RAILWAY TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

7. Curvature of Track
7.1. Objections to curvature of track

Curves are regular bends provided in the lines of communication like roads, railways etc. and also
in canals to bring about the gradual change of direction. They are also used in the vertical plane at
all changes of grade to avoid the abrupt change of grade at the apex.

Curves provided in the horizontal plane to have the gradual change in direction are known as
Horizontal curves, whereas those provided in the vertical plane to obtain the gradual change in
grade are known as vertical curves. Curves are laid out on the ground along the centre line of the
work. They may be circular or parabolic.

7.2. Designation of a curve

A curve may be designated either by the radius or by the angle subtended at the centre by a chord
of particular length In India, a curve is designated by the angle (in degrees) subtended at the centre
by a chord of 30 metres (100 ft.) length. This angle is called the degree of the curve (D).

7.3. Types of curves and Limiting radius or degree of curvature

A. Horizontal Curves
Curves are introduced on a railway track to bypass obstacles, to provide longer and easily traversed
gradients, and to pass a railway line through obligatory or desirable locations. Horizontal curves
are provided when a change in the direction of the track is required and vertical curves are provided
at points where two gradients meet or where a gradient meets level ground. To provide comfortable
ride on a horizontal curve, the level of the outer rail is raised above the level of the inner rail. This
is known as super elevation.
a. CIRCULAR CURVES
This section describes the defining parameters, elements, and methods of setting out circular
curves.
Radius or degree of a curve
A curve is denned either by its radius or by its degree. The degree of a curve (D) is the angle
subtended at its centre by a 30.5 m or 100 ft arc.

The relation between the radius and the degree of the curve may be determined as follows:

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Let R= The radius of the curves in meters

D= The degree of the curve
MN= The chord, 30m long
P= The mid-point of the chord

The value of the degree of the curve can be determined as indicated below.
Circumference of a circle = 2πR
Angle subtended at the centre by a circle with this circumference = 360°
Angle subtended at the centre by a 30.5 m arc, or degree of curve = 360°/2πR x30.5 = 1 750/R
(approximately R is in meter)
In cases where the radius is very large, the arc of a circle is almost equal to the chord connecting
the two ends of the arc.
The degree of the curve is thus given by the following formulae:
D = 1750/R (when R is in metres)
D = 5730/ R (when R is in feet) A 2° curve, therefore, has a radius of 1750/2 = 875 m.
7.4. Transition curves
As soon as a train commences motion on a circular curve from a straight-line track, it is subjected
to a sudden centrifugal force, which not only causes discomfort to the passengers but also distorts
the track alignment and affects the stability of the rolling stock. In order to smoothen the shift from
the straight line to the curve, transition curves are provided on either side of the circular curve so
that the centrifugal force is built up gradually as the superelevation slowly runs out at a uniform
rate. A transition curve is, therefore, the cure for an uncomfortable ride, in which the degree of the
curvature and the gain of superelevation are uniform throughout its length, starting from zero at
the tangent point to the specified value at the circular curve.

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The following are the objectives of a transition curve.

(a) To decrease the radius of the curvature gradually in a planned way from infinity at the straight
line to the specified value of the radius of a circular curve in order to help the vehicle negotiate the
curve smoothly.
(b) To provide a gradual increase of the superelevation starting from zero at the straight line to the
desired superelevation at the circular curve.
(c) To ensure a gradual increase or decrease of centrifugal forces so as to enable the vehicles to
negotiate a curve smoothly.

Requirements of an Ideal Transition Curve

The transition curve should satisfy the following conditions.
(a) It should be tangential to the straight line of the track, i.e., it should start from the straight part
of the track with a zero curvature.
(b) It should join the circular curve tangentially, i.e., it should finally have the same curvature as
that of the circular curve.
(c) Its curvature should increase at the same rate as the superelevation.
(d) The length of the transition curve should be adequate to attain the final superelevation, which
increases gradually at a specified rate.

Types of Transition Curves

Euler’s spiral
This is an ideal transition curve, but is not preferred due to mathematical complications. The
equation for Euler’s sprial is

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Cubical spiral
This is also a good transition curve, but quite difficult to set on the field.

Bernoulli’s lemniscate
In this curve, the radius decreases as the length increases and this causes the radial acceleration
to keep on falling. The fall is, however, not uniform beyond a 30° deflection angle. This curve is
not used on railways.

