Review for Lecture 7

Chapter 12: Nervous tissue

Sections 12.1-12.8, and 12.10
1. Be sure you understand and can DEFINE the following terms:
 Neurons
Specialized nervous tissue cells that transmit electrical signals
- Collects information (Receptors monitor and detect changes in internal & external
environment called stimuli)
- Process and evaluate information
- Initiate response to information

 Neurons contain the following structures:

o Cell body (Soma)
o Neuron’s control centre
o Houses the nucleus and cytoplasm (cytoplasm is known as perikaryon in the
neuron cell body)

o Axon (Nerve Fibre)

o Process of neuron that propagates action potentials away from the cell body
o Cytoplasm in an axon is axoplasm
o Plasma membrane of an axon is axolemma
o Devoid of chromatophilic substance
o May be insulated with myelin sheath
o Functions in initiation and propagation of action potentials along the
axolemma

o Dendrite
o Short, small, tapering processes that branch off the cell body
o Not insulated with myelin
o Transmits graded potentials along the cell membrane toward the cell body

o Synaptic knob (Synaptic bulbs, End bulbs, Terminal Boutons)

o Axons and axon collaterals branch extensively to terminal extensions called
synaptic knobs (the extreme tips of these extensions)
o Within are synaptic vesicles (Package of membrane enclosing
neurotransmitter molecules in the synaptic knob)
o Ends at a functional junction called a synapse
o Action potentials trigger synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitters from
synaptic knobs

o Axon hillock
o Cone-shaped region of the cell body
o Only portion of cell body that lacks chromatophilic substance

o Synapse
o Functional contact of a neuron with another neuron or effector
o Two types: Chemical synapse & Electrical Synapse
o Most synapses within the nervous system are chemical
 o Synaptic cleft
o The gap between two neurons (~30 nanometers)
o Extremely narrow & fluid-filled

o Myelin
o Insulation
o Formed by glial cells (oligodendrocytes or neurolemmocytes)
o Insulating covering around an axon
o Consists of repeated concentric layers of the plasma membrane of glial cells
o High lipid content gives axons a distinct, glossy-white appearance

o Neurofibril node (Nodes of Ranvier)

o The uninsulated regions of the axon between the myelin sheaths.

 Neurons are classified structurally:

o Multipolar neurons
o Many dendrites and a single axon extending from the cell body.
o Most common type of neuron
o All motor neurons, most interneurons

o Bipolar neurons
o Two processes extend from the cell body, one dendrite, one axon
o Some special sense neurons (retina of eye, olfactory epithelium in nose)

o Unipolar neurons (Pseudounipolar)

o Single, short process neuron process that emerge from the cell body,
branching out like a T.
o Starts out as a bipolar neuron during development but the two processes
fuse into one.
o Composed of combined peripheral and central processes.
o Most sensory neurons

 Neurons are also classified functionally:

o Sensory (afferent) neurons
o Neurons of sensory nervous system
o Responsible for conducting sensory input to the CNS from both somatic
sensory and visceral sensory receptors
o Mosly unipolar neurons (some bipolar i.e., retina and olfactory epithelium)

o Motor (efferent) neurons

o Neurons of motor nervous system
o Conducts motor output away from the CNS to the somatic and autonomic
effectors.
o All multipolar neurons

o Interneurons (Association Neurons)

o Entirely within the CNS
o Receive stimulation from other neurons and carry out the integrative
 function of the nervous system (Receives, processes, and stores
information. Decides the body’s response to stimuli)
o Facilitate communication between sensory and motor neurons.
o 99% of neurons in the body are interneurons
o Either multipolar or anaxonic neurons.

 Neurons have:
o Resting membrane potential (RMP)
o Voltage measured across the plasma membrane of an excitable cell at rest.
o The RMP of a neuron is typically -70 millivolts (mV).
o Can range from -40 mV to -90 mV

o Electrochemical gradient
o Combination of the electrical gradient at the plasma membrane and the K+
chemical concentration gradient

o Ligand-gated ion channels

o Integral membrane proteins that contain a pore which allows the regulated
flow of selected ions across the plasma membrane.

o Mechano-gated ion channels

o Proteins in cell membranes that open when they are subjected to mechanical
stress, such as pressure, vibration, or sound waves

o Voltage-gated ion channels

o Normally closed
o Temporarily opens in response to changes in electrical change (potential)
across the plasma membrane.
o Allows specific types of ions to diffuse across the plasma membrane
o Includes voltage-gated NA+, K+, and Ca2+ channels
o Unlike other channels with only one gate (either open or closed), voltage-
gated Na+ channels are unique with two gates (activation and inactivation
gate)
 Exhibits one of three states: resting (closed), activation (open), or
inactivation (closed)
 Resting: Inactivation gate is open. Activation gate is closed
 Activation: Both gates are open
 Inactivation: Inactivation gate is closed. Activation gate is open.

