Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of Employment and Training

Course: UPSC EXAM

Subject: GEOGRAPHY

Topic: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA

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Geographical Location of India
 Lying between latitude 8°4′ N to 37°6′ N and from longitude 68°7′ E to 97°25′ E, the
country is divided into almost equal parts by the Tropic of Cancer (passes from
Jabalpur in MP).

 The southernmost point in Indian Territory, (in Great Nicobar Island) is the Indira
Point (6°45′), while Kanyakumari, also known as Cape Comorin, is the southernmost
point of Indian mainland. The country thus lies wholly in the northern and eastern
hemispheres.

 The 82°30′ E longitude is taken as the Standard Time Meridian of India, as it passes
through the middle of India (from Naini, near Allahabad).

*Map –India Size and Location

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INDIA -Area & Boundaries
 India stretches 3,214 km from North to South & 2,933 km from East to West.
 Area of India - 32,87,263 sq. km. Accounts for 2.4% of the total world area and
roughly 16% of the world population.
 Mainland India has a coastline of 6,100 km. Including the Lakshadweep and
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the coastline measures about 7516.6 km.
 In India, of the total land mass
1. Plains Geography: 43.3%
2. Plateaus: 27.7%
3. Hills: 18.6%
4. Mountains Geography: 10.7%

 In the South, on the eastern side, the Gulf of Mannar & the Palk Strait separate India
from Sri Lanka.
 Total land neighbours: 7 (Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh
and Myanmar).
 India’s Islands include the Andaman & Nicobar Islands in Bay of Bengal and
Lakshadweep, Minicoy & Amindivi Islands in the Arabian Sea.

Physiography of India
Physiographically, India can be divided into the following units
1. Mountains in the North
2. Plains in the Northern India & the Coast
3. Plateau region of the South
4. The coasts and islands

Mountains in North India

 The Himalayas in India Means ‘Abode of Snow’. They are one of the youngest fold
mountain ranges in the world and comprises mainly sedimentary rocks.
 They stretch from the Indus River in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east.

 Total length is about 5000 km. The width of the Himalayas varies from 500 km in
Kashmir to 200 km in Arunachal Pradesh. Their average height is 2000m.

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  The Eastern Himalayas-made up of Patkai Hills, Naga Hills, Mizo Hills and the Garo,
Khasi and Jaintia Hills-are also known as Purvanchal.
 The Pamir, popularly known as the Roof of the World, is the connecting link between
the Himalayas and the high ranges of Central Asia.

Can be divided into 3 parallel or longitudinal zones, each with separate features.
1. The Great Himalayas or The Himadri
2. Lesser Himalayas or The Himachal
3. Outer Himalayas or The Shiwaliks

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The Great Himalayas or The Himadri
 Average elevation extends up to 6000m.

some of the world’s highest peaks are here

 There are few passes and almost all of them have a height above 4,500 m. They
include Shipki La and Bara Lapcha La in Himachal Pradesh, Burzil and Zozi La in
Kashmir, Niti, Lipulekh and Jelep La, Nathu La in Sikkim.

Lesser Himalayas or The Himachal

 Average height of mountain is 3700 – 4500 m.
 Mountains and valleys are disposed in all direction (mountains rising to 5000 m and
the valleys touching 1000 m).
 Its important ranges are Dhauladhar, PirPanjal, Nag Tibba, Mussoorie.
 Important hill resorts are Shimla, Chhail, Ranikhet, Chakrata, Mussoorie, Nainital,
Almora, Darjeeling.

Outer Himalayas or The Shiwaliks

 Lowest range (average elevation is 900-1200 m).
 Forms the foothills and lies between the Lesser Himalayas and the plains. It is the
newest range.

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Trans – Himalayan Zone
 This range lies to the north of the Great Himalayas. It has some important ranges like
Karakoram, Laddakh, Zanskar, etc. the highest peak in this region is K2 or Godwin
Austin (8611m, in Pak occupied Kashmir). Other high peaks are Hidden Peak (8068
m), Broad Peak (8047 m) and Gasherbrum II (8035 m).
 The longest glacier is Siachin in the Nubra valley, which is more than 72 km long
(biggest glacier in the world). Biafo, Baltaro, Batura, Hispar are the other important
glaciers in this region.
 This area is the largest snow-field outside the Polar Regions.

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Peninsular Mountains
 While the Himalayas are Fold Mountains, they are not.

The Aravalli Mountains (Rajasthan)

 World’s oldest.
 Guru Shikhar is the highest peak on which Mount Abu (1,722 m) is situated.
 The Vindhya Mountains
 The Satpura Mountains (highest point at Dhupgarh [1,350 m] near Pachmarhi)
 The Western Ghats or Sahyadris : Average height 1200mtrs, 1600km long. Its
southern part is separated from the main Sahyadri range by Palghat Gap (link between
Tamil Nadu & Kerala). Other passes are Thalghat (connects Nasik to Mumbai) and
Bhorghat (connects Pune to Mumbai).
 The Eastern Ghats (Highest peak : Mahendra Giri (1501 m)).
 The Nilgiris or The Blue Mountains : Meeting place of the Western and the Eastern
Ghats. Two highest peaks are Dodda Betta and Mukurti.
 The highest peak of Peninsular India is Anaimudi (2695 m) in Anaimalai Hills.
 Cardamom hills or Ealaimalai is the southernmost mountain range of India.