Cubic parabola
Indian Railways mostly uses the cubic parabola for transition
curves. The equation of the cubic parabola is

In this curve, both the curvature and the cant increase at a linear rate. The cant of the transition
curve from the straight to the curved track is so arranged that the inner rail continues to be at the
same level while the outer rail is raised in the linear form throughtout the length of the curve. A
straight line ramp is provided for such transition curves.
The notations used in Eqns are as follows:
f is the angle between the straight line track and the tangent to the transition curve,
l is the distance of any point on the transition curve from the take-off point,
L is the length of the transition curve,
x is the horizontal coordinate on the transition curve,
y is the vertical coordinate on the transition curve, and
R is the radius of the circular curve.

S-shaped transition curve

In an S-shaped transition curve, the curvature and superelevation assume the shape of two
quadratic parabolas. Instead of a straight line ramp, an S-type parabola ramp is provided with
this transition curve. The special feature of this curve is that the shift required (‘shift’ is
explained in the following section) in this case is only half of the normal shift provided for a
straight line ramp. The value of shift is

Further, the gradient is at the centre and is twice steeper than in the case of a straight line ramp.
This curve is desirable in special conditions—when the shift is restricted due to site conditions.

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The Railway Board has decided that on Indian Railways, transition curves will normally be
laid in the shape of a cubic parabola.

Length of Transition Curve

The length of the transition curve prescribed on Indian Railways is the maximum of the
following three values:

where L is the length of the curve in m, Ca is the actual cant or superelevation in mm, and Cd is
the cant deficiency in mm.

7.5. Shifts
For the main circular curve to fit in the transition curve, which is laid in the shape of a cubic
parabola, it is required be moved inward by a measure known as the ‘shift’. The value of shift
can be calculated using the formula

where S is the shift in m, L is the length of the transition curve in m, and R is the radius in m.

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The offset (in centimetres) from the straight line to any point on the transition curve is calculated
using the equation.

where
y is the offest from the staight line in cm,
x is the distance from the commencement of the curve in m,
L is the length of transition in m, and
R is the radius of curve in m.

7.6. Super elevation or cant

Superelevation or cant (Ca)
It is the difference in height between the outer and the inner rail on a curve. It is provided by
gradually raising the outer rail above the level of the inner rail. The inner rail, also known as the
gradient rail, is taken as the reference rail and is normally maintained at its original level. The main
functions of super elevation are the following:
(a) To ensure a better distribution of load on both rails
(b) To reduce the wear and tear of the rails and rolling stock
(c) To neutralize the effect of lateral forces
(d) To provide comfort to passengers.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE ON A CURVED TRACK
A vehicle tends to travel in a straight direction, which is tangential to the curve, even when it
moves on a circular curve. As a result, the vehicle is subjected to a constant radial acceleration.
Radial acceleration = a = V2/R
where V is the velocity (metres per second) and
R is the radius of curve (metres).
This radial acceleration produces a centrifugal force which acts in a radial direction away from the
centre.
The value of the centrifugal force is given by the formula:
Force = mass * acceleration, F = m x (V2/R) = (W/g)x (V2/R)
where F is the centrifugal force (Kilo newton),
W is the weight of the vehicle (tonnes),
V is the speed (m/s),
g is the acceleration due to gravity (m/s2), and
R is the radius of the curve in metres.
To counteract the effect of the centrifugal force, the outer rail of the curve is elevated with respect
to the inner rail by an amount equal to the superelevation. A state of equilibrium is reached when

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both the wheels exert equal pressure on the rails and the superelevation is enough to bring the
resultant of the centrifugal force and the force exerted by the weight of the vehicle at right angles
to the plane of the top surface of the rails. In this state of equilibrium, the difference in the heights
of the outer and inner rails of the curve is known as equilibrium superelevation.

Fig. Equilibrium superelevation

Equilibrium Superelevation
In Fig. above, if θ is the angle that the inclined plane makes with the horizontal line, then
superelevation
tan θ = Superelevation / Gauge = e/ G
tan θ = Centrifugal force/weight = F/W
From these equations
e/ G = F/W
e = F x G/W
e = W/g x V2/R x G/W = GV2 / gR
Here,
e is the equilibrium superelevation,
G is the gauge,
Vis the velocity,
g is the acceleration due to gravity, and
R is the radius of the curve.
In the metric system equilibrium superelevation is given by the formula:
e = GV2 / 127R
where e is the superelevation in millimetres, V is the speed in km per hour, R is the radius of the
curve in metres, and G is the dynamic gauge in millimetres, which is equal to the sum of the gauge

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and the width of the rail head in millimetres. This is equall to 1750 mm for BG tracks and 1058
mm for MG tracks.

