Questions & Problems 315

Key Words
Actinide series, p. 311 Electron Heisenberg uncertainty Pauli exclusion
Amplitude, p. 275 configuration, p. 302 principle, p. 292 principle, p. 303
Atomic orbital, p. 294 Electron density, p. 294 Hund’s rule, p. 305 Photoelectric effect, p. 279
Aufbau principle, p. 308 Emission spectra, p. 282 Lanthanide (rare earth) Photon, p. 279
Boundary surface Excited level (or series, p. 310 Quantum, p. 278
diagram, p. 298 state), p. 284 Line spectra, p. 282 Quantum numbers, p. 295
Diamagnetic, p. 304 Frequency (n), p. 275 Many-electron atom, p. 295 Rare earth series, p. 310
Electromagnetic Ground level (or Noble gas core, p. 308 Transition metals, p. 310
radiation, p. 277 state), p. 284 Node, p. 287 Wave, p. 275
Electromagnetic wave, p. 276 Ground state, p. 284 Paramagnetic, p. 304 Wavelength (λ), p. 275

Questions & Problems

• Problems available in Connect Plus 7.10 How many minutes would it take a radio wave to
Red numbered problems solved in Student Solutions Manual travel from the planet Venus to Earth? (Average dis-
tance from Venus to Earth is 28 million miles.)
Quantum Theory and • 7.11 The SI unit of time is the second, which is de-
Electromagnetic Radiation fined as 9,192,631,770 cycles of radiation associ-
Review Questions ated with a certain emission process in the cesium
atom. Calculate the wavelength of this radiation
7.1 What is a wave? Explain the following terms associ- (to three significant figures). In which region of
ated with waves: wavelength, frequency, amplitude. the electromagnetic spectrum is this wavelength
7.2 What are the units for wavelength and frequency of found?
electromagnetic waves? What is the speed of light in 7.12 The SI unit of length is the meter, which is defined
meters per second and miles per hour? as the length equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of
7.3 List the types of electromagnetic radiation, starting with the light emitted by a particular energy transition in
the radiation having the longest wavelength and ending krypton atoms. Calculate the frequency of the light
with the radiation having the shortest wavelength. to three significant figures.
7.4 Give the high and low wavelength values that define
the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The Photoelectric Effect
7.5 Briefly explain Planck’s quantum theory and explain Review Questions
what a quantum is. What are the units for Planck’s
7.13 What are photons? What role did Einstein’s expla-
constant?
nation of the photoelectric effect play in the devel-
7.6 Give two everyday examples that illustrate the con- opment of the particle-wave interpretation of the
cept of quantization. nature of electromagnetic radiation?
7.14 Consider the plots shown here for the photoelectric
Problems
effect of two different metals A (green line) and
• 7.7 (a) What is the wavelength (in nanometers) of light hav- B (red line). (a) Which metal has a greater work
ing a frequency of 8.6 3 1013 Hz? (b) What is the fre- function? (b) What does the slope of the lines tell us?
quency (in Hz) of light having a wavelength of 566 nm?
• 7.8 (a) What is the frequency of light having a wave-
length of 456 nm? (b) What is the wavelength
(in nanometers) of radiation having a frequency of
Kinetic energy

2.45 3 109 Hz? (This is the type of radiation used in

microwave ovens.)
• 7.9 The average distance between Mars and Earth is
about 1.3 3 108 miles. How long would it take TV
pictures transmitted from the Viking space vehicle on
Mars’ surface to reach Earth? (1 mile 5 1.61 km.) ␯
 316 Chapter 7 ■ Quantum Theory and the Electronic Structure of Atoms

Problems 7.26 Some copper compounds emit green light when they
are heated in a flame. How would you determine
• 7.15 A photon has a wavelength of 624 nm. Calculate the whether the light is of one wavelength or a mixture
energy of the photon in joules. of two or more wavelengths?
• 7.16 The blue color of the sky results from the scattering of 7.27 Is it possible for a fluorescent material to emit radia-
sunlight by air molecules. The blue light has a fre- tion in the ultraviolet region after absorbing visible
quency of about 7.5 3 1014 Hz. (a) Calculate the light? Explain your answer.
wavelength, in nm, associated with this radiation, and
(b) calculate the energy, in joules, of a single photon 7.28 Explain how astronomers are able to tell which ele-
associated with this frequency. ments are present in distant stars by analyzing the
electromagnetic radiation emitted by the stars.
• 7.17 A photon has a frequency of 6.0 3 104 Hz. (a) Con-
• 7.29 Consider the following energy levels of a hypotheti-
vert this frequency into wavelength (nm). Does this
frequency fall in the visible region? (b) Calculate the cal atom:
energy (in joules) of this photon. (c) Calculate the E4 __________ 21.0 3 10219 J
energy (in joules) of 1 mole of photons all with this E3 __________ 25.0 3 10219 J
frequency. E2 __________ 210 3 10219 J
7.18 What is the wavelength, in nm, of radiation that has E1 __________ 215 3 10219 J
an energy content of 1.0 3 103 kJ/mol? In which (a) What is the wavelength of the photon needed to
region of the electromagnetic spectrum is this radia- excite an electron from E1 to E4? (b) What is the en-
tion found? ergy (in joules) a photon must have in order to excite
• 7.19 When copper is bombarded with high-energy elec- an electron from E2 to E3? (c) When an electron
trons, X rays are emitted. Calculate the energy (in drops from the E3 level to the E1 level, the atom is
joules) associated with the photons if the wavelength said to undergo emission. Calculate the wavelength
of the X rays is 0.154 nm. of the photon emitted in this process.
• 7.20 A particular form of electromagnetic radiation has a 7.30 The first line of the Balmer series occurs at a wave-
frequency of 8.11 3 1014 Hz. (a) What is its wave- length of 656.3 nm. What is the energy difference
length in nanometers? In meters? (b) To what region between the two energy levels involved in the emis-
of the electromagnetic spectrum would you assign sion that results in this spectral line?
it? (c) What is the energy (in joules) of one quantum • 7.31 Calculate the wavelength (in nanometers) of a photon
of this radiation? emitted by a hydrogen atom when its electron drops
• 7.21 The work function of potassium is 3.68 3 10219 J. from the n 5 5 state to the n 5 3 state.
(a) What is the minimum frequency of light needed to • 7.32 Calculate the frequency (Hz) and wavelength (nm)
eject electrons from the metal? (b) Calculate the ki- of the emitted photon when an electron drops from
netic energy of the ejected electrons when light of fre- the n 5 4 to the n 5 2 level in a hydrogen atom.
quency equal to 8.62 3 1014 s21 is used for irradiation.
• 7.33 Careful spectral analysis shows that the familiar
• 7.22 When light of frequency equal to 2.11 3 1015 s21 yellow light of sodium lamps (such as street
shines on the surface of gold metal, the kinetic energy lamps) is made up of photons of two wavelengths,
of ejected electrons is found to be 5.83 3 10219 J. 589.0 nm and 589.6 nm. What is the difference in
What is the work function of gold? energy (in joules) between photons with these
wavelengths?
Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom • 7.34 An electron in the hydrogen atom makes a transition
Review Questions from an energy state of principal quantum numbers
ni to the n 5 2 state. If the photon emitted has a
7.23 (a) What is an energy level? Explain the difference wavelength of 434 nm, what is the value of ni?
between ground state and excited state. (b) What are
emission spectra? How do line spectra differ from
continuous spectra? Particle-Wave Duality
7.24 (a) Briefly describe Bohr’s theory of the hydrogen Review Questions
atom and how it explains the appearance of an emis-
7.35 Explain the statement, Matter and radiation have a
sion spectrum. How does Bohr’s theory differ from
“dual nature.”
concepts of classical physics? (b) Explain the mean-
ing of the negative sign in Equation (7.5). 7.36 How does de Broglie’s hypothesis account for the
fact that the energies of the electron in a hydrogen
atom are quantized?
Problems
7.37 Why is Equation (7.8) meaningful only for submi-
7.25 Explain why elements produce their own character- croscopic particles, such as electrons and atoms, and
istic colors when they emit photons? not for macroscopic objects?
 Questions & Problems 317

7.38 (a) If a H atom and a He atom are traveling at the 7.53 Which quantum number defines a shell? Which quan-
same speed, what will be the relative wavelengths of tum numbers define a subshell?
the two atoms? (b) If a H atom and a He atom have • 7.54 Which of the four quantum numbers (n, /, m/, ms)
the same kinetic energy, what will be the relative determine (a) the energy of an electron in a hydrogen
wavelengths of the two atoms? atom and in a many-electron atom, (b) the size of an
orbital, (c) the shape of an orbital, (d) the orientation
Problems of an orbital in space?