Facts about position of states

 UP borders the maximum number of States-8 (Uttarakhand, HP, Haryana, Rajasthan,
MP, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Bihar). After UP is Assam, which touches the border of
7 States.
 Tropic of Cancer passes through 8 States - Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, WB, Tripura, Mizoram.
 Indian Standard Meridian passes through 5 States UP, MP, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, AP.
 9 States form the coast of India.They are Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu. Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal.
 2 Union Territories, viz. Daman & Diu and Pondicherry are also on the coast.
 The Union Territories of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep are made
up of islands only.

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The Plains of India
 To the south of the Himalayas and to the north of the Peninsula lies the great plains of
North India. They are formed by the depositional works of three major river systems,
Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra. The vast plains of north India are alluvial in nature
and the westernmost portion is occupied by the Thar Desert.
 The thickness of the alluvium is maximum in the Ganga plains and minimum in the
Western Plains.
 In the Kerala plains are the backwaters or ‘Kayak’, which are the shallow lagoons or
inlets of the sea, lying parallel to the coastline. The largest among these is the
Vembanad Lake.
 The plains consist of four divisions
1. Bhabar- Along the foothills of Shiwaliks, Highly porous
2. Tarai - Re-emergence of streams. Zone of excessive dampness
3. Bhangar - Older alluvium of the plains. Studded with calcareous formations
called ‘kankar’
4. Khadar - New alluvium and forms the flood plains along the river banks.

Peninsular Plateau of India

 Spreads south of the Indo-Gangetic plains flanked by sea on three sides. This plateau
is shaped like a triangle with its base in the north. The Eastern Ghats and the Western
Ghats constitute its eastern and western boundaries, respectively.
 Narmada, which flows through a rift valley, divides the region into two parts: The
Malwa Plateau in the north & the Deccan Plateau in the south.
 Most of the rocks are of the igneous type.
 Vindhya Plateau is situated south of Malwa plateau.
 Chhota Nagpur Plateau lies to the west of Bengal basin, the largest and most typical
part of which is the Ranchi plateau.
 The Deccan Plateau is the largest plateau in India. It is made up of lava flows in the
Cretaceous-Eocene era through the fissure eruptions.

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Islands of India
 Total coastline of India : 7516 km.
 Longest coastline: Gujarat (Second longest is of Andhra Pradesh).
 Indian territorial limits include 248 islands

The Andaman and Nicobar Group

 Andamans is a group of 204 islands of which the largest is Middle Andaman.
 The Andamans are believed to be extensions of mountains system in the N.E. part of
the country.
 Saddle Peak (737 m) in Andaman is the highest peak.
 The Nicobars is a group of 19 islands of which the largest is Great Nicobar. Most of
them are volcanic in nature.
 Great Nicobar is the southernmost island and is only 147 km away from Sumatra
island of Indonesia.
 Volcanic Islands: Barren and Narcondam Islands. Barren is in the process of eruption
these days after lying dormant for 200 years.

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Types of Coral Reef Formations
Scientists generally divide coral reefs into four classes: fringing reefs, barrier reefs, atolls,
and patch reefs.
Fringing reefs
 They grow near the coastline around islands and continents.
 They are separated from the shore by narrow, shallow lagoons.
 Fringing reefs are the most common type of reef that we see.
Barrier reefs
 They lie parallel to the coastline but are separated by deeper, wider lagoons.
 At their shallowest point, they can reach the water’s surface forming a “barrier” to
navigation.
 The Great Barrier Reef in Australia is the largest and most famous barrier reef in the
world.
Atolls
 They are rings of coral that create protected lagoons and are usually located in the
middle of the sea.
 Atolls usually form when islands surrounded by fringing reefs sink into the sea or the
sea level rises around them (these islands are often the tops of underwater volcanoes).
 The fringing reefs continue to grow and eventually form circles with lagoons inside.

*Image –Types of Reefs

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The Arabian Sea Group
 All the islands in the Arabian Sea (Total 25) are coral islands and are surrounded by
Fringing Reefs (North : Lakshadweep, South: Minicoy).
Note:
 Ten Degree Channel separates Andaman from Nicobars (Little Andaman from Car
Nicobar)
 Duncan Passage lies between South Andaman and Little Andaman.
 Nine Degree Channel separates Kavaratti from Minicoy Island.
 Eight Degree Channel separates Minicoy Island (India) from Maldives.

Rivers of India
In India, the rivers can be divided into two main groups
1. Himalayan Rivers
2. Peninsular Rivers

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Himalayan Rivers of India
In this, three major river systems are there

The Indus System

 It has a total length of 2880 km (709 km in India). Rises in Tibet (China) near
Mansarovar Lake.
 In Jammu and Kashmir, its Himalayan tributaries areZanskar, Dras, Gartang, Shyok,
Shigar, Nubra, Gilgit, etc.
 Its most important tributaries, which join Indus at various places, are: Jhelum (725
km), Chenab (1800 km), Ravi (720 km), Beas (470 km) & Sutlej (1050 km).
 Sources -Jhelum from Verinag (SE Kashmir), Chenab from Bara Lacha Pass (Lahaul-
Spiti, H.R), Ravi from Kullu Hills near Rohtang Pass in H. R, Beas from a place near
Rohtang Pass in H.E and Satluj from Mansarovar – Rakas lakes in W. Tibet.
 In NariKhorsan province of Tibet, Satluj has created an extraordinary canyon,
comparable to the Grand Canyon of Colorado (US).
 According to the Indus Water Treaty signed between India and Pakistan in 1960,
India can utilize only 20% of the total discharge of Indus, Jhelum and Chenab.