MAXIMUM VALUE OF SUPERELEVATION

The maximum value of superelevation has been laid down based on experiments carried out in
Europe on a standard gauge for the overturning velocity, taking into consideration the track
maintenance standards. The maximum value of superelevation generally adopted on on many
railways around the world is one-tenth to one-twelfth of the gauge. The values of maximum
superelevation prescribed on Indian Railways are given in Table below.
Table Maximum value of superelvation

7.7. Speed of trains on curves

Equilibrium speed
When the speed of a vehicle negotiating a curved track is such that the resultant force of the weight
of the vehicle and of radial acceleration is perpendicular to the plane of the rails, the vehicle is not
subjected to any unbalanced radial acceleration and is said to be in equilibrium. This particular
speed is called the equilibrium speed.

Maximum permissible speed

This is the highest speed permitted to a train on a curve taking into consideration the radius of
curvature, actual cant, cant deficiency, cant excess, and the length of transition. On curves where
the maximum permissible speed is less than the maximum sectional speed of the section of the
line, permanent speed restriction becomes necessary.

Cant deficiency (Cd)

It occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed higher than the equilibrium speed. It is the
difference between the theoretical cant required for such high speeds and the actual cant provided.

Cant excess (Ce)

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It occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed lower than the equilibrium speed. It is the
difference between the actual cant provided and the theoretical cant required for such a low speed.

Cant gradient and cant deficiency gradient

These indicate the increase or decrease in the cant or the deficiency of cant in a given length of
transition. A gradient of 1 in 1000 means that a cant or a deficiency of cant of 1 mm is attained or
lost in every 1000 mm of transition length.

Rate of change of cant or cant deficiency

This is the rate at which cant deficiency increases while passing over the transition curve, e.g., a
rate of 35 mm per second means that a vehicle will experience a change in cant or a cant deficiency
of 35 mm in each second of travel over the transition when travelling at the maximum permissible
speed.

7.8. Cant deficiency and Negative Superelevation

Cant deficiency is the difference between the equilibrium cant that is necessary for the maximum
permissible speed on a curve and the actual cant provided.
Cant deficiency is limited due to two considerations:
1. Higher cant deficiency causes greater discomfort to passengers
2. Higher cant deficiency leads to greater unbalanced centrifugal force, which in turn leads to the
requirement of stronger tracks and fastenings to withstand the resultant greater lateral forces. The
maximum values of cant deficiency prescribed on Indian Railways are given in Table below.

The limiting values of cant excess have also been prescribed.

Cant excess should not be more than 75 mm on BG and 65 mm on MG for all types of rolling
stock.
Cant excess should be worked out taking into consideration the booked speed of the trains running
on a particular section. In the case of a section that carries predominantly goods traffic, cant excess
should be kept low to minimize wear on the inner rail.

NEGATIVE SUPERELEVATION

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When the main line lies on a curve and has a turnout of contrary flexure leading to a branch line,
the superelevation necessary for the average speed of trains running over the main line curve
cannot be provided. In Fig. below, AB, which is the outer rail of the main line curve, must he
higher than CD. For the branch line, however CF should be higher than AE or point C should be
higher than point A. These two contradictory conditions cannot be met within one layout. In such
cases, the branch line curve has a negative superelevation and, therefore, speeds on both tracks
must be restricted, particularly on the branch line.

Fig: Negative superelevation

The provision of negative superelevation for the branch line and the reduction in speed over the
main line can be calculated as follows:
(i) The equilibrium superelevation for the branch line curve is first calculated using the
formula e = GV2 / 127R
(ii) The equilibrium superelevation e is reduced by the permissible cant deficiency Cd and
the resultant superelevation to be provided is x = e - Cd where x is the superelevation,
e is the equilibrium superelevation, and Cd is 75 mm for BG and 50 mm for MG. The
value of Cd is generally higher than that of e, and, therefore, x is normally negative.
The branch line thus has a negative superelevation of x.
(iii) The maximum permissible speed on the main line, which has a superelevation of x, is
then calculated by adding the allowable cant deficiency (x + Cd). The safe speed is also
calculated and the smaller of the two values is taken as the maximum permissible speed
on the main line curve.
For all practical purposes safe speed refers to a speed which protects a carriage from the danger of
overturning and derailment and provides a certain margin of safety. Earlier it was calculated
empirically by applying Martin's formula:
For BG and MG Transitioned curves