 Which are used to create:

o Graded potentials
o Small deflection in the resting membrane potential in excitable cells due to
the movement of small amounts of ions across the plasma membrane
o May result in either a depolarization or hyperpolarization.
o Direction of change is dependent on the type of chemically gated channel
that opens

 Depolarizing graded potential

 A change in the membrane potential in the positive direction
  Hyperpolarization graded potential
 A change in the membrane potential in the positive direction

o Action potentials
o Self-propagating change in membrane potential occurring in excitable cells
(e.g., neurons, muscle cells).
o Involves two processes: Depolarization & Repolarization

 Depolarization phase
 Gain of a positive charge within a neuron that changes the plasma
membrane potential from negative to positive.
 Due to movement of Na+ into the cell and opening of voltage-gated
Na+ channels.

 Repolarization phase
 Return of polarity from positive to negative (the RMP)
 Due to movement of K+ out the cell and opening of voltage-gated
K+ channels

 After-hyperpolarization phase
 Change in the membrane potential to a value more negative than the
resting potential.
 Decreases to approximately -80mV

 Absolute Refractory Period

 The time (~1 millisecond) after an action potential onset in which a
second action potential cannot be initiated, no matter the amount or
strength of a stimulus
 Na+ channels must change from activated to inactivated state
(repolarization) before another action potential can be propagated.
 Ensures that action potential moves only along one direction of the
axon toward the synaptic knobs

 Relative Refractory Period

 Comes after the absolute refractory period, during the
hyperpolarization phase
 Another action potential can be initiated only if stimulation of the
plasma membrane is greater than the stimulus normally needed to
generate an action potential

 An action potential leads to the release of:

o Neurotransmitter
Chemical released from a neuron that binds to receptors of another cell to
initiate a cellular change.

o Which can cause:

o Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
o Postsynaptic potentials that result in the neuron becoming more positive
(depolarized)
 o Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
o Postsynaptic potentials that result in the neuron becoming more negative
(hyperpolarized)

 Neuroglia (Glial cells)

- Nervous system cells that support neurons
- Found within CNS and PNS
- Physically protects and helps nourish neurons
- Provides organized, supporting scaffolding for all the nervous tissue.
- Account for roughly half the volume of the nervous system
- Four types in the CNS: Astrocytes, Ependymal cells, Microglia, and
Oligodendrocytes
- Two types in the PNS (Functions in insulating neurons): Satellite cells and
Neurolemmocytes

 Astrocytes
- Starlike shape
- Most abundant glial cells in the CNS
- Helps form the blood-brain barrier (BBB) which controls the movement of
substances from exiting the blood and entering the nervous tissue in the brain.
o Ends of astrocytes are called perivascular feet
- Regulate interstitial fluid composition (e.g., regulate potassium ion concentration
by absorbing ions to maintain a constant concentration)
- Form structural support
- Assist neuronal development
- Alter synaptic activity
- Occupies the space of dying neurons

 Oligodendrocytes
- Large cells with a bulbous (round) body and slender cytoplasmic
extensions/processes.
- Insulates axons within the CNS to form a myelin sheath
- Allows for faster propagation of action potentials along the axon

 Microglia
- Classified as phagocytic cells (macrophages) of the immune system.
- Wanders through the CNS and replicates in response to an infection
- Protects CNS against harmful microorganisms and harmful substances by
engulfing/destroying them through phagocytosis.
- Removes debris from dead or damaged nervous tissue
- Small cells. Represents the smallest percentage of glial cells in the CNS

 Ependymal cells
- Ciliated simple cuboidal or simple columnar epithelial cells
- Lines the internal cavities of the brain and central canal of the spinal cord
- Forms a network with nearby blood capillaries called the choroid plexus.
 o Produces cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that bathes the external surfaces of the
CNS and fills its internal cavities. The cilia help regulate the CSF

 Satellite cells
- Flattened cells arranged around neuronal cell bodies in a ganglion.
- Physically separates cell bodies from their surrounding interstitial fluid
- Electrically insulates the cell body
- Regulates continuous exchange of nutrients and waste products between neuron
cell bodies and their environment

 Neurolemmocytes (Schwann cells)

- Elongated flattened cells wrap around and insulate axons within the PNS, forming a
myelin sheath through myelination
- Myelination = Faster propagation of action potentials along the axon

 Central Nervous System

- Composed of the brain and spinal cord.

 Peripheral Nervous System

- Composed of nerves and ganglia that are outside of the central nervous system.

 Somatic NS (Afferent Nervous System)

- Responsible for receiving sensory information and transmitting it to the CNS.
Information from the receptors is called sensory input.
- Subdivided based on whether we are consciously aware of the stimulus detected:
Sensory & Visceral
o Somatic sensory detect stimuli we consciously perceive (5 senses)
o Visceral sensory detect stimuli we consciously do not perceive (internal
organs)

 Autonomic NS (Motor/Efferent Nervous System)

- Responsible for initiating and transmitting information from CNS to effectors
- Somatic motor: Voluntary
- Autonomic motor: Involuntary

 Enteric NS
- Network of nerves that control the digestive system
- Controls the gut independently of the CNS

2. Be able to draw a neuron and label all the parts

3. Be able to draw a synapse and label all components
4. Be able to draw the graph of membrane potential over time for an action potential,
and label all of the phases.