The Ganga System

 It is 2525 km long of which 1450 km is in Uttarakhand and UP, 445 km in Bihar and
520 km in West Bengal.
 The Ganga, the head stream is constituted of two main rivers – Bhagirathi and
Alaknanda, which combine at Devprayag to form Ganga.
 Before Alaknanda meets Bhagirthi at Devprayag, Mandakini meets Alaknanda at
Rudraprayag.
 Sources -Bhagirthi from Gaumukh, Alaknanda from Badrinath, Mandakini from
Kedarnath (all from Uttarakhand).
 Yamuna (1375 km) is its most important tributary (on right bank). It rises at the
Yamunotri glacier in Uttarakhand. It runs parallel to Ganga for 800km and joins it at
Allahabad. Important tributaries of Yamuna are Chambal (1050 km), Sind, Betwa
(480 km) and Ken (all from south).
 Apart from Yamuna, other tributaries of Ganga are Ghaghra (1080 km), Son (780
km), Gandak (425 km), Kosi (730 km), Gomti (805 km), Damodar (541 km). Kosi is

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 infamous as ‘Sorrow of Bihar’, while Damodar gets the name ‘Sorrow of Bengal’ as
these cause floods in these regions.
 Hooghly is a distributory of Ganga flowing through Kolkata.

The Brahmaputra system

 It has a total length of 2900 km. It rises in Tibet (from Chemayungdung glacier),
where it is called Tsangpo, and enters the Indian territory (in Arunachal Pradesh)
under the name Dihang.
 Important Tributaries: Subansiri, Kameng, Dhansiri, Manas, Teesta.
 In Bangladesh, Brahmaputra is known by the name of Jamuna while Ganga gets the
name Padma. Their combined stream is known as Padma only. Meghna is the most
important distributory before it enters the Bay of Bengal.
 The combined stream of Ganga and Brahmaputra forms the biggest delta in the world,
the Sundarbans, covering an area of 58,752 sq. km. Its major part is in Bangladesh.
 On Brahmaputra is the river island, Majuli in Assam, the biggest river island in the
world.
 Brahmaputra, or the Red River, is navigable for a distance of 1384 km up to
Dibrugarh and serves as an excellent inland water transport route.

Rivers of the Peninsula in India

 Different from the Himalayan rivers because they are seasonable in their flow (while
Himalayan rivers are perennial).

They can be divided into two groups

A. East Flowing Rivers of India (or Delta forming rivers)
 Mahanadi River (858 km):RisesinRaipur district in Chhatisgarh,Main tributaries
arelb,Seonath, Hasdo, Mand, Jonk, Tel, etc
 Godavari River (1465 km) : Also called Vriddha Ganga or Dakshina Ganga. It is the
longest peninsular river. Rises in Nasik. Main tributaries: Manjra, Penganga, Wardha,
Indravati, Wainganga, Sabari, etc.
 Krishna River (1327 km) : Rises in Western Ghats near Mahabaleshwar. Main
tributaries: Koyna, Dudhganga, Panchganga, Malprabha, Ghatprabha, Bhima,
Tungabhadra, Musi, etc.

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  Cauvery River (805 km) : It is the largest peninsular river (maximum amount of
water). Infact, it is the only peninsular river which flows almost throughout the year.
Known as the ‘Ganga of the South’. It rises from the Brahmagir range of Western
Ghats. Main tributaries: Hemavati, Lokpawni, Shimsa. It is less seasonal than others
as its upper catchment area receives rainfall during summer by the S.W monsoon and
the lower catchment area during winter season by the retreating N.E. monsoon. Its
90% – 95% irrigation and power production potential is already being harnessed.
 Swarnarekha River (395 km) and Brahmini (705 km) Rises from Ranchi Plateau.

B. West Flowing Rivers in India

 Narmada River (1057 km) : Has only 1/10th part in Gujarat. Rises in Amarkantak
Plateau and flows into Gulf of Khambat. It forms the famous Dhuan Dhar Falls near
Jabalpur. Main tributaries: Hiran, Burhner, Banjar, Shar, Shakkar, Tawa, etc.
 Tapti River (724 km) : Rises from Betuldistt in MR Also known as twin or handmaid
of Narmada. Main tributaries: Purna, Betul, Arunavati, Ganjal, etc.
 Sabarmati River (416 km) : Rises from Aravallis in Rajasthan.
 Mahi River (560 km) : Rises from Vindhyas in MR
 Luni River (450 km) : Rises from Aravallis. Also called Salt River. It is finally lost in
the marshy grounds at the head of the Rann of Kuchchh.
 Sharavati is a west flowing river of the Sahyadris. It forms the famous Jog or
Gersoppa or Mahatma Gandhi Falls (289 m), which is the highest waterfall in India.

Inland Drainage

 Some rivers of India are not able to reach the sea and constitute inland drainage.
Ghaggar (494 km) is the most important of such drainage.
 It is a seasonal stream which rises on the lower slopes of the Himalayas and gets lost
in the dry sands of Rajasthan near Hanumangarh. It is considered the old Saraswati of
the Vedic times.

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Note:

 The largest man-made lake in India is Indira Sagar Lake, which is the reservoir of
Sardar Sarovar Project, Onkareshwar Project and Maheshwar Project in Gujarat-MP.
 Chilka Lake (Orissa) is the largest brackish water lake of India. Otherwise also, it is
the largest lake of India.
 Wular Lake (J & K) is the largest fresh water lake of India. Dul Lake is also there in
J & K.
 From Sambhar and Didwana Lake (Rajasthan), salt is produced.
 Other important lakes are Vembanad in Kerala and Kolleru &Pulicat in AP.
 The three important Gulfs in the Indian Territory are
1. Gulf of Kuchch (west of Gujarat) - Region with highest potential of tidal
energy generation
2. Gulf of Cambay or Gulf of Khambat (Gujarat) -Narmada, Tapti, Mahi and
Sabarmati drain into it.
3. Gulf of Mannar (south east of Tamil Nadu) Asia’s first marine biosphere
reserve.

Important River Valley Projects of India

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The Climate of India

 The Climate of India has tropical monsoon type of climate. It is greatly influenced
by the presence of the Himalayas in the north as they block the cold air masses
from Central Asia. It is because of them only that the monsoons have a watershed
in India.

 The Tropic of Cancer divides India into two almost equal climatic zones, namely,
the northern zone and the southern zone. The warm temperate or the subtropical
climate of the northern zone gives it cold winter seasons and the hot summer
seasons.

Pressure and Winds

The climate and associated weather conditions in India are governed by the following
atmospheric conditions:
 Pressure and surface winds
 Upper air circulation
 Western cyclonic disturbances and tropical cyclones.
 The southern tropical climatic zone is warmer than the north and does not have a
clear-cut winter season.

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  The northern zone does not have the midday sun vertically overhead during any part
of the year; The southern zone has the midday sun almost vertically overhead at least
twice every year.

Climate Seasons in India

 In India, the year can be divided into four seasons, resulting from the monsoons which
occur mainly due to the differential heating of land and movement of the sun’s
vertical rays.
 The vertical rays of the sun advance towards Tropic of Cancer from mid-March, due
to which hot and dry weather arrives. As temperatures rise over most of northern and
Central India, a vast trough of low pressure is created. The highest temperature
experienced in South is in April while in North it is in May and June.
 This part of the year is marked by a dry spell and the north-western parts of the
country experience hot, dry winds, called loo. In this period, the country also
experience storms / dust storms at various places.
 Tornado like dust storms in Punjab and Haryana, called ‘Andhis’ in UP and
‘Kalbaisakhis’ in West Bengal. They involve strong convectional movements causing
some precipitation.
 The ‘Norwesters’ originate over the Chhotanagpur Plateau and blow in the north-east
direction which brings about 50 cm of rainfall in Assam and about 10 cm rainfall in
West Bengal and Orissa. This rainfall is very useful for Assam tea and spring rice
crops of West Bengal.
 Similarly, ‘Cherry Blossoms’ are there in Karnataka, beneficial to coffee plantation
and ‘Mango showers’ in elsewhere South India, which are beneficial to mango crops.
 This weather is followed by hot, wet weather from June to September. In May, the
south – west monsoon sets in. The normal dates of onset of the monsoon are May 20
in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, June 3 in the Konkan, June 15 in Kolkata and
June 29 in Delhi.
 The south – west monsoon enters the country in two currents, one blowing over the
Bay of Bengal and the other over the Arabian Sea. This monsoon causes rainfall over
most of the country (except Tamil Nadu and Thar Desert area). The S.W monsoon
entering from Western Ghats causes heavy rainfall over Kerala coast, but Tamil Nadu
falls on the leeward side. In the Thar area, the winds blow parallel to the Aravallis and

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 do not cause rain. The Bay of Bengal current causes heavy rainfall in the north east
parts of the country and a part of it turns west along the Himalayas over the Indo-
Gangetic plains causing rainfall in this region. But the Bay of Bengal current, by the
time it reaches W Rajasthan, runs out of moisture.
 The Bay of Bengal branch after crossing the deltaic region enters the Khasi valley in
Meghalaya and gets entrapped in it due to funnel shape of the region. It strikes
Cherrapunji in a perpendicular direction causing heavies rainfall in Mawsinram
(Approx. 1400 cm).
 From mid-Sept to mid-Dec, the monsoon retreats. As the sun’s vertical rays start
shifting towards the Tropic of Capricorn, the low pressure area starts moving south
and winds finally start blowing from land to sea. This is called north-east monsoon.
The withdrawal of monsoon is a much more gradual process than its onset. It causes
rainfall in Tamil Nadu as the winds pick some moisture from Bay of Bengal. This
explains the phenomenon why Tamil Nadu remains dry when the entire country
receives rain and why it gets rain when practically the entire country is dry.
 The cold and dry weather starts in early December. In this, the average temperature in
south is 24-25c, and while in the north is 10-15c. In the latter part of December and in
January, the dry spell is broken by the westerly depressions (temperate cyclones) from
Mediterranean Sea, which causes some rain in north-west India.
 Almost all the precipitation in India is caused by the monsoons and it is primarily
orographic in nature. Cyclonic storms provide only a little rain, mainly in the north.

South West monsoon

 After the spring Equinox on March 21, Sun advances north of the equator and is over
the Indian subcontinent. This heats up the Indian landmass rapidly. Heat proceeds
staring from the south and reaches Northwest India by March end.
 Meanwhile after the equinox, a high pressure area forms over South Indian ocean near
Madagascar. This high pressure area blows wind gusts towards African coast. When

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 these winds gusts arrive close to Somalian coast by May it gets deflected due to
Coriolis effect towards Indian mainland.
 By mid-May heat over Indian subcontinent blisters forming a heat low pressure area
over Northwest India. This low pulls in winds from the Indian waters. Once the upper
level Easterly jets are replaced by westerly, winds from South Andaman sea blows in
a southeast direction and onsets Southwest monsoon on Andaman islands by May 20.
 Wind gusts from Somalia pushed by Mascarene high near Madagascar picks up huge
amount of moisture from Arabian sea and when it reaches Indian mainland gets an
uplift by the terrain of western ghats and precipitates rain marking the onset of
Southwest monsoon over Indian mainland in Kerala by June 1.
 As the ITCZ starts moving north it pulls the monsoon along with it and both Arabian
sea branch and Bay of Bengal branch gets blocked by Himalayas in the Northeast and
is diverted towards the heat low pressure area in Northwest India. Thus covering the
entire Indian landmass with Southwest monsoon.

Retreating or Northeast monsoon

 Indian landmass starts to cooled down by monsoon rains and the heat low weakens by
September 1. With less moisture pull by the low pressure, skies started to clear over
Northwest India marking the withdrawal of Southwest monsoon by September 1
 After the Autumal equinox on September 22, Sun starts receding south further cooling
down the Indian landmass. By October 1, a feeble high pressure area begins to set in
over Siberia which pushes air down towards Indian landmass.
 As Sun recedes south, ITCZ starts moving south and a high pressure area begins to
build over North India. When the wind gusts from Siberian high reaches north Bay of

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 Bengal, it picks up moisture. By October 15, upper level winds turn from westerly to
easterly and a low pressure trough forms over Southeast coast of India.
 Under the influence of this low pressure trough, winds from North Bay of Bengal is
pulled and as it reaches Coastal Tamil Nadu precipitates Northeast monsoon by
October 20. Southern states of India namely Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu and Kerala only receives rainfall from Northeast monsoon.

Climatic Regions of India

Climatic Regions of India can be divided into a number of climatic regions.

Tropical Rain Forests in India : Found in the west coastal plains, the Western Ghats and
parts of Assam. Characterized by high temperatures throughout the year. Rainfall, though
seasonal, is heavy- about 200 cm annually during May-November.

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Tropical Savanna Climate: In most of the peninsula region except the semi-arid zone in the
leeward side of the Western Ghats. It is characterized by long dry weather throughout winter
and early summer and high temperature (above 18.2c).Annual rainfall varies from 76 cm in
the west to 150 cm in the east.

Tropical Semi-Arid Steppe Climate: It prevails in the rain-shadow belt running southward
from Central Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu in the leeward side of the Western Ghats and the
Cardamom Hills. It is characterized by low rainfall which varies from 38 cm to 80 cm, high
temperature between 20 and 30.

Tropical and Subtropical Steppes : Large areas in Punjab, Haryana and Kutch region.
Temperature varies from 12-35c. The maximum temperature reaches up to 49c. The annual
rainfall, varying from 30.5-63.5 cm, is also highly erratic.

Tropical desert :This climate extends over the western parts of Banner, Jaisalmer and
Bikaner districts of Rajasthan and parts of Kutch. It is characterized by scanty rainfall (30.5
cm), which is highly erratic. Rains are mostly in the form of cloud-burst. Mean monthly
temperature is uniformly high (about 35c).

Humid Subtropical Climate with Dry Winters : This area includes south of the Himalayas,
east of the tropical and subtropical steppes and north of tropical savannah. Winters are mild
to severe while summers are extremely hot. The annual rainfall varies from 63.5 cm to more
than 254 cm, most of it received during the south west monsoon season.

Mountain Climate :Such type of climate is seen in mountainous regions which rise above
6,000 m or more such as the Himalayas and the Karakoram Range.

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Soils in India
Soils in India Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has divided Indian soils into
eight major groups:
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has divided Indian soils into eight major
groups:

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 1. Alluvial soil [43%]
2. Red soil [18.5%]
3. Black / regur soil [15%]
4. Arid / desert soil
5. Laterite soil
6. Saline soil
7. Peaty / marshy soil
8. Forest soil
9. Sub-mountain soil
10. Snowfields

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Alluvial Soil in India
 They are by far the largest and the most important soil group of India. They are
composed of sediments deposited by rivers and the waves. Their chemical
composition makes them one of the most fertile in the world. Usually deficient in
nitrogen and humus (thus fertilizers are needed).
 Occupy the plains (from Punjab to Assam) and also occur in the valleys of Narmada
and Tapti in M.P. & Gujarat, Mahanadi in the MP and Orissa, Godawari in A.R and
Cauvery in T.N.
 Can be divided into Khadar (new) and Bhangar (older, more clayey and kankary)
alluvium.

Black Soil in India

 Also called Regur and is ideal for cotton crop. These soils have been formed due to
the solidification of lava spread over large areas during volcanic activity in the
Deccan Plateau, thousands of years ago.
 They are black due to compounds of iron and aluminium (also because of titaniferous
magnetite). • Mainly found in Deccan Plateau – Maharashtra, Gujarat, M.P,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.
 Apart from cotton cultivation, these fertile soils are suitable for growing cereals,
oilseeds, citrus fruits and vegetables, tobacco and sugarcane.
 They have high moisture retention level.
 Lack in phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter.

Red Soil in India

They are mainly formed due to the decomposition of ancient crystalline rocks like granites
and gneisses and from rock types rich in minerals such as iron and magnesium. The term ‘red
soil’ is due to the wide diffusion of iron oxides through the materials of the soil.
 Covers almost the whole of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, S.E.
Maharashtra, Chhatisgarh, parts of Orissa, Jharkhand and Bundelkhand.
 Generally deficient in nitrogen, humus and phosphorus, but rich in potash.
 Suitable for rice, millets, tobacco and vegetables (also groundnuts and potatoes at
higher elevations).

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Laterite Soil in India
 Found in typical monsoon conditions – under conditions of high temperature and
heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods. The alterations of wet and dry
season leads to the leaching away of siliceous matter and lime of the rocks and a soil
rich in oxides of iron and aluminium compounds is left behind.
 Found in parts of Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Rajmahal hills, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam, Tamil Nadu, etc.
 Poor in nitrogen and minerals.
 Best for tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut and suitable for rice and millet
cultivation if manured.

Forest and Mountain Soils

 Such soils are mainly found on the hill slopes covered by forests. The formation of
these soils is mainly governed by the characteristic deposition of organic matter
derived from forest growth.
 In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly found in valley basins, depressions and
less steeply inclined slopes. Apart from the Himalayan region, the forest soils occur in
higher hills in south and the peninsular region.
 Very rich in humus but are deficient in Potash, phosphorous and lime and needs
fertilizers.
 Plantation of tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits.

Arid and Desert Soils

 A large part of the arid and semi-arid region in Rajasthan and adjoining areas of
Punjab and Haryana lying between the Indus and the Aravallis receiving less than 50
cm of annual rainfall is affected by desert conditions.
 This area is covered by a mantle of sand which inhibits soil growth.
 The phosphate content of these soils is as high as in normal alluvial soils. Nitrogen is
originally low but its deficiency is made up to some extent by the availability of
nitrogen in the form of nitrates. Thus the presence of phosphates and nitrates make
them fertile soils wherever moisture is available.
 The changes in the cropping pattern in the Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area are a
living example of the utility of the desert soils.

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Saline and Alkaline Soils
 In the drier parts of Bihar, Up Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Maharashtra, are the
salt-impregnated or alkaline soils. Known by different names: Reh, kallar, USAR, etc.
 Some of the salts are transported in solution by the rivers and canals, which percolates
in the sub-soils of the plains.
 The accumulation of salts makes the soil infertile and renders it unfit for agriculture.
Peaty and Marshy Soils
 Originate in the humid regions as a result of accumulation of large amounts of organic
matter in the soil. They contain considerable amounts of soluble salts and 10 – 40% of
organic matter.
 Peaty soils are found in Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala, where it is called
Kari.
 Marshy soils, high in vegetable matter, are found in northern Bihar, coastal parts of
Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal and parts of UP.

Soil Erosion in India

 Acute in hilly and dry regions
 Causes – depletion of forests, wrong use of lands such as cultivation on very steep
slopes, cattle rearing. It ultimately leads to Badland Topography.
 Remedy – Afforestation, contour cultivation etc.

Natural Vegetation in India

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The following are the principal types of natural vegetation in India
(1) Tropical Evergreen Rain Forests,
(2) Deciduous or Monsoon Type of Forests,
(3) Dry Deciduous Forests and Scrubs,
(4) Semi Desert and Desert Vegetation,
(5) Tidal or Mangrove Forests and

1. Tropical Evergreen Forests

The tropical evergreen forests usually occur in areas receiving more than 200 cm of
rainfall and having a temperature of 15 to 30 degrees Celsius.
 They occupy about seven per cent of the earth’s land surface and harbours more than
half of the world’s plants and animals.
 They are found mostly near the equator. Region is warm and wet throughout the year.
 Trees reach great heights up to 60 metres or even above.
 It has a luxuriant vegetation of all kinds – trees, shrubs, and creepers giving it a
multilayered structure.
In India, evergreen forests are found in the western slopes of the Western Ghats in States
such as Kerala and Karnataka. They are also found in hills of Jaintia and Khasi. Some of the
trees found in Indian Tropical Forests are rosewood, mahogany and ebony. Bamboos and
reeds are also common.
Common animals found in these forests are elephants, monkey, lemur and deer. The one
horned rhinoceros are found in the jungles of Assam and West Bengal.

2. Tropical Deciduous Forests:

 They are the most widespread forests of India.
 Also called the monsoon forests and spread over the region receiving rainfall between
200 cm and 70 cm.
 Trees of this forest type shed their leaves for about six to eight weeks in dry summer.
 On the basis of the availability of water, these forests are further divided into moist
and dry deciduous.

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Moist deciduous forests:
 It found in areas receiving rainfall between 200 and 100 cm.
 Exist mostly in the eastern part of the country – northeastern states, along the foothills
of the Himalayas, Jharkhand, West Orissa and Chhattisgarh, and on the eastern slopes
of the Western Ghats.
 Teak is the most dominant species of this forest.
 Bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair , kusum, arjun, mulberry are other
commercially important species.

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Dry Deciduous Forests:
 The dry deciduous forests are found in areas having rainfall between 100 cm and
70cm.
 These forests are found in the rainier parts of the peninsular plateau and the plains of
Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
 There are open stretches in which Teak, Sal, Peepal, and Neem grow.
 A large part of this region has been cleared for cultivation and some parts are used for
grazing.
 Common animals found are lion, tiger , pig, deer and elephant. Variety of birds,
lizards, snakes, and tortoises are also found here.

3. The Thorn Forests and Scrubs:

 In regions with less than 70 cm of rainfall, the natural vegetation consists of thorny
trees and bushes.
 Found in the north western part of the country including semiarid areas of Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana.
 Acacias, palms, euphorbias and cacti are the main plant species.
 Trees are scattered and have long roots penetrating deep into the soil in order to get
moisture.
 The stems are succulent to conserve water.
 Leaves are mostly thick and small to minimize evaporation

4. Montane Forests:
 In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude leads to the
corresponding change in natural vegetation.
 As such, there is a succession of natural vegetation belts in the same order as we see
from the tropical to the tundra region.
 The wet temperate type of forests are found between a height of1000 and 2000
metres.
 Evergreen broadleaf trees such as oaks and chestnuts predominate.
 Between 1500 and 3000 metres, temperate forests containing coniferous trees like
pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce and cedar, are found. and they cover mostly the

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 southern slopes of the Himalayas, places having high altitude in southern and north-
east India.
 At higher elevations, temperate grasslands are common.
 At high altitudes, generally more than 3,600 metres above sea level, temperate forests
and grasslands give way to the Alpine vegetation.
 Silver fir, junipers, pines and birches are the common trees of these forests.
 They get progressively stunted as they approach the snowline and are used
extensively for grazing by nomadic tribes like the Gujjars and the Bakarwals.
 At higher altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of tundra vegetation.
 Common animals found in these forests are Kashmir stag, spotted dear , wild sheep,
jack rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow leopard, squirrels, Shaggy horn wild ibex,
bear and rare red panda, sheep and goats with thick hair.

5. Mangrove Forests:
 Found in the areas of coasts influenced by tides.
 Mud and silt get accumulated on such coasts.
 Dense mangroves are the common varieties with roots of the plants submerged under
water.
 The deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishana, the Godavari and the Kaveri are
covered by such vegetation.
 In the Ganga Brahmaputra delta, sundari trees are found, which provide durable hard
timber.
 Palm, coconut, keora, agar, also grow in some parts of the delta.
 Royal Bengal Tiger is the famous animal in these forests.
 Turtles, crocodiles, gharials and snakes are also found in these forests.
 Also known as Littoral or Swamp Forests.
 Occur along the sea coast and in the estuaries of rivers, especially in Sunderbans and
the Andamans.
 Most important tree is Sundari. It provides hard and durable timber which is used for

construction and building purposes as well as for making boats.

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Thorn Forests
 In areas having rainfall between 25 and 80cm. In arid regions of Rajasthan, Punjab,
Haryana and Gujarat.
 Trees are palm, acacia, etc.
Hill Forests
 Found in hills of South India and the Himalayas. The type of trees depends upon the
height of the mountain , Sal and bamboo below 1000 m; oaks, chestnuts and other fruit
trees, and chir forests between 1000 and 2000 m; pine, deodar, silver fern and spruce
between 1600 and 3300 m; above 3600 malpine forests with trees like silver firs, pines,
birches, etc. Alpine forests give way to Alpine grasslands and scrubs as we move up
further.

Note :
According to the National Forest Policy, the minimum desired area which is considered safe
for a tropical country like India is about 33%.
Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under forests followed by Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Orissa and Arunachal Pradesh.
As per percentage of forest area to total area, first is Andaman and Nicobar Islands, followed
by Mizoram, Manipur, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura and Nagaland. They
are in a very comfortable position as more than half of their area is under forests.
Arunachal Pradesh has the highest per capita forest area

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In Mangrove forests, West Bengal holds the first position, followed by Gujarat and Andaman
and Nicobar Islands.
The lowest forest percentage is in Haryana and Punjab, because of the extensive agriculture.

Biosphere Reserves in India

There are living organisms all around us and we must make a conscious effort to preserve as
well as conserve this biodiversity in our environment.
 Simply put, Biosphere Reserves can be defined as widespread areas of bio-diversity
wherein fauna and flora are protected.
 ‘Biosphere’ refers to water, land, and atmosphere that supply life on our planet. The
word ‘reserve’ symbolizes that it is a special area designated for creating a balance
between conservation and sustainable use.
 You must not misinterpret the word ‘reserve’ to be a place that is set aside from human
use and development. A biosphere reserve program also aims at studying human
interaction with a particular area.
 Biosphere reserves are a great example of community-based initiatives aimed towards the
protection of our natural environment while also ensuring a consistent healthy growth of
the local economy.
 It can include one or more National Parks or sanctuaries. Protection is granted to all the
living organisms flourishing inside the boundaries of the reserve, including flora, fauna as
well as the human communities who inhabit those regions.
 As per the law, these regions of environmental protection relate to the International Union
for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Category V Protected areas.

List of Biosphere Reserves of India

As per the updated records of the government of India, there is a total of 18 biosphere
reserves in our country.
 Nilgiri
Designated as a biosphere reserve in the year 1986, Nilgiri falls within the state
boundaries of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, along the western ghats. The key
fauna of the Nilgiris is the Lion-tailed Macaque and NilgiriTahr.

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  Nanda Devi
Designated as a biosphere reserve in the year 1988, Nanda Devi falls within the state
boundaries of Uttarakhand, along the western himalayas.

 Nokrek
Designated as a biosphere reserve in the year 1988, Nokrek falls within the state
boundaries of Meghalaya, along the east himalayas. The key fauna of the Nokrek is
the Red Panda.

 The Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve

Designated as a biosphere reserve in the year 1989, Great Nicobar falls within the
boundaries of the Andaman and Nicobar islands. The key fauna of the Great Nicobar
is the Saltwater crocodile.

 Gulf Of Mannar
Designated as a biosphere reserve in the year 1989, Gulf of Mannar falls within the
state boundaries of Tamil Nadu. The key fauna of this coast is the dugong.

 Sunderbans
Designated as a biosphere reserve in the year 1989, Sunderbans falls within the state
boundaries of West Bengal, along the gangetic delta. The key fauna of the Sunderbans
is the royal Bengal tiger.

 Manas
Designated as a biosphere reserve in the year 1989, Manas falls within the state
boundaries of Assam, along the east himalayas. The key fauna of Manas are the red
panda and the golden langur.

 Simlipal
Designated as a biosphere reserve in the year 1994, Simlipal falls within the state
boundaries of Odisha, along the deccan peninsula. The key fauna are royal Bengal
tiger and wild tiger.

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  Dibru-saikhowa
Designated as a biosphere reserve in the year 1997, Dibru-saikhowa falls within the
state boundaries of Assam, along the east himalayas. The key fauna is the golden
langur.

 Dehang-dibang
Designated as a biosphere reserve in the year 1998, Dehang-dibang falls within the
state boundaries of Arunachal Pradesh, along the eastern himalayas.

 Panchmarhi
Designated as a biosphere reserve in the year 1999, Panchmarhi falls within the state
boundaries of Madhya Pradesh. The key fauna of Panchmarhi are the giant squirrel
and the flying squirrel.

 Khangchendzonga
Designated as a biosphere reserve in the year 2000, Khangchendzonga falls within the
state boundaries of Sikkim, along the eastern Himalayas. The key fauna of this region
is the red panda and the snow leopard.

 Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve

Designated as a biosphere reserve in the year 2001, the Agasthyamalai biosphere
reserve falls within the state boundaries of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, along the western
ghats. The key fauna here are the elephants and the NilgiriTahr.

 Achanakamar -Amarkantak
Designated as a biosphere reserve in the year 2005, Achanakamar –Amarkantak falls
within the state boundaries of Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh, along the Maikala
hills.

 Great Rann of Kutch

Designated as a biosphere reserve in the year 2008, Great Rann of Kutch falls within
the state boundaries of Gujarat. The key fauna of this desert is the Indian Wild Ass.

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  Cold Desert
Designated as a biosphere reserve in the year 2009, Cold Desert falls within the state
boundaries of Himachal Pradesh along the western Himalayas. The key fauna here is
the snow leopard.

 Seshachalam Hills
Designated as a biosphere reserve in the year 2010, Seshachalam hills falls within the
state boundaries of Andhra Pradesh, along the eastern ghats.

 Panna
Designated as a biosphere reserve in the year 2011, Panna falls within the state
boundaries of Madhya Pradesh, along the ken river. The key fauna here is
the sambhar and sloth bear, tiger, chinkara, and chital.

The biosphere reserve program was launched by the UNESCO in 1971 under the aegis of its
Man and Biosphere (MAB) Program, to provide a global network of protected areas for
conserving natural communities
In India, the first biosphere reserve – Nilgiri biosphere reserve – came into being in 1986. So
far, 14 biosphere reserves have been set up in the country.

Note :
 Out of these 14, Nilgiri, Sunderbans, Manas and Gulf of Mannar have been
recognized on World Network of Biosphere Reserves by UNESCO.

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Project Tiger
The major tiger reserves in the country are

Note :
 Nagarjunasagar Tiger Reserve in AP is the largest, while Pench in Maharashtra is the
smallest. Bandipur in Karnataka was the first (1973-74), while Kaziranga is the latest
(2006).

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Project Elephant
It was launched in February 1992, to assist States having wild elephants to ensure long term
survival of identified viable populations of elephants in their natural habitat.
 There are 14 Elephant Reserves in India.

Agriculture in India Cropping Seasons in India

Kharif Crops of India
 Sown in summers between May and July, and harvested after the rains, in September
and October.
Eg: Rice, Jowar, Bajra, Maize, Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane, Tobacco, Groundnut, Pulses,
etc.

Rabi Crops of India

 Sown at the beginning of winter and harvested before the onset of the summer season,
between Feb and April.
Eg: Wheat, barley, oilseeds, gram, potatoes, etc.

Zayad Crops
 They are raised between April and June.
Eg: Melon, watermelon, cucumber, toris, leafy and other vegetables.

Cash Crops of India (Commercial Crops)

 Grown mainly for the market, only a small portion of the product is consumed by the
farmers themselves (cotton, sugarcane etc.)

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana

The primary objectives of PMKSY are:
 To increase the area of agricultural lands covered by irrigation and reduce dependency

on monsoon.
 To improve on farm water use efficiency by adopting water management techniques

adoption of precision-irrigation and other water-saving technologies to reduce

wastage of water.
 Enhancing recharge of aquifers and introducing sustainable water conservation

practices.

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National Agriculture Market
The Department of Agriculture & Cooperation formulated a Central Sector scheme for
Promotion of National Agriculture Market through Agri-Tech Infrastructure Fund (ATIF)
through provision of the common e-platform.

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