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V = 3.65(R -6)1/2
where V is the speed in km per hour and R is the radius in metres.
Non-transitioned curves
Safe speed = four-fifths of the speed calculated using Eqn. above
For NG Transitioned curves
V = 3.65(R – 6)1/2 (subject to a maximum of 50 kmph).
Non-transitioned curves
V = 2.92(R – 6)1/2 (subject to a maximum of 40 kmph).
Indian Railways no longer follows this concept of safe speed on curves or the stipulations given
here.
New Formula for Determining Maximum Permissible Speed on Transitioned Curves
Earlier, Martin's formula was used to work out the maximum permissible speed or safe speed on
curves. This empirical formula has been changed by applying a formula based on theoretical
considerations as per the recommendations of the committee of directors, chief engineers, and the
ACRS. The maximum speed for transitioned curves is now determined as per the revised formulae
given below:
For BG
V = ((Ca + Cd) x R/ 13.76)1/2 = 0.27((Ca + Cd) x R)1/2
where V is the maximum speed in km per hour, Ca is the actual cant in millimetres, Cd is the
permitted cant deficiency in millimetres, and R is the radius in millimetres. This equation is derived
from Eqn for equilibrium superelevation and assumes that G = 1 750 mm, which is the centre-to-
centre distance between the rail heads of a BG track with 52 g rails.
For MG
V = 0.347((Ca + Cd) x R)1/2
This assumes that the centre-to-centre (c/c) distance between the rail heads of an MG track is 1058
mm.
For NG (762 mm.)
V = 3.65(R – 6 )1/2 (subject to a maximum of 50 kmph)
(i) Maximum sanctioned speed of the section This is the maximum permissible speed
authorized by the commissioner of railway safety. This is determined after an analysis
of the condition of the track, the standard of interlocking, the type of locomotive and
rolling stock used, and other such factors.

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(ii) Maximum speed of the section based on cant deficiency This is the speed calculated
using the formula given in Table above. First, the equilibrium speed is decided after
taking various factors into consideration and the equilibrium superelevation (Ca)
calculated. The cant deficiency (Cd) is then added to the equilibrium superelevation
and the maximum speed is calculated as per this increased superelevation (Ca + Cd).
(iii) Maximum speed taking into consideration speed of goods train and cant excess
Cant (Ca) is calculated based on the speed of slow moving traffic, i.e., goods train. This
speed is decided for each section after taking various factors into account, but generally
its value is 65 km per hour for BG and 50 km per hour for MG. The maximum value
of cant excess (Ce) is added to this cant and it should be ensured that the cant for the
maximum speed does not exceed the value of the sum of the actual cant + and the cant
excess (Ca + Ce). (iv) Speed corresponding to the length of the transition curves
This is the least value of speed calculated after considering the various lengths of
transition curves given by the formulae listed in Table below.
7.9. Grade Compensation on curves
Curves provide extra resistance to the movement of trains. As a result, gradients are compensated
to the following extent on curves:
(a) On BG tracks, 0.04 per cent per degree of the curve or 70/R, whichever is minimum
(b) On MG tracks, 0.03 per cent per degree of curve or 52.5/R, whichever is minimum
(c) On NG tracks, 0.02 per cent per degree of curve or 35/R, whichever is minimum
where R is the radius of the curve in metres. The gradient of a curved portion of the section should
be flatter than the ruling gradient because of the extra resistance offered by the curve.
7.10. Bending of rails on curves
Curves of less than 3 degrees are considered to be flat curves and, in this case,, rails can be kept
in curved position by sleepers which are maintained in place by the ballast.
The curvature greater than 3 degrees are considered to be sharp curves. In order to correct the
curvature, it is desirable to bend the rails.
Otherwise, the side thrust on ballast at the ends of the sleepers due to the rail which acts as a
spring, that is sufficient to form elbows and disturb the alignment of the track.
The amount by which rail is to be bent can be easily found out as shown in fig.

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• AB = v = Rise of rail at centre

• PB = BQ = c = One-half of the chord length
• R = Radius of the curve
Now we can write,
⇰ AB ☓ BZ = PB ☓ BQ
⇰ v ☓ (2R-v) = c ☓ c
⇰ 2Rv – v2 = c2
⇰ v = c2 / 2R [ Neglecting v2 , as this will be very small]

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