• 7.39 Thermal neutrons are neutrons that move at speeds

comparable to those of air molecules at room tem- Problems
perature. These neutrons are most effective in initi-
ating a nuclear chain reaction among 235U isotopes. • 7.55 An electron in a certain atom is in the n 5 2 quan-
Calculate the wavelength (in nm) associated with a tum level. List the possible values of / and m/ that it
beam of neutrons moving at 7.00 3 102 m/s. (Mass can have.
of a neutron 5 1.675 3 10227 kg.) • 7.56 An electron in an atom is in the n 5 3 quantum
• 7.40 Protons can be accelerated to speeds near that of light level. List the possible values of / and m/ that it
in particle accelerators. Estimate the wavelength can have.
(in nm) of such a proton moving at 2.90 3 108 m/s. • 7.57 Give the values of the quantum numbers associated
(Mass of a proton 5 1.673 3 10227 kg.) with the following orbitals: (a) 2p, (b) 3s, (c) 5d.
• 7.41 What is the de Broglie wavelength, in cm, of a 12.4-g • 7.58 Give the values of the four quantum numbers of
hummingbird flying at 1.20 3 102 mph? (1 mile 5 an electron in the following orbitals: (a) 3s, (b) 4p,
1.61 km.) (c) 3d.
• 7.42 What is the de Broglie wavelength (in nm) associ- 7.59 Discuss the similarities and differences between a 1s
ated with a 2.5-g Ping-Pong ball traveling and a 2s orbital.
35 mph? 7.60 What is the difference between a 2px and a 2py
orbital?
Quantum Mechanics • 7.61 List all the possible subshells and orbitals associated
with the principal quantum number n, if n 5 5.
Review Questions
• 7.62 List all the possible subshells and orbitals associated
7.43 What are the inadequacies of Bohr’s theory? with the principal quantum number n, if n 5 6.
7.44 What is the Heisenberg uncertainty principle? What • 7.63 Calculate the total number of electrons that can oc-
is the Schrödinger equation? cupy (a) one s orbital, (b) three p orbitals, (c) five d
7.45 What is the physical significance of the wave orbitals, (d) seven f orbitals.
function? 7.64 What is the total number of electrons that can be
7.46 How is the concept of electron density used to held in all orbitals having the same principal quan-
describe the position of an electron in the quantum tum number n?
mechanical treatment of an atom? • 7.65 Determine the maximum number of electrons that
can be found in each of the following subshells: 3s,
3d, 4p, 4f, 5f.
Atomic Orbitals
Review Questions • 7.66 Indicate the total number of (a) p electrons in
N (Z 5 7); (b) s electrons in Si (Z 5 14); and (c) 3d
7.47 What is an atomic orbital? How does an atomic electrons in S (Z 5 16).
orbital differ from an orbit? 7.67 Make a chart of all allowable orbitals in the first four
7.48 Describe the shapes of s, p, and d orbitals. How are principal energy levels of the hydrogen atom. Desig-
these orbitals related to the quantum numbers n, /, nate each by type (for example, s, p) and indicate how
and m/? many orbitals of each type there are.
7.49 List the hydrogen orbitals in increasing order of 7.68 Why do the 3s, 3p, and 3d orbitals have the same
energy. energy in a hydrogen atom but different energies in
7.50 Describe the characteristics of an s orbital, a p or- a many-electron atom?
bital, and a d orbital. Which of the following orbitals • 7.69 For each of the following pairs of hydrogen orbitals,
do not exist: 1p, 2s, 2d, 3p, 3d, 3f, 4g? indicate which is higher in energy: (a) 1s, 2s; (b) 2p,
7.51 Why is a boundary surface diagram useful in repre- 3p; (c) 3dxy, 3dyz; (d) 3s, 3d; (e) 4f, 5s.
senting an atomic orbital? • 7.70 Which orbital in each of the following pairs is lower
7.52 Describe the four quantum numbers used to charac- in energy in a many-electron atom? (a) 2s, 2p; (b) 3p,
terize an electron in an atom. 3d; (c) 3s, 4s; (d) 4d, 5f.
 318 Chapter 7 ■ Quantum Theory and the Electronic Structure of Atoms

Electron Configuration Problems

Review Questions • 7.87 Use the Aufbau principle to obtain the ground-state
7.71 What is electron configuration? Describe the roles electron configuration of selenium.
that the Pauli exclusion principle and Hund’s rule 7.88 Use the Aufbau principle to obtain the ground-state
play in writing the electron configuration of elements. electron configuration of technetium.
• 7.72 Explain the meaning of the symbol 4d 6. • 7.89 Write the ground-state electron configurations for
7.73 Explain the meaning of diamagnetic and para- the following elements: B, V, Ni, As, I, Au.
magnetic. Give an example of an element that is • 7.90 Write the ground-state electron configurations for
diamagnetic and one that is paramagnetic. What the following elements: Ge, Fe, Zn, Ni, W, Tl.
does it mean when we say that electrons are • 7.91 The electron configuration of a neutral atom is
paired? 1s 22s 22p 63s 2. Write a complete set of quantum
7.74 What is meant by the term “shielding of electrons” in numbers for each of the electrons. Name the
an atom? Using the Li atom as an example, describe element.
the effect of shielding on the energy of electrons in • 7.92 Which of the following species has the most
an atom. unpaired electrons? S1, S, or S2. Explain how you
arrive at your answer.
Problems
• 7.75 Indicate which of the following sets of quantum num- Additional Problems
bers in an atom are unacceptable and explain why:
(a) (1, 0, 12 , 12 ), (b) (3, 0, 0, 1 12 ), (c) (2, 2, 1, 1 12 ), 7.93 A sample tube consisted of atomic hydrogens in
(d) (4, 3, 22, 1 12 ), (e) (3, 2, 1, 1). their ground state. A student illuminated the at-
oms with monochromatic light, that is, light of a
7.76 The ground-state electron configurations listed here single wavelength. If only two spectral emission
are incorrect. Explain what mistakes have been made lines in the visible region are observed, what is
in each and write the correct electron configurations. the wavelength (or wavelengths) of the incident
Al: 1s22s22p43s23p3 radiation?
B: 1s22s22p5 7.94 A laser produces a beam of light with a wave-
F: 1s22s22p6 length of 532 nm. If the power output is 25.0 mW,
• 7.77 The atomic number of an element is 73. Is this ele- how many photons does the laser emit per second?
ment diamagnetic or paramagnetic? (1 W 5 1 J/s.)
• 7.78 Indicate the number of unpaired electrons present in • 7.95 When a compound containing cesium ion is heated
each of the following atoms: B, Ne, P, Sc, Mn, Se, in a Bunsen burner flame, photons with an energy
Kr, Fe, Cd, I, Pb. of 4.30 3 10219 J are emitted. What color is the
cesium flame?
7.96 Discuss the current view of the correctness of the
The Building-Up Principle following statements. (a) The electron in the hydro-
Review Questions gen atom is in an orbit that never brings it closer
than 100 pm to the nucleus. (b) Atomic absorption
7.79 State the Aufbau principle and explain the role it plays
spectra result from transitions of electrons from
in classifying the elements in the periodic table.
lower to higher energy levels. (c) A many-electron
7.80 Describe the characteristics of the following groups atom behaves somewhat like a solar system that has
of elements: transition metals, lanthanides, actinides. a number of planets.
7.81 What is the noble gas core? How does it simplify the 7.97 What is the basis for thinking that atoms are spherical
writing of electron configurations? in shape even though the atomic orbitals p, d, . . . have
• 7.82 What are the group and period of the element distinctly nonspherical shapes?
osmium?
• 7.98 What is the maximum number of electrons in an
7.83 Define the following terms and give an example of atom that can have the following quantum numbers?
each: transition metals, lanthanides, actinides. Specify the orbitals in which the electrons would be
7.84 Explain why the ground-state electron configurations found. (a) n 5 2, ms 5 1 12; (b) n 5 4, m/ 5 11;
of Cr and Cu are different from what we might expect. (c) n 5 3, / 5 2; (d) n 5 2, / 5 0, ms 5 212;
7.85 Explain what is meant by a noble gas core. Write the (e) n 5 4, / 5 3, m/ 5 22.
electron configuration of a xenon core. • 7.99 Identify the following individuals and their contribu-
7.86 Comment on the correctness of the following tions to the development of quantum theory: Bohr, de
statement: The probability of finding two elec- Broglie, Einstein, Planck, Heisenberg, Schrödinger.
trons with the same four quantum numbers in an 7.100 What properties of electrons are used in the opera-
atom is zero. tion of an electron microscope?
 Questions & Problems 319

