A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS ON PHONOLOGY OF STANDARD

YORUBA AND AYEDE EKITI DIALECT

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

This work centers on the comparative analysis of the phonetic characteristics of the
standard dialect of Yoruba and Ayede dialect with the view to establishing the
difference in the sounds of the two dialect. By sounds, I mean the tone, consonant,
and vowels of the two dialects.

Ayede is one of the dialects of Yoruba spoken In Oye Local government Area of
Ekiti. It has similar linguistics features with the Yoruba standard dialect. However,
this phonological examination reveals some differences in their phonological
features. Hence, this work examines the phonological differences in the two
dialects i.e the standard dialect of Yoruba and Ayede dialect.

However, a synoptically examined history of the standard Yoruba dialect and

Ayede dialect is expounded below.
THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE YORUBA DIALECT

.The Yoruba language is a major West African language spoken primarily in

southwestern Nigeria, as well as in parts of Benin and Togo. The historical

development of the Yoruba dialect is a complex and fascinating subject

The Yoruba language belongs to the Niger-Congo language family and is part of
the larger Volta-Niger branch. It has a rich oral tradition that predates written

records. The language has evolved over centuries through interactions with

neighboring cultures, trade, migrations, and political changes. Historically, the

Yoruba people have been organized into several powerful

kingdoms and city-states, such as Oyo, Ife, and Ijebu. These political entities
played

a significant role in shaping the Yoruba dialect through their cultural, linguistic,
and administrative influence.In the 19th century, the Yoruba language encountered

European colonial powers, particularly the British, who introduced their own

languages and systems of governance. This period had a considerable impact on

the Yoruba dialect, leading to the adoption of new vocabulary, linguistic changes,
and

the development of pidgin languages.

In more recent times, Yoruba has experienced standardization efforts, particularly

through the establishment of orthographic conventions and the development of

educational materials. There are also various dialectal variations within the Yoruba

language, reflecting regional differences and local influences.

Overall, the historical development of the Yoruba dialect is a testament to the
language’s resilience, adaptability, and cultural significance within the Yoruba

community and beyond.

THE LANGUAGE

The Yoruba culture was originally an oral tradition, and the majority of Yoruba
people are native speakers of the Yoruba language. The number of speakers is
estimated at 30 million in 2010. Yoruba is classified within the Edekiri languages,
and together with the isolate Igala, form the Yoruboid group of languages within
what we now have as West Africa. Igala and Yoruba have important historical and
cultural relationships. The languages of the two ethnic groups bear such a close
resemblance that researchers such as Forde (1951) and Westermann and Bryan
(1952) regarded Igala as a dialect of Yoruba.

The Yoruboid languages are assumed to have developed out of an

undifferentiated Volta-Niger group by the first millennium BCE. There are three
major dialect areas: Northwest, Central, and Southeast. As the North-West Yoruba
dialects show more linguistic innovation, combined with the fact that Southeast
and Central Yoruba areas generally have older settlements, suggests a later date of
immigration into Northwestern Yoruba territory. The area where North-West
Yoruba (NWY) is spoken corresponds to the historical Oyo Empire. South-East
Yoruba (SEY) was closely associated with the expansion of the Benin Empire after
c. 1450. Central Yoruba forms a transitional area in that the lexicon has much in
common with NWY, whereas it shares many ethnographical features with SEY.

Literary Yoruba is the standard variety taught in schools and spoken by

newsreaders on the radio. It is mostly entirely based on northwestern Yoruba
dialects of the Oyos and the Egbas, and has its origins in two sources;
The work of Yoruba Christian missionaries based mostly in the Egba hinterland
at Abeokuta, and the Yoruba grammar compiled in the 1850s by Bishop Crowther,
who himself was a Sierra Leonean Recaptive of Oyo origin. This was exemplified
by the following remark by Adetugbọ (1967), as cited in Fagborun (1994): "While
the orthography agreed upon by the missionaries represented to a very large degree
the phonemes of the Abẹokuta dialect, the morpho-syntax reflected the Ọyọ-Ibadan
dialects.

Language wise, Yoruba is divided into the following:

 Egba, Ibadan, Yewa, and Lagos\Eko are all in North-West Yoruba (NWY)

 Yagba, Owe, Ijumu, Gbede, and Abunu belong to North-East Yoruba (NEY)

 Igbomina, Ijesha, Ife, Ekiti, and western Akoko are located in the central
Yoruba (CY)

 Ketu, Awori, SAkete Ife (TOGO), Idasha and ikpokia\Anogo are South-
Western Yoruba (SWY) terms.

 Ikale, Ilaje, Ondo City, “w” Idanre, remo, and ijbu are all in South-East
Yoruba (SEY).

On the other hand, “Aiyede”, which emerged as results of warriors from different
locations is a town in Oye LGA of Ekiti state, South West Nigeria. The town was
said to have been founded by a warrior, General Izimo from Iye-Ekiti and a
mercenary (hired fighter), Atta Esubiyi (Echubiyi- This darkness or invisible
person) from Ibadan Kingdom, a statement by one of the chiefs interviewed.
History has it that some Igalas migrated to Ibadan many years ago, and many of
such people have 3 tribal marks like Kogi Igalas. Esubiyi (Echubiyi) in Igala
means darkness or invisible, as hired fighters can demonstrate different powers,
thus the name.
Furthermore, Attah Esubiyi was said to have derived the name Atta from his war
friend and colleague, Atta Igala (probably of Attah Royal house) from Bida Nupe.
This Bida Igala warrior who fought along with Attah Esubiyi came with his Igala
followers were part of the Ayede Ekiti community first settlers. But whether Attah
Esubiyi was of Igala origin or not, his fighting colleague whom he adopted his
name as well as his followers are Igalas, and their descendants are still members of
Ayede Ekiti town. The title of the traditional ruler of Ayede Ekiti till date is Attah
of Ayede.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century a series of internecine wars destabilized political
arrangements throughout Yorubaland (Nigeria). Aiyede, on the northeastern border of
Ekitiland, was originally a refugee camp. Its inhabitants were immigrants from Iye-Ekiti
who had fled their town because of an invasion in 1830 by the Nupe. Under the leadership
of Esubiyi, a warrior and military leader, Aiyede gradually grew into an empire.

Futhermore, the Aiyede dialect is a wholly unmapped dialect, and numerous

academics and writers over the years have failed to fully understand its
grammatical peculiarities. However, learning more about this particular dialect
sounds and its many convergences and divergences from the normal dialect
language would be quite interesting. In the meantime, some phonological phrases
are employed to demonstrate the validity of the study. The different analytical
comparison made in the work’s later chapters make the work’s goal pertinent, and
facts are gathered to support the work’s originality and establish its purpose.
1.2 Objective of the study

This research will examine the following:

 The phonological convergences and divergences between the standard

dialect of Yoruba and Ayede dialect.

 To discover the various phonological processes used the production of

dialect.

 To find the various tonal properties of the dialect and see if they are related
to the standard dialect of Yoruba Language.

 To briefly shed light on some other fields of linguistics, and use them to
establish concrete phonological reality of Aiyede dialect.

 To see if the sound of the dialect are phonetically recognized or not and to
examine the orthography of Aiyede dialect in comparison with the standard
dialect of Yoruba.

1.3 Research Questions

1. What are the phonological similarities and differences between Ayede dialect
and standard dialect of Yoruba?

2. Are there phonological processes involved in the production of the sounds of

Aiyede dialect?

3. Is the tone system of Aiyede dialect different from the standard dialect of
Yoruba`s?

4. What are the benefits of a comparative study to a language teacher?

1.4 Significance of the study

This research work primarily clarifies the linguistics properties inhibited by the
dialect.

A detailed phonological information of Ayede dialect in comparison with the

standard dialect of Yoruba is made evident.

Constant reference to the IPA chart is adopted to justify the various analyses given,
and to concretize the work.

Constantly, prior is given to the tone system of standard dialect of Yoruba to carry
out a proper investigation on the dialect.

Certain phonological processes are visited to aid linguistics like morphology,

phonetics, etc to beautify the aim of the researcher.

1.5 Scope and limitation

The scope of this study is however aimed at genuinely ensuring detailed

phonological values of the Aiyede dialect, make it known dialect and explore its
relationship to the standard Yoruba. As the title implies, this study seeks to
distinctively answer questions relating to the phonology of the dialect in question
and make it noteworthy for readers from all works of life. Captured are:
pronunciation differences, tone system of Yoruba and its comparison with the
dialect, IPA sounds usage in the sound analysis of the dialect, brief discussion of
other phonological process in the establishment of concrete analysis and reference
to other linguistics fields, such as phonetics, morphology , etc.,.

Meanwhile, this study is limited to the community of Aiyede Ekiti alone, where the
informant of the various research questions reside. They are indigents of the
community and born and bred in the community, and with marital race. The three
informants, are of the age range 70-80 with high degree of fluency in the dialect.
1.6 Operational definition of terms

Phonology: This is a field of linguistics that studies sound behavior and patterning.

Phonetics: This is another concept of linguistic that is concerned with the primary
properties of speech sounds, including their production, articulation, and physics.

Standard dialect: The major language spoken in a region or a speech community.

Tone: This is the unit of the pitch of a voice in sound production.

Orthography: This refers to the spelling from a language.

Dialect: This is a substandard variety of a language.

Morphology: This is the field of linguistics that the word formation and the rules
that guide them.

Syntax: This is an aspect of linguistics that studies grammar and its rules

Linguistics: This is the study of language in a scientific manner.

 CHAPTER TWO

RESEARCH METHODOLY

2.0 INTRODUCTION

In this section, different methods used to collect data in thus are clarified. They
include the method of data collection, the devices used for data analysis and
arrangement.

2.1 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

The analysis of data in this research is actualized using a qualitative approach.

The nucleus of the success of this research is based on one-on-one interview with
three purposely selected native speakers of Aiyede dialect in Aiyede town of Oye
local government, whose names are

HRM OBA ALHAJI MUMINI ADEBAYO ORISAGBEMI AROJOYE ABOLOKEFA IV

THE ATTAH OF AYEDE-EKITI (the present king of ayede town).

Mr ADEBAYO Olumide ogunlola

Mr awosupin Esan

Mr rafiu salami Sunday

Mr ogunleye Olajide

Mr folorunsho falade

Although, several informant were met,and their names are included but detailed
information were collected from these septuagenarians and octogenarians (70-80).
The Ibadan 400 word list is used in collecting the data out of which a list of 100
selected English words, ranging from Nouns to Verbs were first translated into
Yoruba standard language by researchers and subsequently presented to the
interviewees to get the equivalence in their dialect during the interview. The
interview procedure was recorded in audio format with aid of iPhone device which
was evaluated. However, Generative Theory is used in analyzing and presenting
the data.

2.2 CONCLUSION

This section has attempted the demonstration of the step-by-step approach used in
the collection and analyzing of the data which includes:

1. Translation of the selected English words into standard Yoruba language

2. Attention to the usage and interpretation of words by the interviewees in

their dialect.

3. Electronic storage of the interview procedure.

Interpretation of collected data and phonological analysis with the help of the
library sources, online sources and consultation of linguistic scholars.

CHAPTER THREE

REVIEWS OF LITERATURE

3.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter gives a concise description of phonology with regards to related

scholarly theories in order to validate the researcher’s aim. It also provides for the
exhibition of the consonants and vowels of the standard dialect of Yoruba and
Aiyede dialect. Hence, this study employs the theory of generative phonology as
its theoretical framework.

There have been numerous studies on phonology and Yoruba standard dialect, but
none on the Aiyede dialect. As a result, the grammatical characteristics of the
Aiyede dialect are investigated, examined, and continually contrasted with the
Yoruba standard dialect.

3.1 Concept of phonology

Phonology is the branch of linguistics concerned with the study of speech sounds
with reference to their distribution and patterning. The adjective for the term is
"phonological." A linguist who specializes in phonology is known as a phonologist.
The word is pronounced "fah-NOL-ah-gee." The term derives from the Greek,
"sound" or "voice."

In "Fundamental Concepts in Phonology," Ken Lodge observes that phonology "is

about differences of meaning signaled by sound." As discussed below, the
boundaries between the fields of phonology and phonetics are not always sharply
defined.

Observations on Phonology

One way to understand the subject matter of phonology is to contrast it with other
fields within linguistics. A very brief explanation is that phonology is the study of
sound structures in language, which is different from the study
of sentence structures (syntax), word structures (morphology), or
how languages change over time (historical linguistics). But this is insufficient. An
important feature of the structure of a sentence is how it is pronounced, its sound
structure. The pronunciation of a given word is also a fundamental part of the
structure of a word. And certainly the principles of pronunciation in a language are
subject to change over time. So phonology has a relation to numerous domains of
linguistics."

The Aim of Phonology

The aim of phonology is to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are
organized in languages and to explain the variations that occur. We begin by
analyzing an individual language to determine which sound units are used and
which patterns they form the language's sound system. We then compare the
properties of different sound systems, and work out hypotheses about the rules
underlying the use of sounds in particular groups of languages. Ultimately,
phonologist want to make statements that apply to all languages....

Whereas phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds, phonology studies
the way in which a language's speakers systematically use a selection of these
sounds in order to express meaning.

There is a further way of drawing the distinction. No two speakers have

anatomically identical vocal tracts, and thus no one produces sounds in exactly the
same way as anyone else....Yet when using our language we are able to discount
much of this variation, and focus on only those sounds, or properties of sound, that
are important for the communication of meaning. We think of our fellow speakers
as using the 'same' sounds, even though acoustically they are not. Phonology is the
study of how we find order within the apparent chaos of speech sounds.

When we talk about the 'sound system' of English, we are referring to the number
of phonemes which are used in a language and to how they are organized."

Phoneme Systems

Phonology is not only about phonemes and allophones. Phonology also concerns
itself with the principles governing the phoneme systems, that is, with what sounds
languages 'like' to have, which sets of sounds are most common (and why) and
which are rare (and also why). It turns out that there are prototype-based
explanations for why the phoneme system of the languages of the world have the
sounds that they do, with physiological/acoustic/perceptual explanations for the
preference for some sounds over others.

The Phonetics-Phonology Interface

Phonetics interfaces with phonology in three ways. First, phonetics defines

distinctive features. Second, phonetics explains many phonological patterns. These
two interfaces constitute what has come to be called the 'substantive grounding' of
phonology (Archangeli & Pulleyblank, 1994). Finally, phonetics implements
phonological representations.

The number and depth of these interfaces is so great that one is naturally moved to
ask how autonomous phonetics and phonology are from one another and whether
one can be largely reduced to the other. The answers to these questions in the
current literature could not differ more. At one extreme, Ohala (1990b) argues that
there is in fact no interface between phonetics and phonology because the latter can
largely if not completely be reduced to the former. At the opposite extreme, Hale
& Reiss (2000b) argue for excluding phonetics entirely from phonology because
the latter is about computation, while the former is about something else. Between
these extremes is a large variety of other answers to these questions....

3.1.2 Sound segment

In phonology, a sound segment is the smallest unit of sound that conveys

meaning in a language, usually represented through unique symbols in the
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). In linguistic terms, a sound segment
comprises a single consonant, vowel, semivowel, nasal, or aspirated sound. In the
sections that follows, we shall review and describe the consonant and vowel
sounds in standard Yoruba and Ayede dialect.

3.1.2.1 Consonant

Consonant refers to a sound created by limiting the breath's flow as it leaves the
mouth to create a distinct sound. Consonants are created in various ways, like
stopping the breath’s flow, obstructing the roof of the mouth, or using the tongue
or lips.

3.1.2.2 Vowels

Vowels, by contrast, are sounds created by freely releasing breath through the
mouth. Vowels are formed when the vocal cords in the throat vibrate without any
obstructions in the mouth. They are grouped into different categories based on the
height of the tongue, their frontness or backness, and the position of lips when
pronounced.

3.1.3 Phonology of Yoruba

The phonology of Yoruba has been explored by various scholars such as ifode
(1998), Bamgbose, Oyebade (1992) Ikotun and lots more. However, these previous
work are used to analyze tables of consonants and vowels in the subsequent pages.

3.1.3.1 Yoruba tone system

Yoruba is a tonal language and so it is important to acquire the tones in the

language. Tones occur on the syllable in Yoruba but in the orthography, tones are
marked on vowels and syllabic nasals. There are three basic tones of different pitch
levels in Yoruba: High, Mid and Low. In the writing system, the High and Low are
marked with (´) and (`) respectively, over the vowel. The mid tone is generally
unmarked except where there might be ambiguity or confusion. In this case, it is
marked with an over-bar.

The High tone (H) ´ as in wá ; rí ; dé wárídé

The Mid tone (M) unmarked as in wa ; ri ; de waride

The Low tone (L) ` as in wà ; rì ; dè wàrìdè

3.1.3.2 Yoruba consonants

Standard Yoruba is made up of eighteen consonants. They are listed below:

/b,f,m,t,d,s,l,r,ʤ,ʃ,j,k,g,k͡p,g͡b,w,h/.

Table 1: Yoruba consonant chart

Place of Bilabial Labio- Alveola Palate- Palatal Velar Labio Glottal

articulation dental aveola - vela
Manner of
articulation
Plosive B t d k g kpgb

Fricative f s ʃ h

Affricative ʤ

Nasal M n

Tap r

Lateral l

Approximant j w

Yoruba consonant chart (Adapted from oyebade, 1992:221)

Standard Yoruba Consonant and description

1. Plosives/Stops:
• /p/: voiceless bilabial plosive; “pàdé”[pade]’meet’,pa[kpa]’kill’
• /b/: voiced bilabial plosive; “bata[bata]” shoe ,baba[baba]’
father’
• /t/: voiceless alveolar plosive;
“òkuta[okuta]’stone’,bata[bata]’shoe’
• /gb/:voiced labial velar plosives
Gba[gba]’take’,gbo[gbo]’hear’
• /d/: voiced alveolar plosive; e.g., “dúró” [duro]’stand’ dà [da] 'pour'
• /k/: voiceless velar plosive; e.g., kí [Ki] 'what’,kó[k] ‘learn’
• /g/: voiced velar plosive; e.g., gùn[gū]”climb”,gà [ga]”tall

2. Nasals:
• /m/: bilabial nasal; e.g., ọ̀mọ́ [omo] ‘child’,emu[emū] ‘palmwine’
• /n/: alveolar nasal; e.g., nínú[ninu]inside,nà [nã̀] 'beat'

3. Fricatives:
• /f/: voiceless labiodental fricative; e.g., fún[fun] give,filà[fila]’ cap’
• /s/: voiceless alveolar fricative; e.g., “sáré[sare]’run’,sìsí [sisi] 'young
lady'
• /ʃ/: voiceless palato-alveolar fricative; e.g.,ṣé[ʃe] ‘do’, ṣòkòtò [ʃokoto]
'trouser'
• 'scratch'
; e.g., •/h/: voiceless glottal fricative; e.g.,èhin[ehī]’back’,ha [hā]
 4. ApproximantS

/j/: palatal approximant; e.g., “jẹ́” [dʒi]’steal’,jà [d͡ʒà] 'fight' /w/: labio-
velar approximant; e.g., wá[wa]’come’,wá [wa]
/l/: alveolar lateral approximant lá [la] ‘spread’,le[le]hard /y/:voiced
palatal approximant
“yí”[ji] ‘this’,
5. Trill
• /r/: alveolar trill; e.g.,rà [ra] 'buy',ri[ri]’see’

3.1.3.3 Yoruba vowels

VOWELS (FÁWẸ ̀LÌ) 7 In Yorùbá alphabets, there are two types of vowels or
fáwẹ̀ lì:

I. Plain / normal vowels: a, e, ẹ, i, o, ọ, u

II. Nasal vowels: an, ẹn, in, ọn, un (nothing like en, on)

Vowels Sounds in Ayede and their description

/a /-open central unrounded vowel,

Awon [awon]’those’ àgè [age] 'kettle'

/e/ - mid-front unrounded vowel

eeru[eru],ewé [ewe] 'leaf’

/ɛ/ - open-mid front unrounded vowel

“Osé[ɔse]’leg’,ẹp̀ à [ɛkpa] 'groundnut'

/i/ - close front unrounded vowel

“Ninú”[ninu]’inside’,Èyé [eye] 'mother' /

o/ - close-mid back rounded vowel

“ọr̀ ọ̀” [oro]word,oko [oko] 'farm'

/ɔ/ - open-mid back rounded vowel

“ọt̀ ún”[ɔtun]’right’,obe [ɔbe] 'knife'

/u/ - close back rounded vowel

kúrò [kuro] 'leave',ile[ile]’town’

Nasal Vowels

in /ĩ/close front unrounded nasal vowel

èyìn /ɛ̀jĩ̀n/ ‘back’, ìgbín ‘snail’, rìn ‘/rĩ̀n/‘to walk’

ẹn /ɛ/̃ half open front unrounded nasal vowel

ìyẹn ‘/ĩ̀jɛ̃̀n/‘that one’, hẹń /hɛ̃̀n/‘yes’

an /ã/open central unrounded nasal vowel

ìtàn /ĩ̀tã̀n/‘story’, ràn /ɾã̀n/‘to send’, alákàn ‘crab’

ọn /ɔ̃/half open back rounded nasal vowel

ọ̀ọ̀nì /alakã̄n/‘crocodile’,ìbọn‘gun

un /ũ/ close back rounded nasal vowel

 ràkúnmi ‘/ɾã̄kũ̄mĩ̀/camel’, ẹkùn /ɛkṹn/‘tige

Table 2: position of occurrence of the consonant of yoruba

Consonant Word initialy Word medially Word finally

[b] + + -
[t] + + -
[d] + + -
[k] + + -
[g] + + -
[kp] + + -
[gb] + + -
[m] + + -
[n] + + -
[f] + + -
[s] + + -
[ʃ] + + -
[h] + + -
[ʤ] + + -
[r] + + -
[l] + + -
[j] + + -
[w] + + -

Table 3: The Yoruba oral vowel chart

 High i u

Mid-high e
Mid-low e u

low

High ĩ ũ

Mid-high

Mid-Low ɛ ɔ̃

Low ã

Table 5: The distribution table for the position of occurrence of Yoruba vowels.

VOWELS WORD INTIALLY WORD MEDIALLY WORD FINALLY

[i] + + -
[e] + + -
[ɛ] + + -
[u] + + -
[o] + + -
[ɔ] + + -
[a] + + -
[ĩ] + + -
[ɔ̃] + + -
[ã] + + -
[ũ] + + -
[ɛ] + + -

3.1.4 Phonology of Aiyede Dialect

Since the phonology of Aiyede dialect is a non-explored one. Certain analyses of

its tones, consonant and vowels are made evident bellow through the researcher.

3.1.4.1 Aiyede tone system

Tone is very important in tonal languages. As observed by Goldsmith (1976,

p.g5)”Ever since there have been segments in phonology ,there have been
phenomena that evaded segmental classification and so there have been
suprasegmentals.”One significant phenomenon in Ayede dialect is that when a
noun with high tone final syllable combines with a first person or second person
possessive pronoun ,the high tone on the noun becomes a low tone .
This is not applicable to standard Yoruba as the tone do not change when
pronominal is affixed with a noun
shown in the data below:

I. /etí + mi/= [etì mi]‘My ear’

ii. iyã+mi- > [ijà mi] 'my pounded yam'
iii. /ulé + mi/ - » [ulè mi] ‘myhouse ‘
iv. /eyí + mi/ -» (ejì mi]‘My teeth’
v. /adzá+ mi/ -» [adzà mi]‘my dog’
 vi. /usé + re/ - » [usé re]’your work’

3.1.4.2 Consonant of Aiyede dialect

/b,f,m,t,d,s,l,r,ʤ,ʃ,j,k,g,k͡p,g͡b,w,h/.

Place of Bilabial Labio- Alveola Palate- Palatal Velar Labio- Glottal

articulation dental aveola velar
Manner of
articulation
Plosive b t d k g kp gb
Fricative f s ʃ H
Affricative ʤ
Nasal m n
Tap r
Lateral l
Approximant J w

Table 6 the phonetic chart of Aiyede consonant sounds

Researcher

Sound distribution of the consonants of ilupeju

Ayede Consonants and description

1. Plosives/Stops:
• /p/: voiceless bilabial plosive; “pàdé”[pade]’meet’,pa[kpa]’kill’
• /b/: voiced bilabial plosive; “ bata[bata] ” shoe ópem[opem ] ’
father’
• /t/: voiceless alveolar plosive;
“òkuta[okuta]’stone’,bata[bata]’shoe’
• /gb/:voiced labial velar plosives
Gba[gba]’take’,gbo[gbo]’hear’
• /d/: voiced alveolar plosive; e.g., “naro” [naro]’stand’
dà [da] 'pour'
• /k/: voiceless velar plosive; e.g., kí [Ki] 'what’,kó[k] ‘learn’
• /g/: voiced velar plosive; e.g., gùn[gū]”climb”,gà [ga]”tall”
2. Nasals:
• /m/: bilabial nasal; e.g., ọ̀m ọ́ [omo] ‘child ’, Emu[emu]
‘palmwine’
• /n/: alveolar nasal; e.g., nínú[ninu]inside,nà [nã̀] 'beat'
3. Fricatives:
• /f/: voiceless labiodental fricative; e.g., muko[muko] give,filà[fila]’
cap’
• /s/: voiceless alveolar fricative; e.g., “ sáré[sare] ’ run ’ ,sìsí [sisi]
'young lady'
• /ʃ/: voiceless palato-alveolar fricative;
e.g.,ṣé[ʃe] ‘do’, ṣòkòtò [ʃokoto] 'trouser'
• /h/: voiceless glottal fricative; e.g.,ay ī n[ayin] ’ back ’ ,ha [h ā ]
'scratch'
4. Approximants:
• /j/: palatal approximant; e.g., “jẹ́” [dʒi]’steal’,jà [d͡ʒà] 'fight'
• /w/: labio-velar approximant; e.g., wá[wa]’come’,wá [wa] 'search’
• /l/: alveolar lateral approximant
; e.g., lá [la] ‘spread’,le[le]hard
• /y/:voiced palatal approximant
“yí”[ji] ‘this’,
5. Trill:
• /r/: alveolar trill; e.g.,rà [ra] 'buy',ri[ri]’see’

Table 7: showing the occurrence of the consonants of Aiyede

Consonant Word initialy Word medially Word finally

[b] + + -
[t] + + -
[d] + + -
[k] + + -
[g] + + -
[kp] + + -
[gb] + + -
[m] + + -
[n] + + -
[f] + + -
[s] + + -
[ʃ] + + -
[h] + + -
[ʤ] + + -
[r] + + -
[l] + + -
[j] + + -
[w] + + -

3.1.4.3 Vowels of Aiyede dialect

3.1.4.3.1 The oral vowelsof Aiyede
Aiyede dialect is made up of 11 vowels, of which seven are oral vowels /a, i, e, ɛ, o,
ɔ , u/ and four are nasal / ĩ, ã, ɔ̃, ũ /

Vowels Sounds in Ayede and their description

/a /-open central unrounded vowel,
Awon [awon]’those’ àgè [age] 'kettle'
/e/ - mid-front unrounded vowel
eeru[eru],ewé [ewe] 'leaf’
/ɛ/ - open-mid front unrounded vowel
“Osé[ɔse]’leg’,ẹ̀pà [ɛkpa] 'groundnut'
/i/ - close front unrounded vowel
“Ninú”[ninu]’inside’,Èyé [eye] 'mother'
/o/ - close-mid back rounded vowel
“ọ̀rọ̀” [oro]word,oko [oko] 'farm'
/ɔ/ - open-mid back rounded vowel
“ọ̀tún”[ɔtun]’right’,obe [ɔbe] 'knife'
/u/ - close back rounded vowel
kúrò [kuro] 'leave',ile[ile]’town’

3.1.4.3.2 Nasal Vowels of Aiyede

in /ĩ/close front unrounded nasal vowel
èyìn /ɛ̀jĩ̀n/ ‘back’, ìgbín ‘snail’, rìn ‘/rĩ̀n/‘to walk’ ĩ ã ɔ̃ ũ
ẹn /ɛ/̃half open front unrounded nasal vowel
ìyẹn ‘/ĩ̀jɛ̃̀n/‘that one’, hẹ́n /hɛ̃̀n/‘yes’
an /ã/open central unrounded nasal vowel
ìtàn /ĩ̀tã̀n/‘story’, ràn /ɾã̀n/‘to send’, alákàn ‘crab’
ọn /ɔ̃/half open back rounded nasal vowel
ọ̀ọ̀nì /alakã̄n/‘crocodile’, ìbọn ‘gun
un /ũ/ close back rounded nasal vowel
ràkúnmi ‘/ɾã̄kũ̄mĩ̀/camel’, ẹkùn /ɛkṹn/
‘tiger’

Table 8: The phonetic chart of the oral vowels of Aiyede dialect

Front Centre Back

High i u

Mid-high e o

Mid-low ɛ ɔ̃

low a

Table 8: The phonetic chart of the oral vowels of Aiyede dialect

Front Centre Back

 High ĩ ũ

Mid-high

Mid-Low ɛ ɔ̃

Low ã

Table 10: The distribution table for the occurrence of Aiyede vowels.

VOWELS WORD INTIALLY WORD MEDIALLY WORD FINALLY

[i] + + -
[e] + + -
[ɛ] + + -
[u] + + -
[o] + + -
[ɔ] + + -
[a] + + -
[ĩ] + + -
[ɔ̃] + + -
[ã] + + -
[ũ] + + -

3.2 Theoretical framework

The theoretical approach of this study is generative phonology theory. It allows the
comparison and contrasting of certain phonological inputs and showcase their
underlying and surface phonological forms in the standard dialect of Yoruba and
Aiyede dialect.

3.2.1 Noam Chomsky`s Generative Phonology (GP)

Among the various schools of phonology, generative phonology is well-known

because it has become a standard theory against which most other work in
phonology has been measured and evaluated. It is a branch of phonology that came
to prominence with Chomsky and Halle's (1968) "Sound Pattern of English"
wherein their aim is to eliminate and factor out redundancy from phonological
analyses by using phonological rules. Most phonologists agree that they should
share the flavor, the spirit, and the mood of generative phonology. As such, the
present study aims to limelight this phonological theory through presenting a
theoretical framework about this branch of phonology focusing on its emergence,
its components, and its distinctive tenets, the phonological theories that stemmed
from it as well as some post-generative theories and frameworks.

3.2.2 GP and the Sound Pattern of English (SPE)

GP and the Sound Pattern of English (SPE) Ogunsiji and Sunday (2011" 163) argue
that the SPE is the major contribution of Chomsky and Halle to phonology; it is an
attempt to build a description of English phonology on a transformational
generative theory of language. In it, Chomsky and Halle attempt to state explicitly
the phonological rules underlying the speech sounds of native English speakers.
Thus, it is regarded as the defining text of GP which has established its standard
framework that reads as follows: "There are abstract rules determining the actual
acoustic output of speech; the rules apply sequentially to produce a series of
derivations resulting in an abstract representation of the phonetic representation;
phonetics consists of a series of segments that could be exhaustively defined in
terms of sets of binary features; the rules are strictly ordered" (Chomsky and Halle,
1968: 78) (cited in Ogunsiji and Sunday, 2011: 163). Accordingly, phonological
representations are considered as "sequences of segments made up of distinctive
features. Goldsmith and Laks (2012: 1-2) state that the use of rules and features as
the elements of phonological description in GP means that the concept of phoneme
is under threat. They (ibid.) contend that for generative phonologists, the phoneme
is a hindrance to description; yet, this does not mean that Chomsky and Halle
totally ignore the concept of phoneme; rather, they regard each phoneme as a
bundle of distinctive features and incorporate Jacobson's (1942) distinctive features
into their theory which regard the use of distinctive features as the centre of
phonological descriptions. Thus, the hallmark of GP is feature analysis. Hence,
each phoneme, according to this phonological model, is seen as being made up of a
bundle of features rather than an irreducible contrastive unit of sound (ibid.). For
example, back rounded vowels include the following distinctive features: -
Consonantal +back +round +syllabic

3.2.3 COMPONENT OF GP

The following are the essential components of GP: 1.3.1. Phonological Rules
Goldsmith (1993: 66) defines phonological rules as "mapping between two
different levels of sound representation: (1) the abstract underlying level and (2)
the surface level" to portray how speakers go from the abstract representations
stored in their mind to the actual sounds they articulate when they speak. One of
the key concepts in Generative Phonology is the notion of phonological rules,
which specify how abstract units of sound (phonemes) are transformed into surface
sounds (allophones) in different contexts. For example, different phonological rules
apply in English to produce the distinct pronunciations of the past tense morpheme
'-ed' in words such as "baked", "hoped", and "hissed". Similarly, different
phonological rules apply in Yoruba to differentiate between the different tones of
words.

Types of Phonological Rules

Phonological rules are divided into:

a. Assimilation rules: These are rules via which a sound may alter one of its
features to become more similar to a neighbouring sound (Web resource 1). This
type of rule occurs in the English plural rule where the plural suffix becomes
voiced or voiceless depending on whether the preceding consonant is voiced or
voiceless (ibid.).

b. Deletion rules: These are rules through which a sound such as an unstressed
syllable or a weak consonant may not be pronounced, e.g., most American English
speakers do not pronounce [d] in (hand back) (ibid.).

c. Insertion: These are rules by means of which an additional sound is inserted

between two other sounds to ease their pronunciation (ibid.). For example, when
the English plural morpheme (s) is added to (bus), (bus-s) would be difficult to
pronounce, so a short vowel /ə/ is inserted between the two (s) to make the
pronunciation of the words easy (ibid.).

SUMMARY

This chapter was able to define the concept of phonology, establish the various
sounds patterning of the standard dialect of Yoruba and Aiyede dialect with
regards to various phonetic charts of the vowels and consonants of the two dialects.
The linguistics items adopted from Ibadan 400 word list are adequately described
phonetically as to solidify the aim of the study. It ended with the theoretical
framework of Noam Chomsky`s Generative Theory in order to generate the
outputs of word from their inputs and compare and contrast the sounds pattern of
Yoruba with that of Aiyede dialect.

CHAPTER FOUR

This chapter provides the equivalence of the words in the standard yoruba in the
dialect of Aiyede. The gives adequate tonal difference and similarities between the
two dialects.

These comparisons range from the close class lexical categories open class forms.

A list of 100 words have been randomly selected from 400 ibadan items,enriched
with adequate word classes and subsequently translated to Yoruba and Aiyede
dialects respectively. Nonetheless, the aim of the data is to present the relativeness
of Aiyede dialect with standard Yoruba and also discover various sound changes
that occur in their lexicons.

Since phonology is meant to study sound pattern and behavior of sounds,we

therefore present the arrangemet of items of the Ibadan word list having translated
them into standard Yoruba and Aiyede dialect thus;

4.1 Data presentation

Table1 Proper nouns

English Yoruba Aiyede dialect

1. Friend ọ̀rẹ́. Olùkù
2. Wife Ìyàwó. Obitã
3. Mother Iyá. Èyé
4. Guest àlejò. àlejò
5. Child. Ọmọ. Ọmọ
6. Father. babá opem/àbá
7. Man. okùnrin. Okunrin
8. Woman. obinrin. obinrin
9. Chief. Oloye. Oloye
10. Person. Èniyan. enẹ

PARTS OF THE BODY

ENGLISH. YORUBA. AYEDE DIALECT

11. Head. ori. Ori
12. Leg. ese Ọsẹ̀
13. Ear. éti. eti
14. Nose. Imú imu
15. Teeth. eyin eyin
16. Back. Eyin. àyī
17. Navel ìdodo. udodo
18. Buttocks. Ìdí. ùdí
19. Thigh. Itan. Itã
20. Mouth. ẹnu. erun
21. Neck. ọrun. ọrun
22. Heart. ọkàn okan

EDIBLES SOLID AND LIQUIDS

ENGLISH. YORUBA. AYEDE DIALECT

23. Water omi. Omi
24. Wine ọtí/ẹmu. ẹmu
25. Soup. ọbẹ̀ ọbẹ̀
26. Fish. eja. Eja
27. Beans ẹ̀wà. Aka
28. Yam Isu usu
28. Plantain. ọ̀gẹ̀dẹ̀ ọ̀gẹ̀dẹ̀
29. Kola nut. obi obi
30. Egg. ẹyin. ẹyin

CONCRETE NOUNS

ENGLISH YORUBA AYEDE DILECT

30.Knife. Ọ̀be obe
31.Axe. ákè. akè
32.Iron. Irin. ūrī
33.Basket. apẹ̀rè. atá
34.Mat. ẹní. ẹnin
35. House. Ilé. ule
36. Mortal. odó. udo
37. Calabash. Igbá. ugba

ABSTRACT NOUNS AND ANIMALS

ENGLISH. YORUBA. AYEDE DIALECT

38. Horse ẹṣin ẹṣin
39. Mosquito. ẹfan. Ifẹnfẹn
40. Cat olongbo ologbo
41. Rat. eku. eku
42. Vulture. igún. ugúnugún
43. Duck. pépyẹ. kpekpyẹ
44. Sheep agitans. àgùtàn
45. Bird. ẹyẹ. ẹyẹ

VERBS

ENGLISH YORUBA. AYEDE DIALECT

46. Shoot yìn. ta
47. Come. wá. wà
48. Cry. sunkun. ekun
49. Close. Tií de
50. Kill pa. pa
51. Go. lo. lo
52. Jump. fò. fo/to
53. Vomit. bi. bi
54. Dream. là. là
55. Work. sisé. sisé
57.Walk. irin. ūrī
58.Sleep. sùn. sùn
59. Curse. sekpé sekpé

PHRASAL VERB

ENGLISH. YORUBA. AYEDE DIALECT

60 Look for. Wánkàn. wánkã.
61 Take it. gbàa gbàa
62. Stand up. dide. Naro
63 Dwell in Tedo si. Tedo si
TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERB

ENGLISH. YORUBA. AYEDE DIALECT

64 Take gbà. gbà,
65 Give. fún. Muko
66. Burn. jó. jó
67 See. ri. ri
68 Eat jẹ̀un. jẹ̀un
69Talk. sọ́ro wi
70. Finish pari par
71. Turn. Yipo yipo
ADJECTIVES

ENGLISH. YORUBA. AYEDE DIALECT

72. Long. gúngún gígùn
73.White funfun fífún
74. Cold tutù titù
75. Black. dudù. Didù
76. Heavy. wuwo. wíwo
77. Wet. re. re
78. Short. kúrú. kúrú

ADJECTIVES OF NUMBER

79. Twenty. ogún. ogún

80. Three ẹ́ta. eta
81. Six Ẹ́fà. efa
82. One. oókan. ookàn

PLACE NOUNS

ENGLISH. YORUBA. AYEDE DIALE

83. Town. ilú. Ile
84. Room. Iyàrá. Òde
85. River. odò. omin
86. Compound. agbo ilé òde

DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE

ENGLISH. YORUBA AYEDE DIAL

87. Those àwọn awọn

ADVERBS

ENGLISH. YORUBA. AYEDE

88. Tomorrow. Ola ola
89. There. Níbè. Níbè

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

ENGLISH YORUBA. AYEDE DIALECT

90. What kini. kàhin
91 Where. nibo nibo
93. When. Nígbàwo. Lúgbàwo

PREPOSITIONS
ENGLISH. YORUBA. AYEDE DIALECT
94. From. láti. lati
95 in. Ní. Ninu
96. Away. Lọ. Lọ

VERBS

ENGLISH. YORUBA. AYEDE

97. Learn. Kó. ko
98. Sit. joko joko lori
99. Stand. dúró naro
100. Dance jọ. jo

4.2 Data Analysis

4.2.1 Phonological & phonemic Analysis, using Generative phonology

There are certain phonological processes in the standard dialect of Yoruba and the
Aiyede dialect. These processes are the basic phonological rules that guide the
sound of a particular language. The standard Yoruba dialect has various
phonological processes.

Smith (1995) defines phonological rules as mapping two different levels of sound
representation in this case, the abstract or underlying level and the surface level.
Let`s make this evident by carefully discussing them, with the items randomly
from Ibadan list of 400 items.
Deletion

f deletion occurs in the word "oko" [ɔkɔ] meaning

"farm," where the final vowel sound [ɔ] is often deleted in casual speech, resulting
in [ɔk].

Example; Standard Yoruba. Ayede dialect

Olongbo ologbo
Deletion through assimilation (Progressive)
/dé+ilé/=/dé+ølé/=[délé]`
Deletion through assimilation (Regressive)
/rí + ugbá/=/rø+ugbá/=[rúgbá]

Epenthesis
Epenthesis involves the insertion of an extra sound, typically a vowel, into a word.
In Yoruba, an example would be in the word

Standard Yoruba. Ayede dialect Gloss

gúngun. gígùn long
Funfun. Fifún. White
Ẹ̀fan. Ifẹnfẹn Mosquito

High Vowel Switching

In Yoruba, high vowel switching occurs when the high vowel sound [i] changes to
[u] in certain contexts. For example, the word "bihin" [bihiŋ] meaning "ear"
undergoes high vowel switching when pluralized, resulting in "buhun" [buhuŋ]
(ears).
Standard Yoruba. Ayede dialect
Ilú. Ilé
Tutu titù
Wuwo. Wiwo
Irin. Urin

Phonemic Analysis
This involves identifying and distinguishing between phonemes (distinct speech
sounds) in a language. For example, Yoruba has distinct phonemes like [b], [d],
and [k]. Phonemic analysis helps identify minimal pairs where the change of a
single phoneme can result in a different word with a different meaning.
Standard Yoruba. Ayede dialect
Pa (kill) ta(shoot)
Rí (ṣee). wí(speak)
Odó (river). Òde (room)

Free variation
In language, free variation refers to cases where multiple pronunciations or sound
variations can be used interchangeably without affecting the meaning. An example
in Yoruba is the pronunciation of the word "agbo" [agbo] meaning "medicine" with
or without the nasalized vowel sound [ŋ], resulting in [agbo] or [aŋbo ]
Standard yoruba Ayede dialect. Gloss
Ìdodo. Udodo. Navel
Ẹsẹ. Osè. Leg
Iṣu. Usu. Yam
Igbá. Ugbá Time
Allophones
allophones are different phonetic realizations of the same phoneme. For instance,
the Yoruba phoneme /b/ can be realized as a voiced bilabial stop [b] or as an
unreleased sound [m̥] when it occurs between two nasal sounds, as in the word
"inba" [ĩːba] meaning "spear."

Allophones ni Ayede Dialect

Ugbá(kolanut)
Ugbá( Calabash)
Ugba(time)
Ègbé(side)
Ẹ́gbẹ̀(name of town)