movement of electrons or holes across a PN junction.
Even though current flow is established by external bias voltages, some random movement of
electrons or holes will occur as a result of discontinuities in the device. For example, the
interface between the copper lead and the semiconductor material forms a discontinuity that
causes random movement of the current carriers.
Shot noise is also white noise in that it contains all frequencies and amplitudes over a very wide
range. The amplitude of the noise voltage is unpredictable, but it does follow a Gaussian
distribution curve that is a plot of the probability that specific amplitudes will occur. The
amount of shot noise is directly proportional to the amount of de bias flowing in a device. The
bandwidth of the device or circuit is also important.

The rms noise current in a device 𝐼𝑛 is calculated with the formula:

Now assume that the current is flowing across the emitter-base junction of a bipolar transistor.
The dynamic resistance of this junction re' can be calculated with the expression re' = 0.025/Ie,
where Ie is the emitter current.

Noise voltage, 𝑣𝑛 = 𝐼𝑒 𝑟𝑒′

Problem:

1. A dc bias of 0.1 mA and a bandwidth of 12.5 kHz, Find the noise current. If the current
is flowing across the emitter base junction of BJT and the emitter current Ie=1mA. Find
noise voltage.

The dynamic resistance,

The noise voltage across the junction is found using ohm’s law

➢ Transit-time noise
Another kind of noise that occur in transistors is called transit-time noise.
The term transit time refers to how long it takes for a current carrier such as a hole or electron
to move from the input to the output.
At low frequencies, this time is negligible, but when the frequency of operation is high and the
period of the signal being processed is the same order of magnitude as the transit time, problems
can occur. Transit-time noise shows up as a kind of random variation of current carriers within
a device, occurring near the upper cutoff frequency. Transit-time noise is directly proportional
to the frequency of operation. Since most circuits are designed to operate at a frequency much
less than the transistor upper limit, transit-time noise is rarely a problem.

➢ Flicker Noise or Excess noise

A third type of semiconductor noise, flicker noise or excess noise, also occurs in resistor.

This disturbance is the result of minute random variations of resistance in the semiconductor
material. It is directly proportional to current and temperature. However, it is inversely
proportional to frequency, and for this reason it is sometimes referred to as 1/f noise. Flicker
noise is highest at the lower frequencies and thus is not pure white noise. Because of the dearth
of high-frequency components, 1/f noise is also called Pink Noise.
At some low frequency, flicker noise begins to exceed thermal and shot noise. In some
transistors this transition frequency is as low as several hundred hertz. In others the noise may
begin to rise at a frequency as high as 100 kHz. This information is listed on the transistor data
sheet. the best source of noise data.

The amount of flicker noise present in resistors depends, on the type of resistor.

Figure below shows the range of noise voltages produced by the various types of popular
resistor type.

The figures assume a common resistance, temperature and bandwidth.

Because carbon-composition resistors exhibit an enormous amount of flicker noise- an order

of magnitude more than that of the other types, they are avoided in low-noise amplifiers and
other circuits.

Carbon and metal film resistors arc much better, but metal film resistors may be more
expensive. Wire-wound resistor have the least flicker noise, but are rarely used because they
contribute a large inductance to the circuit which is unacceptable in RF circuits.
Figure shows the total noise voltage variation in a transistor, which is a composite of the various
noise sources.
At low frequencies. noise voltage is high, because of 1/f noise. At very high frequencies, the
rise in noise is due to transit-time effects near the upper cutoff frequency of the device. Noise
is lowest in the midrange, where most devices operate. The noise in this range is due to thermal
and shot effects. with shot noise sometimes contributing more than thermal noise.

C. Intermodulation Distortion
Intermodulation distortion results from the generation of new signals and harmonics caused by
circuit nonlinearities.

The circuits can never be perfectly linear, and if bias voltages are incorrect in a given circuit,
Nonlinearities produce modulation or heterodyne effects.