• 7.101 In a photoelectric experiment a student uses a feasible to use sunlight as a source of energy for this
light source whose frequency is greater than that process?
needed to eject electrons from a certain metal. 7.109 Spectral lines of the Lyman and Balmer series do
However, after continuously shining the light on not overlap. Verify this statement by calculating the
the same area of the metal for a long period of longest wavelength associated with the Lyman
time the student notices that the maximum ki- series and the shortest wavelength associated with
netic energy of ejected electrons begins to de- the Balmer series (in nm).
crease, even though the frequency of the light is
held constant. How would you account for this
• 7.110 An atom moving at its root-mean-square speed at
208C has a wavelength of 3.28 3 10211 m. Identify
behavior? the atom.
• 7.102 A certain pitcher’s fastballs have been clocked at
• 7.111 Certain sunglasses have small crystals of silver
about 100 mph. (a) Calculate the wavelength of a chloride (AgCl) incorporated in the lenses. When
0.141-kg baseball (in nm) at this speed. (b) What is the lenses are exposed to light of the appropriate
the wavelength of a hydrogen atom at the same wavelength, the following reaction occurs:
speed? (1 mile 5 1609 m.)
7.103 A student carried out a photoelectric experiment by AgCl ¡ Ag 1 Cl
shining visible light on a clean piece of cesium The Ag atoms formed produce a uniform gray
metal. The table here shows the kinetic energies color that reduces the glare. If DH for the preced-
(KE) of the ejected electrons as a function of wave- ing reaction is 248 kJ/mol, calculate the maxi-
lengths (λ). Determine graphically the work func- mum wavelength of light that can induce this
tion and the Planck constant. process.
7.112 The He1 ion contains only one electron and is there-
fore a hydrogenlike ion. Calculate the wavelengths,
λ (nm) 405 435.8 480 520 577.7
in increasing order, of the first four transitions in the
2.360 3 2.029 3 1.643 3 1.417 3 1.067 3 Balmer series of the He1 ion. Compare these wave-
KE (J)
10219 10219 10219 10219 10219 lengths with the same transitions in a H atom. Com-
ment on the differences. (The Rydberg constant for
He1 is 8.72 3 10218 J.)
7.104 (a) What is the lowest possible value of the principal 7.113 Ozone (O3) in the stratosphere absorbs the harmful
quantum number (n) when the angular momentum radiation from the sun by undergoing decomposi-
quantum number (/) is 1? (b) What are the possible tion: O3 ¡ O 1 O2 . (a) Referring to Table 6.4,
values of the angular momentum quantum number calculate the DH8 for this process. (b) Calculate the
(/) when the magnetic quantum number (m/) is 0, maximum wavelength of photons (in nm) that pos-
given than n # 4? sess this energy to cause the decomposition of ozone
7.105 Considering only the ground-state electron configu- photochemically.
ration, are there more diamagnetic or paramagnetic • 7.114 The retina of a human eye can detect light when
elements? Explain. radiant energy incident on it is at least 4.0 3 10217 J.
• 7.106 A ruby laser produces radiation of wavelength 633 nm For light of 600-nm wavelength, how many photons
in pulses whose duration is 1.00 3 1029 s. (a) If the does this correspond to?
laser produces 0.376 J of energy per pulse, how many 7.115 A helium atom and a xenon atom have the same
photons are produced in each pulse? (b) Calculate kinetic energy. Calculate the ratio of the de Broglie
the power (in watts) delivered by the laser per pulse. wavelength of the helium atom to that of the xenon
(1 W 5 1 J/s.) atom.
• 7.107 A 368-g sample of water absorbs infrared radiation 7.116 A laser is used in treating retina detachment. The
at 1.06 3 104 nm from a carbon dioxide laser. Sup- wavelength of the laser beam is 514 nm and the
pose all the absorbed radiation is converted to heat. power is 1.6 W. If the laser is turned on for 0.060 s
Calculate the number of photons at this wavelength during surgery, calculate the number of photons
required to raise the temperature of the water by emitted by the laser. (1 W 5 1 J/s.)
5.008C. 7.117 An electron in an excited state in a hydrogen atom
• 7.108 Photodissociation of water can return to the ground state in two different ways:
(a) via a direct transition in which a photon of wave-
H2O(l) 1 hn ¡ H2 (g) 1 12O2 (g)
length λ1 is emitted and (b) via an intermediate ex-
has been suggested as a source of hydrogen. The cited state reached by the emission of a photon of
¢H°rxn for the reaction, calculated from thermochem- wavelength λ2. This intermediate excited state then
ical data, is 285.8 kJ per mole of water decomposed. decays to the ground state by emitting another pho-
Calculate the maximum wavelength (in nm) that ton of wavelength λ3. Derive an equation that relates
would provide the necessary energy. In principle, is it λ1 to λ2 and λ3.
 320 Chapter 7 ■ Quantum Theory and the Electronic Structure of Atoms

• 7.118 A photoelectric experiment was performed by correctness of the following statements (true
separately shining a laser at 450 nm (blue light) or false).
and a laser at 560 nm (yellow light) on a clean (a) n 5 4 is the first excited state.
metal surface and measuring the number and ki- (b) It takes more energy to ionize (remove) the
netic energy of the ejected electrons. Which light electron from n 5 4 than from the ground state.
would generate more electrons? Which light
(c) The electron is farther from the nucleus (on
would eject electrons with greater kinetic energy?
average) in n 5 4 than in the ground state.
Assume that the same amount of energy is deliv-
ered to the metal surface by each laser and that the (d) The wavelength of light emitted when the
frequencies of the laser lights exceed the thresh- electron drops from n 5 4 to n 5 1 is longer
old frequency. than that from n 5 4 to n 5 2.
7.119 Draw the shapes (boundary surfaces) of the following (e) The wavelength the atom absorbs in going
orbitals: (a) 2py, (b) 3dz2, (c) 3dx2 2y2. (Show coordi- from n 5 1 to n 5 4 is the same as that emitted
nate axes in your sketches.) as it goes from n 5 4 to n 5 1.
• 7.120 The electron configurations described in this chapter • 7.127 The ionization energy of a certain element is 412
all refer to gaseous atoms in their ground states. An kJ/mol (see Problem 7.125). However, when the atoms
atom may absorb a quantum of energy and promote of this element are in the first excited state, the ion-
one of its electrons to a higher-energy orbital. When ization energy is only 126 kJ/mol. Based on this in-
this happens, we say that the atom is in an excited formation, calculate the wavelength of light emitted
state. The electron configurations of some excited in a transition from the first excited state to the
atoms are given. Identify these atoms and write their ground state.
ground-state configurations: • 7.128 Alveoli are the tiny sacs of air in the lungs (see Prob-
(a) 1s12s1 lem 5.136) whose average diameter is 5.0 3 1025 m.
Consider an oxygen molecule (5.3 3 10226 kg) trapped
(b) 1s22s22p23d 1
within a sac. Calculate the uncertainty in the velocity of
(c) 1s22s22p64s1 the oxygen molecule. (Hint: The maximum uncer-
(d) [Ar]4s13d 104p4 tainty in the position of the molecule is given by the
(e) [Ne]3s23p43d1 diameter of the sac.)
• 7.121 Draw orbital diagrams for atoms with the following • 7.129 How many photons at 660 nm must be absorbed to
electron configurations: melt 5.0 3 102 g of ice? On average, how many
(a) 1s22s22p5 H2O molecules does one photon convert from ice
(b) 1s22s22p63s23p3 to water? (Hint: It takes 334 J to melt 1 g of ice
at 08C.)
(c) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d 7
7.122 If Rutherford and his coworkers had used electrons
• 7.130 Shown are portions of orbital diagrams representing
the ground-state electron configurations of certain
instead of alpha particles to probe the structure of
elements. Which of them violate the Pauli exclusion
the nucleus as described in Section 2.2, what might
principle? Hund’s rule?
they have discovered?
• 7.123 Scientists have found interstellar hydrogen atoms
with quantum number n in the hundreds. Calculate h h hh h hg g h hg h
the wavelength of light emitted when a hydrogen
atom undergoes a transition from n 5 236 to n 5 235. (a) (b) (c)
In what region of the electromagnetic spectrum does
this wavelength fall? hg h h h h h h g hg
7.124 Calculate the wavelength of a helium atom whose
speed is equal to the root-mean-square speed at (d) (e)
208C.
hg hg gg hg hg
7.125 Ionization energy is the minimum energy required
to remove an electron from an atom. It is usually (f)
expressed in units of kJ/mol, that is, the energy in
kilojoules required to remove one mole of electrons
from one mole of atoms. (a) Calculate the ionization • 7.131 The UV light that is responsible for tanning the skin
energy for the hydrogen atom. (b) Repeat the calcu- falls in the 320- to 400-nm region. Calculate the total
lation, assuming in this second case that the elec- energy (in joules) absorbed by a person exposed to this
trons are removed from the n 5 2 state. radiation for 2.0 h, given that there are 2.0 3 1016 pho-
• 7.126 An electron in a hydrogen atom is excited from the tons hitting Earth’s surface per square centimeter
ground state to the n 5 4 state. Comment on the per second over a 80-nm (320 nm to 400 nm) range
 Questions & Problems 321

and that the exposed body area is 0.45 m2. Assume • 7.137 A microwave oven operating at 1.22 3 108 nm is
that only half of the radiation is absorbed and the used to heat 150 mL of water (roughly the volume
other half is reflected by the body. (Hint: Use an of a tea cup) from 208C to 1008C. Calculate the
average wavelength of 360 nm in calculating the en- number of photons needed if 92.0 percent of
ergy of a photon.) microwave energy is converted to the thermal en-
• 7.132 The sun is surrounded by a white circle of gaseous ergy of water.
material called the corona, which becomes visible • 7.138 The radioactive Co-60 isotope is used in nuclear
during a total eclipse of the sun. The temperature medicine to treat certain types of cancer. Calcu-
of the corona is in the millions of degrees Celsius, late the wavelength and frequency of an emitted
which is high enough to break up molecules and gamma photon having the energy of 1.29 3
remove some or all of the electrons from atoms. 1011 J/mol.
One way astronomers have been able to estimate • 7.139 (a) An electron in the ground state of the hydrogen
the temperature of the corona is by studying the atom moves at an average speed of 5 3 106 m/s. If
emission lines of ions of certain elements. For the speed is known to an uncertainty of 1 percent,
example, the emission spectrum of Fe141 ions has what is the uncertainty in knowing its position?
been recorded and analyzed. Knowing that it Given that the radius of the hydrogen atom in the
takes 3.5 3 104 kJ/mol to convert Fe131 to Fe141, ground state is 5.29 3 10211 m, comment on your
estimate the temperature of the sun’s corona. result. The mass of an electron is 9.1094 3 10231 kg.
(Hint: The average kinetic energy of one mole of (b) A 3.2-g Ping-Pong ball moving at 50 mph has a
a gas is 32RT .) momentum of 0.073 kg ? m/s. If the uncertainty in
7.133 In 1996 physicists created an anti-atom of hydrogen. measuring the momentum is 1.0 3 1027 of the mo-
In such an atom, which is the antimatter equivalent mentum, calculate the uncertainty in the Ping-Pong
of an ordinary atom, the electrical charges of all the ball’s position.
component particles are reversed. Thus, the nucleus 7.140 One wavelength in the hydrogen emission spectrum
of an anti-atom is made of an anti-proton, which has is 1280 nm. What are the initial and final states of
the same mass as a proton but bears a negative the transition responsible for this emission?
charge, while the electron is replaced by an anti- 7.141 Owls have good night vision because their eyes can
electron (also called positron) with the same mass as detect a light intensity as low as 5.0 3 10213 W/m2.
an electron, but bearing a positive charge. Would Calculate the number of photons per second that
you expect the energy levels, emission spectra, and an owl’s eye can detect if its pupil has a diameter of
atomic orbitals of an antihydrogen atom to be differ- 9.0 mm and the light has a wavelength of 500 nm.
ent from those of a hydrogen atom? What would (1 W 5 1 J/s.)
happen if an anti-atom of hydrogen collided with a
hydrogen atom? • 7.142 For hydrogenlike ions, that is, ions containing
only one electron, Equation (7.5) is modified as
7.134 Use Equation (5.16) to calculate the de Broglie follows: En 5 2RHZ2(1yn2), where Z is the atomic
wavelength of a N2 molecule at 300 K. number of the parent atom. The figure here repre-
7.135 When an electron makes a transition between energy sents the emission spectrum of such a hydrogen-
levels of a hydrogen atom, there are no restrictions on like ion in the gas phase. All the lines result from
the initial and final values of the principal quantum the electronic transitions from the excited states to
number n. However, there is a quantum mechanical the n 5 2 state. (a) What electronic transitions cor-
rule that restricts the initial and final values of the or- respond to lines B and C? (b) If the wavelength of
bital angular momentum /. This is the selection rule, line C is 27.1 nm, calculate the wavelengths of
which states that ¢/ 5 61; that is, in a transition, lines A and B. (c) Calculate the energy needed
the value of / can only increase or decrease by one. to remove the electron from the ion in the n 5 4
According to this rule, which of the following transi- state. (d) What is the physical significance of the
tions are allowed: (a) 2s ¡ 1s, (b) 3p ¡ 1s, continuum?
(c) 3d ¡ 4f , (d) 4d ¡ 3s? In view of this se-
lection rule, explain why it is possible to observe the
various emission series shown in Figure 7.11. Continuum C B A
• 7.136 In an electron microscope, electrons are accelerated
by passing them through a voltage difference. The
kinetic energy thus acquired by the electrons is
equal to the voltage times the charge on the electron.
Thus, a voltage difference of 1 V imparts a kinetic
energy of 1.602 3 10219 C 3 V or 1.602 3 10219 J.
Calculate the wavelength associated with electrons
accelerated by 5.00 3 103 V. λ
 322 Chapter 7 ■ Quantum Theory and the Electronic Structure of Atoms

7.143 When two atoms collide, some of their kinetic energy 7.149 In the beginning of the twentieth century, some scien-
may be converted into electronic energy in one or both tists thought that a nucleus may contain both electrons
atoms. If the average kinetic energy is about equal to and protons. Use the Heisenberg uncertainty principle
the energy for some allowed electronic transition, an to show that an electron cannot be confined within a
appreciable number of atoms can absorb enough nucleus. Repeat the calculation for a proton. Comment
energy through an inelastic collision to be raised to an on your results. Assume the radius of a nucleus to be
excited electronic state. (a) Calculate the average 1.0 3 10215 m. The masses of an electron and a proton
kinetic energy per atom in a gas sample at 298 K. are 9.109 3 10231 kg and 1.673 3 10227 kg, respec-
(b) Calculate the energy difference between the n 5 1 tively. (Hint: Treat the diameter of the nucleus as the
and n 5 2 levels in hydrogen. (c) At what temperature uncertainty in position.)
is it possible to excite a hydrogen atom from the n 5 1 7.150 Blackbody radiation is the term used to describe the
level to n 5 2 level by collision? [The average kinetic dependence of the radiation energy emitted by an
energy of 1 mole of an ideal gas is ( 32 )RT.] object on wavelength at a certain temperature.
7.144 Calculate the energies needed to remove an elec- Planck proposed the quantum theory to account for
tron from the n 5 1 state and the n 5 5 state in this dependence. Shown in the figure is a plot of the
the Li 21 ion. What is the wavelength (in nm) of radiation energy emitted by our sun versus wave-
the emitted photon in a transition from n 5 5 to length. This curve is characteristic of the tempera-
n 5 1? The Rydberg constant for hydrogenlike ture at the surface of the sun. At a higher temperature,
ions is (2.18 3 10 218 J)Z2, where Z is the atomic the curve has a similar shape but the maximum will
number. shift to a shorter wavelength. What does this curve
7.145 The de Broglie wavelength of an accelerating proton reveal about two consequences of great biological
in the Large Hadron Collider is 2.5 3 10214 m. What significance on Earth?
is the kinetic energy (in joules) of the proton?
7.146 The minimum uncertainty in the position of a cer-
tain moving particle is equal to its de Broglie wave-
length. If the speed of the particle is 1.2 3 105 m/s,
what is the minimum uncertainty in its speed? Solar radiation energy

• 7.147 According to Einstein’s special theory of relativity,

the mass of a moving particle, mmoving, is related to
its mass at rest, mrest, by the following equation
mrest
mmoving 5
u 2
12a b
B c 0 500 1000
λ (nm)
where u and c are the speeds of the particle and light,
respectively. (a) In particle accelerators, protons,
electrons, and other charged particles are often 7.151 All molecules undergo vibrational motions. Quan-
accelerated to speeds close to the speed of light. Cal- tum mechanical treatment shows that the vibra-
culate the wavelength (in nm) of a proton moving at tional energy, Evib, of a diatomic molecule like HCl
50.0 percent the speed of light. The mass of a proton is given by
is 1.673 3 10227 kg. (b) Calculate the mass of a 6.0
1
3 1022 kg tennis ball moving at 63 m/s. Comment Evib 5 an 1 b hn
on your results. 2

• 7.148 The mathematical equation for studying the photo- where n is a quantum number given by n 5 0, 1, 2,
electric effect is 3, . . . and n is the fundamental frequency of vibra-
hn 5 W 1 12meu2
tion. (a) Sketch the first three vibrational energy lev-
els for HCl. (b) Calculate the energy required to
where n is the frequency of light shining on the excite a HCl molecule from the ground level to the
metal, W is the work function, and me and u are the first excited level. The fundamental frequency of
mass and speed of the ejected electron. In an experi- vibration for HCl is 8.66 3 1013 s21. (c) The fact that
ment, a student found that a maximum wavelength the lowest vibrational energy in the ground level is
of 351 nm is needed to just dislodge electrons from not zero but equal to 12hn means that molecules will
a zinc metal surface. Calculate the speed (in m/s) of vibrate at all temperatures, including the absolute
an ejected electron when she employed light with a zero. Use the Heisenberg uncertainty principle to
wavelength of 313 nm. justify this prediction. (Hint: Consider a nonvibrating
 Answers to Practice Exercises 323

molecule and predict the uncertainty in the momen- there were evenly spaced dents (due to melting) about
tum and hence the uncertainty in the position.) 6 cm apart. Based on her observations, calculate the
• 7.152 The wave function for the 2s orbital in the hydrogen speed of light given that the microwave frequency is
atom is 2.45 GHz. (Hint: The energy of a wave is propor-
tional to the square of its amplitude.)
1 ρ
Ψ 2s 5 a1 2 be2ρy2 7.154 The wave properties of matter can generally be ig-
22a30 2 nored for macroscopic objects such as tennis balls;
however, wave properties have been measured at the
where a0 is the value of the radius of the first Bohr
fringe of detection for some very large molecules.
orbit, equal to 0.529 nm, ρ is Z(r/a0), and r is the
For example, wave patterns were detected for
distance from the nucleus in meters. Calculate the
C60(C12F25)8 molecules moving at a velocity of
location of the node of the 2s wave function from
63 m/s. (a) Calculate the wavelength of a C60(C12F25)8
the nucleus.
molecule moving at this velocity. (b) How does the
7.153 A student placed a large unwrapped chocolate bar in wavelength compare to the size of the molecule
a microwave oven without a rotating glass plate. After given that its diameter is roughly 3000 pm?
turning the oven on for less than a minute, she noticed

Interpreting, Modeling & Estimating

7.155 Atoms of an element have only two accessible ex- visible light. Roughly how many photons are emitted
cited states. In an emission experiment, however, by the lightbulb per second? (1 W 5 1 J/s.)
three spectral lines were observed. Explain. Write 7.158 Photosynthesis makes use of photons of visible light
an equation relating the shortest wavelength to the to bring about chemical changes. Explain why heat
other two wavelengths. energy in the form of infrared photons is ineffective
7.156 According to Wien’s law, the wavelength of maxi- for photosynthesis. (Hint: Typical chemical bond
mum intensity in blackbody radiation, λmax, is energies are 200 kJ/mol or greater.)
given by 7.159 A typical red laser pointer has a power of 5 mW.
b How long would it take a red laser pointer to emit
λmax 5 the same number of photons emitted by a 1-W blue
T
laser in 1 s? (1 W 5 1 J/s.)
where b is a constant (2.898 3 106 nm ? K) and T 7.160 Referring to the Chemistry in Action essay on
is the temperature of the radiating body in kelvins. p. 312, estimate the wavelength of light that would
(a) Estimate the temperature at the surface of the be emitted by a cadmium selenide (CdSe) quan-
sun. (b) How are astronomers able to determine the tum dot with a diameter of 10 nm. Would the emit-
temperature of stars in general? (See Problem 7.150 ted light be visible to the human eye? The diameter
for a definition of blackbody radiation.) and emission wavelength for a series of quantum
7.157 Only a fraction of the electrical energy supplied to an dots are given here.
incandescent-tungsten lightbulb is converted to visible
light. The rest of the energy shows up as infrared Diameter (nm) 2.2 2.5 3.3 4.2 4.9 6.3
radiation (that is, heat). A 60-W lightbulb converts
about 15.0 percent of the energy supplied to it into Wavelength (nm) 462 503 528 560 583 626

Answers to Practice Exercises

7.1 8.24 m. 7.2 3.39 3 103 nm. 7.3 9.65 3 10219 J. (4, 2, 2, 212 ). 7.10 32. 7.11 (1, 0, 0, 1 12 ), (1, 0, 0, 212 ),
7.4 2.63 3 103 nm. 7.5 56.6 nm. 7.6 0.2 m/s. 7.7 n 5 3, (2, 0, 0, 1 12 ), (2, 0, 0, 212 ), (2, 1, 21, 212 ). There are five
/ 5 1, m/ 5 21, 0, 1. 7.8 16. 7.9 (4, 2, 22, 1 12 ), other acceptable ways to write the quantum numbers for the
(4, 2, 21, 1 12 ), (4, 2, 0, 1 12 ), (4, 2, 1, 1 12 ), (4, 2, 2, 1 12 ), last electron (in the 2p orbital). 7.12 [Ne]3s23p3.
(4, 2, 22, 212 ), (4, 2, 21, 212 ), (4, 2, 0, 212 ), (4, 2, 1, 212 ),
 68 Chapter 2 ■ Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Questions & Problems

• Problems available in Connect Plus • 2.16 Indicate the number of protons, neutrons, and elec-
Red numbered problems solved in Student Solutions Manual trons in each of the following species:
15 33 63 84 130 186 202
7N, 16S, 29Cu, 38Sr, 56Ba, 74 W, 80Hg
Structure of the Atom • 2.17 Write the appropriate symbol for each of the fol-
Review Questions lowing isotopes: (a) Z 5 11, A 5 23; (b) Z 5 28,
2.1 Define the following terms: (a) α particle, (b) β par- A 5 64.
ticle, (c) γ ray, (d) X ray. • 2.18 Write the appropriate symbol for each of the fol-
2.2 Name the types of radiation known to be emitted by lowing isotopes: (a) Z 5 74, A 5 186; (b) Z 5 80,
radioactive elements. A 5 201.
2.3 Compare the properties of the following: α parti-
cles, cathode rays, protons, neutrons, electrons. The Periodic Table
2.4 What is meant by the term “fundamental particle”? Review Questions
2.5 Describe the contributions of the following scientists 2.19 What is the periodic table, and what is its signifi-
to our knowledge of atomic structure: J. J. Thomson, cance in the study of chemistry?
R. A. Millikan, Ernest Rutherford, James Chadwick.
2.20 State two differences between a metal and a
2.6 Describe the experimental basis for believing that nonmetal.
the nucleus occupies a very small fraction of the
2.21 Write the names and symbols for four elements
volume of the atom.
in each of the following categories: (a) nonmetal,
Problems (b) metal, (c) metalloid.
• 2.22 Define, with two examples, the following terms:
• 2.7 The diameter of a helium atom is about 1 3 102 pm. (a) alkali metals, (b) alkaline earth metals, (c) halo-
Suppose that we could line up helium atoms side by gens, (d) noble gases.
side in contact with one another. Approximately
how many atoms would it take to make the distance
from end to end 1 cm? Problems
2.8 Roughly speaking, the radius of an atom is about 2.23 Elements whose names end with -ium are usually
10,000 times greater than that of its nucleus. If an metals; sodium is one example. Identify a nonmetal
atom were magnified so that the radius of its nucleus whose name also ends with -ium.
became 2.0 cm, about the size of a marble, what would 2.24 Describe the changes in properties (from metals to
be the radius of the atom in miles? (1 mi 5 1609 m.) nonmetals or from nonmetals to metals) as we move
(a) down a periodic group and (b) across the peri-
Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes odic table from left to right.
Review Questions 2.25 Consult a handbook of chemical and physical data
2.9 Use the helium-4 isotope to define atomic number (ask your instructor where you can locate a copy
and mass number. Why does a knowledge of atomic of the handbook) to find (a) two metals less dense
number enable us to deduce the number of electrons than water, (b) two metals more dense than mer-
present in an atom? cury, (c) the densest known solid metallic ele-
ment, (d) the densest known solid nonmetallic
2.10 Why do all atoms of an element have the same
element.
atomic number, although they may have different
mass numbers? • 2.26 Group the following elements in pairs that you
would expect to show similar chemical properties:
2.11 What do we call atoms of the same elements with
K, F, P, Na, Cl, and N.
different mass numbers?
2.12 Explain the meaning of each term in the symbol ZAX.
Molecules and Ions
Problems Review Questions
• 2.13 What is the mass number of an iron atom that has 28 2.27 What is the difference between an atom and a
neutrons? molecule?
• 2.14 Calculate the number of neutrons in 239Pu. 2.28 What are allotropes? Give an example. How are
• 2.15 For each of the following species, determine the number allotropes different from isotopes?
of protons and the number of neutrons in the nucleus: 2.29 Describe the two commonly used molecular
3 4 24 25 48 79 195
2He, 2He, 12Mg, 12Mg, 22Ti, 35Br, 78Pt models.
 Questions & Problems 69

2.30 Give an example of each of the following: (a) a mona- Chemical Formulas
tomic cation, (b) a monatomic anion, (c) a polyatomic Review Questions
cation, (d) a polyatomic anion.
2.37 What does a chemical formula represent? What is
the ratio of the atoms in the following molecular
Problems
formulas? (a) NO, (b) NCl3, (c) N2O4, (d) P4O6
• 2.31 Which of the following diagrams represent diatomic 2.38 Define molecular formula and empirical formula.
molecules, polyatomic molecules, molecules that What are the similarities and differences between
are not compounds, molecules that are compounds, the empirical formula and molecular formula of a
or an elemental form of the substance? compound?
2.39 Give an example of a case in which two molecules
have different molecular formulas but the same em-
pirical formula.
2.40 What does P4 signify? How does it differ from 4P?
2.41 What is an ionic compound? How is electrical neu-
trality maintained in an ionic compound?
2.42 Explain why the chemical formulas of ionic com-
pounds are usually the same as their empirical
formulas.

Problems
(a) (b) (c)
• 2.43 Write the formulas for the following ionic com-
pounds: (a) sodium oxide, (b) iron sulfide (contain-
• 2.32 Which of the following diagrams represent diatomic ing the Fe21 ion), (c) cobalt sulfate (containing the
molecules, polyatomic molecules, molecules that Co31 and SO422 ions), and (d) barium fluoride.
are not compounds, molecules that are compounds, (Hint: See Figure 2.11.)
or an elemental form of the substance? • 2.44 Write the formulas for the following ionic com-
pounds: (a) copper bromide (containing the Cu1
ion), (b) manganese oxide (containing the Mn31
ion), (c) mercury iodide (containing the Hg221 ion),
and (d) magnesium phosphate (containing the PO432
ion). (Hint: See Figure 2.11.)
• 2.45 What are the empirical formulas of the following
compounds? (a) C2N2, (b) C6H6, (c) C9H20, (d) P4O10,
(e) B2H6
• 2.46 What are the empirical formulas of the following
compounds? (a) Al2Br6, (b) Na2S2O4, (c) N2O5,
(d) K2Cr2O7
(a) (b) (c) • 2.47 Write the molecular formula of glycine, an amino
acid present in proteins. The color codes are: black
(carbon), blue (nitrogen), red (oxygen), and gray
• 2.33 Identify the following as elements or compounds: (hydrogen).
NH3, N2, S8, NO, CO, CO2, H2, SO2.
• 2.34 Give two examples of each of the following: (a) a
diatomic molecule containing atoms of the same
element, (b) a diatomic molecule containing at-
oms of different elements, (c) a polyatomic mol- H
O
ecule containing atoms of the same element, (d) a
polyatomic molecule containing atoms of differ-
ent elements. C
• 2.35 Give the number of protons and electrons in each of
the following common ions: Na1, Ca21, Al31, Fe21,
I2, F2, S22, O22, and N32. N
• 2.36 Give the number of protons and electrons in each of
the following common ions: K1, Mg21, Fe31, Br2,
Mn21, C42, Cu21.
 70 Chapter 2 ■ Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

• 2.48 Write the molecular formula of ethanol. The color 2.61 Sulfur (S) and fluorine (F) form several different
codes are: black (carbon), red (oxygen), and gray compounds. One of them, SF6, contains 3.55 g of F
(hydrogen). for every gram of S. Use the law of multiple propor-
tions to determine n, which represents the number of
F atoms in SFn, given that it contains 2.37 g of F for
H every gram of S.
O
2.62 Name the following compounds.
C

O Br
F Al

N B
• 2.49 Which of the following compounds are likely to be
ionic? Which are likely to be molecular? SiCl4, LiF,
BaCl2, B2H6, KCl, C2H4
• 2.50 Which of the following compounds are likely to be 2.63 Pair the following species that contain the same
ionic? Which are likely to be molecular? CH4, NaBr, number of electrons: Ar, Sn41, F2, Fe31, P32, V,
BaF2, CCl4, ICl, CsCl, NF3 Ag1, N32.
2.64 Write the correct symbols for the atoms that contain:
Naming Inorganic Compounds (a) 25 protons, 25 electrons, and 27 neutrons; (b) 10
Review Questions protons, 10 electrons, and 12 neutrons; (c) 47 pro-
2.51 What is the difference between inorganic com- tons, 47 electrons, and 60 neutrons; (d) 53 protons,
pounds and organic compounds? 53 electrons, and 74 neutrons; (e) 94 protons,
94 electrons, and 145 neutrons.
2.52 What are the four major categories of inorganic
compounds?
Additional Problems
2.53 Give an example each for a binary compound and a
2.65 A sample of a uranium compound is found to be los-
ternary compound.
ing mass gradually. Explain what is happening to
2.54 What is the Stock system? What are its advantages the sample.
over the older system of naming cations?
2.55 Explain why the formula HCl can represent two dif-
• 2.66 In which one of the following pairs do the two spe-
cies resemble each other most closely in chemical
ferent chemical systems. properties? Explain. (a) 11H and 11H1, (b) 147N and
2.56 Define the following terms: acids, bases, oxoacids, 14 32 12 13
7N , (c) 6C and 6C.
oxoanions, and hydrates. • 2.67 One isotope of a metallic element has mass number
65 and 35 neutrons in the nucleus. The cation de-
Problems rived from the isotope has 28 electrons. Write the
• 2.57 Name these compounds: (a) Na2CrO4, (b) K2HPO4, symbol for this cation.
(c) HBr (gas), (d) HBr (in water), (e) Li2CO3, 2.68 One isotope of a nonmetallic element has mass
(f) K2Cr2O7, (g) NH4NO2, (h) PF3, (i) PF5, (j) P4O6, number 127 and 74 neutrons in the nucleus. The
(k) CdI2, (l) SrSO4, (m) Al(OH)3, (n) Na2CO3 ? 10H2O. anion derived from the isotope has 54 electrons.
• 2.58 Name these compounds: (a) KClO, (b) Ag2CO3, Write the symbol for this anion.
(c) FeCl2, (d) KMnO4, (e) CsClO3, (f) HIO, (g) FeO, • 2.69 Determine the molecular and empirical formulas of
(h) Fe2O3, (i) TiCl4, ( j) NaH, (k) Li3N, (l) Na2O, the compounds shown here. (Black spheres are
(m) Na2O2, (n) FeCl3 ? 6H2O. carbon and gray spheres are hydrogen.)
• 2.59 Write the formulas for the following compounds:
(a) rubidium nitrite, (b) potassium sulfide, (c) sodium
hydrogen sulfide, (d) magnesium phosphate, (e) cal-
cium hydrogen phosphate, (f) potassium dihydrogen
phosphate, (g) iodine heptafluoride, (h) ammonium
sulfate, (i) silver perchlorate, (j) boron trichloride.
• 2.60 Write the formulas for the following compounds:
(a) copper(I) cyanide, (b) strontium chlorite, (c) perbro- (a) (b) (c) (d)
mic acid, (d) hydroiodic acid, (e) disodium ammonium
phosphate, (f ) lead(II) carbonate, (g) tin(II) fluoride,
(h) tetraphosphorus decasulfide, (i) mercury(II) oxide, 2.70 What is wrong with or ambiguous about the phrase
( j) mercury(I) iodide, (k) selenium hexafluoride. “four molecules of NaCl”?
 Questions & Problems 71

2.71 The following phosphorus sulfides are known: P4S3, 2.79 Caffeine, shown here, is a psychoactive stimulant
P4S7, and P4S10. Do these compounds obey the law drug. Write the molecular formula and empirical
of multiple proportions? formula of the compound.
2.72 Which of the following are elements, which are
molecules but not compounds, which are com-
pounds but not molecules, and which are both H
compounds and molecules? (a) SO 2, (b) S 8,
(c) Cs, (d) N2O5, (e) O, (f) O2, (g) O3, (h) CH4,
(i) KBr, (j) S, (k) P4, (l) LiF O
N
• 2.73 The following table gives numbers of electrons,
protons, and neutrons in atoms or ions of a num-
ber of elements. Answer the following: (a) Which C
of the species are neutral? (b) Which are nega-
tively charged? (c) Which are positively charged?
(d) What are the conventional symbols for all the
species?

Atom or Ion 2.80 Acetaminophen, shown here, is the active ingredient

of Element A B C D E F G in Tylenol. Write the molecular formula and empiri-
Number of electrons 5 10 18 28 36 5 9 cal formula of the compound.
Number of protons 5 7 19 30 35 5 9
Number of neutrons 5 7 20 36 46 6 10 H O

2.74 Identify the elements represented by the following

N
symbols and give the number of protons and neu-
trons in each case: (a) 20 63 107 182
10X, (b) 29X, (c) 47X, (d) 74X, C
(e) 203
84 X, (f) 234
94X.
2.75 Each of the following pairs of elements will react to
form an ionic compound. Write the formulas and
name these compounds: (a) barium and oxygen, 2.81 What is wrong with the chemical formula for each
(b) calcium and phosphorus, (c) aluminum and sul- of the following compounds: (a) magnesium
fur, (d) lithium and nitrogen. iodate [Mg(IO4)2], (b) phosphoric acid (H3PO3),
2.76 Match the descriptions [(a)–(h)] with each of the (c) barium sulfite (BaS), (d) ammonium bicarbon-
following elements: P, Cu, Kr, Sb, Cs, Al, Sr, Cl. ate (NH3HCO3)?
(a) A transition metal, (b) a nonmetal that forms a 2.82 What is wrong with the names (in parentheses) for
23 ion, (c) a noble gas, (d) an alkali metal, (e) a each of the following compounds: SnCl4 (tin chlo-
metal that forms a 13 ion, (f) a metalloid, (g) an ride), (b) Cu2O [copper(II) oxide], (c) Co(NO3)2
element that exists as a diatomic gas molecule, (cobalt nitrate), (d) Na2Cr2O7 (sodium chromate)?
(h) an alkaline earth metal.
• 2.83 Fill in the blanks in the following table.
2.77 Explain why anions are always larger than the atoms
from which they are derived, whereas cations are
always smaller than the atoms from which they are Symbol 54
26Fe
21

derived. (Hint: Consider the electrostatic attraction

Protons 5 79 86
between protons and electrons.)
Neutrons 6 16 117 136
2.78 (a) Describe Rutherford’s experiment and how it led
to the structure of the atom. How was he able to Electrons 5 18 79
estimate the number of protons in a nucleus from the Net charge 23 0
scattering of the α particles? (b) Consider the 23Na
atom. Given that the radius and mass of the nucleus
are 3.04 3 10215 m and 3.82 3 10223 g, respectively, 2.84 (a) Which elements are most likely to form ionic
calculate the density of the nucleus in g/cm3. The compounds? (b) Which metallic elements are
radius of a 23Na atom is 186 pm. Calculate the den- most likely to form cations with different
sity of the space occupied by the electrons in the charges?
sodium atom. Do your results support Rutherford’s • 2.85 Write the formula of the common ion derived from
model of an atom? [The volume of a sphere of each of the following: (a) Li, (b) S, (c) I, (d) N,
radius r is (4/3)πr3.] (e) Al, (f) Cs, (g) Mg
 72 Chapter 2 ■ Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

2.86 Which of the following symbols provides more in- element whose anion contains 36 electrons, (d) an
formation about the atom: 23Na or 11Na? Explain. alkali metal cation that contains 36 electrons, (e) a
• 2.87 Write the chemical formulas and names of binary ac- Group 4A cation that contains 80 electrons.
ids and oxoacids that contain Group 7A elements. Do • 2.100 Write the molecular formulas for and names of the
the same for elements in Groups 3A, 4A, 5A, and 6A. following compounds.
2.88 Of the 118 elements known, only two are liquids at
room temperature (25°C). What are they? (Hint:
One element is a familiar metal and the other ele-
ment is in Group 7A.)
• 2.89 For the noble gases (the Group 8A elements), 42He,
20 40 84 132 S
10Ne, 18Ar, 36Kr, and 54Xe, (a) determine the num- N
ber of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of each F Br P
atom, and (b) determine the ratio of neutrons to pro- Cl
tons in the nucleus of each atom. Describe any gen-
eral trend you discover in the way this ratio changes
with increasing atomic number.
• 2.90 List the elements that exist as gases at room tem-
perature. (Hint: Most of these elements can be found 2.101 Show the locations of (a) alkali metals, (b) alkaline
in Groups 5A, 6A, 7A, and 8A.) earth metals, (c) the halogens, and (d) the noble
2.91 The Group 1B metals, Cu, Ag, and Au, are called gases in the following outline of a periodic table.
coinage metals. What chemical properties make Also draw dividing lines between metals and metal-
them specially suitable for making coins and loids and between metalloids and nonmetals.
jewelry?
2.92 The elements in Group 8A of the periodic table are
1A 8A
called noble gases. Can you suggest what “noble”
means in this context? 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A

• 2.93 The formula for calcium oxide is CaO. What are

the formulas for magnesium oxide and strontium
oxide?
• 2.94 A common mineral of barium is barytes, or bar-
ium sulfate (BaSO4). Because elements in the
same periodic group have similar chemical prop-
erties, we might expect to find some radium sul-
fate (RaSO4) mixed with barytes since radium is
the last member of Group 2A. However, the only • 2.102 Fill the blanks in the following table.
source of radium compounds in nature is in ura-
nium minerals. Why?
2.95 List five elements each that are (a) named after Cation Anion Formula Name
places, (b) named after people, (c) named after a Magnesium bicarbonate
color. (Hint: See Appendix 1.)
SrCl2
2.96 One isotope of a nonmetallic element has mass
Fe31 NO2
2
number 77 and 43 neutrons in the nucleus. The
anion derived from the isotope has 36 electrons. Manganese(II) chlorate
Write the symbol for this anion. SnBr4
2.97 Fluorine reacts with hydrogen (H) and deuterium Co21 PO32
4
(D) to form hydrogen fluoride (HF) and deuterium Hg221 I2
fluoride (DF), where deuterium (21H) is an isotope Cu2CO3
of hydrogen. Would a given amount of fluorine re-
Lithium nitride
act with different masses of the two hydrogen iso- 31 22
topes? Does this violate the law of definite Al S
proportion? Explain.
• 2.98 Predict the formula and name of a binary compound • 2.103 Some compounds are better known by their com-
formed from the following elements: (a) Na and H, mon names than by their systematic chemical
(b) B and O, (c) Na and S, (d) Al and F, (e) F and O, names. Give the chemical formulas of the following
(f ) Sr and Cl. substances: (a) dry ice, (b) table salt, (c) laughing
• 2.99 Identify each of the following elements: (a) a halo- gas, (d) marble (chalk, limestone), (e) quicklime,
gen whose anion contains 36 electrons, (b) a radio- (f) slaked lime, (g) baking soda, (h) washing soda,
active noble gas with 86 protons, (c) a Group 6A (i) gypsum, (j) milk of magnesia.
 Questions & Problems 73

• 2.104 On p. 40 it was pointed out that mass and energy are Pt is 21.45 g/cm3 and the mass of a single Pt atom
alternate aspects of a single entity called mass- is 3.240 3 10222 g. [The volume of a sphere of
energy. The relationship between these two physical radius r is (4/3)πr3.]
quantities is Einstein’s famous equation, E 5 mc2, • 2.110 A monatomic ion has a charge of 12. The nucleus
where E is energy, m is mass, and c is the speed of of the parent atom has a mass number of 55. If the
light. In a combustion experiment, it was found that number of neutrons in the nucleus is 1.2 times that
12.096 g of hydrogen molecules combined with of the number of protons, what is the name and sym-
96.000 g of oxygen molecules to form water and bol of the element?
released 1.715 3 103 kJ of heat. Calculate the cor-
responding mass change in this process and com-
• 2.111 In the following 2 3 2 crossword, each letter must
be correct four ways: horizontally, vertically, diago-
ment on whether the law of conservation of mass nally, and by itself. When the puzzle is complete, the
holds for ordinary chemical processes. (Hint: The four spaces will contain the overlapping symbols of
Einstein equation can be used to calculate the 10 elements. Use capital letters for each square.
change in mass as a result of the change in energy. There is only one correct solution.*
1 J 5 1 kg m2/s2 and c 5 3.00 3 108 m/s.)
• 2.105 Draw all possible structural formulas of the following
1 2
hydrocarbons: CH4, C2H6, C3H8, C4H10, and C5H12.
2.106 (a) Assuming nuclei are spherical in shape, show
that its radius r is proportional to the cube root of
3 4
mass number (A). (b) In general, the radius of a
nucleus is given by r 5 r0 A1/3, where r0 is a propor-
tionality constant given by 1.2 3 10215 m. Calculate
the volume of the 73Li nucleus. (c) Given that the Horizontal
radius of a Li atom is 152 pm, calculate the fraction
of the atom’s volume occupied by the nucleus. Does 1–2: Two-letter symbol for a metal used in ancient times
your result support Rutherford’s model of an atom? 3–4: Two-letter symbol for a metal that burns in air and is
• 2.107 Draw two different structural formulas based on the found in Group 5A
molecular formula C2H6O. Is the fact that you can have
more than one compound with the same molecular for- Vertical
mula consistent with Dalton’s atomic theory? 1–3: Two-letter symbol for a metalloid
• 2.108 Ethane and acetylene are two gaseous hydrocar- 2–4: Two-letter symbol for a metal used in U.S. coins
bons. Chemical analyses show that in one sample of
ethane, 2.65 g of carbon are combined with 0.665 g Single Squares
of hydrogen, and in one sample of acetylene, 4.56 g
of carbon are combined with 0.383 g of hydrogen. 1: A colorful nonmetal
(a) Are these results consistent with the law of mul- 2: A colorless gaseous nonmetal
tiple proportions? (b) Write reasonable molecular 3: An element that makes fireworks green
formulas for these compounds. 4: An element that has medicinal uses
• 2.109 A cube made of platinum (Pt) has an edge length of
1.0 cm. (a) Calculate the number of Pt atoms in the Diagonal
cube. (b) Atoms are spherical in shape. Therefore,
the Pt atoms in the cube cannot fill all of the avail- 1–4: Two-letter symbol for an element used in electronics
able space. If only 74 percent of the space inside 2–3: Two-letter symbol for a metal used with Zr to make
the cube is taken up by Pt atoms, calculate the wires for superconducting magnets
radius in picometers of a Pt atom. The density of • 2.112 Name the following acids.

H
N S
Cl
C
O

*Reproduced with permission of S. J. Cyvin of the University of Trondheim (Norway). This puzzle appeared in Chemical & Engineering News,
December 14, 1987 (p. 86) and in Chem Matters, October 1988.
74 Chapter 2 ■ Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

2.113 Calculate the density of the nucleus of a 56

26 Fe atom, 2.115 Methane, ethane, and propane are shown in Table 2.8.
given that the nuclear mass is 9.229 3 10223 g. From Show that the following data are consistent with the
your result, comment on the fact that any nucleus law of multiple proportions.
containing more than one proton must have neutrons
present as well. (Hint: See Problem 2.106.) Mass of Carbon Mass of Hydrogen
in 1 g Sample in 1 g Sample
2.114 Element X reacts with element Y to form an ionic
compound containing X41 and Y22 ions. Write a Methane 0.749 g 0.251 g
formula for the compound and suggest in which
Ethane 0.799 g 0.201 g
periodic groups these elements are likely to be
found. Name a representative compound. Propane 0.817 g 0.183 g

Interpreting, Modeling & Estimating

2.116 In the Rutherford scattering experiment, an α parti- 2.121 Sodium and potassium are roughly equal in natural
cle is heading directly toward a gold nucleus. The abundance in Earth’s crust and most of their com-
particle will come to a halt when its kinetic energy is pounds are soluble. However, the composition of
completely converted to electrical potential energy. seawater is much higher in sodium than potassium.
When this happens, how close will the α particle Explain.
with a kinetic energy of 6.0 3 10214 J be from the 2.122 One technique proposed for recycling plastic gro-
nucleus? [According to Coulomb’s law, the electri- cery bags is to heat them at 700°C and high pressure
cal potential energy between two charged particles to form carbon microspheres that can be used in a
is E 5 kQ1Q2/r, where Q1 and Q2 are the charges (in number of applications. Electron microscopy shows
coulombs) of the α particle and the gold nucleus, r some representative carbon microspheres obtained
is the distance of separation in meters, and k is a in this manner, where the scale is given in the bot-
constant equal to 9.0 3 109 kg ? m3/s2 ? C2. Joule (J) tom right corner of the figure. Determine the num-
is the unit of energy where 1 J 5 1 kg ? m2/s2.] ber of carbon atoms in a typical carbon microsphere.
2.117 Estimate the relative sizes of the following species:
Li, Li1, Li2.
2.118 Compare the atomic size of the following two mag-
nesium isotopes: 24Mg and 26Mg.
2.119 Using visible light, we humans cannot see any
object smaller than 2 3 1025 cm with an unaided
eye. Roughly how many silver atoms must be lined
up for us to see the atoms?
2.120 If the size of the nucleus of an atom were that of a
5 μm
pea, how far would the electrons be (on average)
from the nucleus in meters?

Answers to Practice Exercises

2.1 29 protons, 34 neutrons, and 29 electrons. 2.2 CHCl3. 2.7 (a) Nitrogen trifluoride, (b) dichlorine heptoxide.
2.3 C4H5N2O. 2.4 (a) Cr2(SO4)3, (b) TiO2. 2.5 (a) Lead(II) 2.8 (a) SF4, (b) N2O5. 2.9 (a) Hypobromous acid,
oxide, (b) lithium chlorate. 2.6 (a) Rb2SO4, (b) BaH2. (b) hydrogen sulfate ion.