Any frequencies in the circuit mix together, forming sum and difference frequencies. When
many frequencies are involved, or with pulses or rectangular waves, the large number of
harmonics produces an even larger number of sum and difference frequencies. The resulting
products are small in amplitude, but can be large enough to constitute a disturbance that can be
regarded as a type of noise. This noise, which is not white or pink, can be predicted because
the frequencies involved in generating the intermodulation products are known. Because of the
predictable correlation between the known frequencies and the noise, intermodulation
distortion is also called correlated noise. Correlated noise is manifested as the low-level signals
called birdies. It can be minimized by good design.

Expressing Noise Levels:

The noise quality of a receiver can be expressed in terms of
1. Noise figure and Noise factor or Noise Ratio
2. Noise temperature
3. SINAD.
 1. Noise figure and Noise factor or Noise Ratio

The noise factor is the ratio of the S/N power at the input to the S/N power at the
output. The device under consideration can be the entire receiver or a single
amplifier stage. The noise factor or noise ratio (NR) is computed with the
expression

Amplifiers and receivers always have more noise at the output than at the input
because of the internal noise which is added to the signal. And even as the signal is
being amplified along the way, the noise generated in the process is amplified along
with it.
The S/N ratio at the output will be less than the S/ N ratio of the input, and so the
noise figure will always be greater than 1. A receiver that contributed no noise to
the signal would have a noise figure of 1 or 0 dB. A transistor amplifier in a
communication receiver usually has a noise figure of several decibels. The lower
the noise figure, the better the amplifier or receiver. Noise figures of less than about
2 dB are excellent.

Problem:

2. Noise Temperature
Most of the noise produced in a device is thermal noise, which is directly proportional to
temperature. Therefore, another way to express the noise in an amplifier or receiver is in terms
of noise temperature TN. Noise temperature is expressed in kelvins.

The relationship between noise temperature and NR is given by

If the noise ratio is greater than 1, an equivalent noise temperature will be produced. The
equivalent noise temperature is the temperature to which a resistor equal in value to Z, of the
device would have to be raised to generate the same V, as the device generates. Noise
temperature is used only in circuits or equipment that operates at VHF, UHF, or microwave
frequencies. The noise factor or noise figure is used at lower frequencies. A good low-noise
transistor or amplifier stage typically has a noise temperature of less than 100 K. The lower the
noise temperature, the better the device.
Problem

3. SINAD (Signal Noise and Distortion)

Another way of expressing the quality of communication receivers is SINAD ,the composite
signal plus the noise and distortion divided by noise and distortion contributed by the receiver.
In symbolic form,

Distortion refers to the harmonics present in a signal caused by nonlinearities.

The SINAD ratio is also used to express the sensitivity of a receiver.

To obtain the SINAD ratio, an RF signal modulated by an audio signal (usually of 400 Hz or
1 kHz) is applied to the input of an amplifier or a receiver. The composite output is then
measured, giving the S + N + D figure. Next, a highly selective notch (band-reject) filter is
used to eliminate the modulating audio signal from the output, leaving the noise and distortion.
or N + D. The SINAD is a power ratio, and it is almost always expressed in decibels as

Noise in the Microwave Region

Noise is an important consideration at all communication frequencies. but it is particularly

critical in the microwave region because noise increases with bandwidth and affects high
frequency signals more than low-frequency signals. The limiting factor in most microwave
communication systems such as satellites and radar is internal noise. In some special
microwave receivers, the noise level is reduced by cooling the input stages to the receiver. This
technique is called operating with cryogenic conditions, the term cryogenic referring to very
cold conditions approaching absolute zero.
Problem:
Noise in Cascaded Stages
Noise has its greatest effect at the input to a receiver, because that is the point at which the
signal level is lowest. The noise performance of a receiver is invariably determined in the very
first stage of the receiver, usually an RF amplifier or mixer. Design of these circuits must ensure
the use of very low-noise component, taking into consideration current, resistance, bandwidth,
and gain ligures in the circuit. Beyond the first and second stages, noise is basically no longer
a problem. The formula used to calculate the overall noise performance of a receiver or of
multiple stages of RF amplification called Friis ' formula.

Note that the noise ratio is used, rather than the noise figure, and so the gains are given in
power ratios rather than in decibels.

Problem:

The overall Noise ratio: