Teaching Models

The concept of "Models of Teaching" was

developed by Joyce Bruce and Weil (1972).

A teaching model serves as a blueprint for

teaching, differing from general teaching

approaches by being specifically designed to

realize particular instructional objectives.

• Eggen (1993) defines models as “prescriptive

teaching strategies designed to accomplish

particular instructional goals.”

• Flanders (1970) elaborates further, stating, “A model is

merely a tool for thinking about classroom teaching

• Joyce and Weil (2005) define a model as a “pattern or plan,

which can be used to shape curriculum or course, to design

instructional materials, and to guide teachers’ actions.”

• Singh (1995), a teaching model provides a set of

interrelated components arranged in a sequence that acts

as a guideline to achieve a specific goal.

PURPOSE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF TEACHING MODELS

1. Provides guidelines for designing instructional

activities and environments.

2. Shapes courses of study and instructional materials.

3. Serves as a tool for face-to-face classroom teaching,

tutorial settings, or computer-mediated programs.

4. Leads to specific learning outcomes through well-

sequenced, replicable steps.
Each teaching model specifies:
§ Observable learning outcomes: What students
are expected to perform after completing the
instructional sequence.
§ Criteria for acceptable performance: The
standard students should achieve.
§ Behavioral outcomes: The specific behaviors or
skills learners demonstrate after completing a
given instructional sequence.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MODELS OF TEACHING

• Specification of Learning Outcomes

• Scientific Procedure

• Specification of Environment

• Specification of Criteria of Performance

• Specification of Operations
FUNCTIONS OF MODELS OF TEACHING

• Developing Curriculum or Course of Study

• Guiding Research Activities in the Teaching-

Learning Process

• Specification of Instructional Material

• Improvement in Teaching
ELEMENTS OF MODELS OF TEACHING
1. Focus
2. Syntax
3. Principles of Reaction
4. Social System
5. Support System
6.Application
INSTRUCTIONAL AND NURTURANT EFFECTS IN TEACHING MODELS
Instructional Effects

Instructional effects are the direct, planned, and

intended learning outcomes of a teaching model.
These are the specific skills, knowledge, and
behaviours that students are expected to acquire
from instruction.
• Eg. In a math class, students are explicitly
taught how to solve algebraic equations.
 Nurturant Effects

Nurturant effects are the indirect, unplanned, and

secondary learning outcomes that occur as a result of
instruction. These effects shape students' attitudes, values,
and social behaviors, often emerging organically over time.

• Eg. A math lesson on problem-solving also teaches

persistence and patience.
• A science project on environmental issues nurtures
awareness and responsibility toward nature.
 CLASSIFICATION OF MODELS OF TEACHING

Bruce Joyce and Marsha Weil (1992) revolutionized

instructional strategies by organizing teaching models into

four families, based on how they approach educational

goals and methods. They identified about 25 models,

1. Information Processing Models Family
This family aims at enhancing the learners' ability to
process and master information, organize data, and
solve problems through inquiry and critical thinking.
Examples of Information Processing Models:
§ Inquiry Training Model
§ Inductive Thinking Model
§ Concept Attainment Model
§ Cognitive Growth Model
§ Advance Organizer Model
§ Scientific Inquiry Model
§ Memory Model
 2. Personal Models Family
§ Emphasizes human feelings and emotions.
§ Aims at developing an integrated, functioning self.
§ Encourages productive relationships with the environment.
§ Helps individuals construct and organize their unique
realities.
Examples of Personal Models:
§ Non-Directive Teaching
§ Awareness Training
§ Synectics
3. Social Interaction Models Family
This family combines learning with social living, preparing
individuals for productive participation in democratic processes.
Examples of Social Interaction Models:
§ Group Investigation Model
§ Social Inquiry Model
§ Laboratory Model
§ Jurisprudential Model
§ Training Model
§ Role-Playing Model
§ Value Discussion Model
§ Social Simulation Model
 4. Behavior Modification Models Family

This family is rooted in reinforcement theory

and focuses on modifying visible behaviour
through stimulus-response mechanisms.
Examples of Behaviour Modification Models:
§ Programmed Instruction Model
§ Contingency Management Model
§ Assertive Training Model
§ Anxiety Reduction Model
§ Simulation Model
§ Relaxation Model
INFORMATION PROCESSING MODELS OF TEACHING

§ Focus on productive thinking and problem-solving skills.

§ Emphasis on improving intellectual abilities and inductive
reasoning.
§ Many models are rooted in academic disciplines, focusing
on concept development and knowledge organization.
§ Foster integrated and functional self-development
through intellectual functioning.
Summary of Goals for Each Model
1. Inquiry Training Model: Enhances inquiry skills and

inductive reasoning.

2. Inductive Thinking Model: Strengthens mental

processing and reasoning via inductive approaches.

3. Concept Attainment Model: Focuses on forming

and analyzing concepts.

4. Cognitive Growth Model: Promotes intellectual
growth and reasoning.

5. Advance Organizer Model: Facilitates better

organization and integration of new information.

6. Scientific Inquiry Model: Develops research and

systematic inquiry skills.

7. Memory Model: Improves memory retention and

recall abilities.
Advance Organizer Model (AOM)

• Based on the Meaningful Verbal Learning Theory

by David P. Ausubel.

• This model was introduced in his book Education

Psychology: A Cognitive View (1968) and focuses

on the importance of relating new material to

existing knowledge for meaningful learning.

 Core Concepts of AOM

• Meaningful Verbal Learning Theory

• The AOM is a deductive information-processing model

designed to teach interrelated bodies of content.

• emphasizes the hierarchical structure of concepts

• For meaningful learning to occur, new material must relate

to established ideas in the learner’s cognitive structure

 Application of AOM

• Scope: AOM can be applied to any material that can be

intellectually organized.

• Versatility: While originally designed for verbal material,

it can be applied across almost all subject areas. It is
especially useful in subjects where knowledge is
hierarchical and involves abstract concepts.

• Transferability: It helps learners transfer knowledge to

new problem settings.
 The Role of Advance Organizers

• Advance Organizers are introductory materials

presented before learning tasks,

• The primary purpose is to give students a conceptual

framework to link new material

• As new organizers accumulate, they form the cognitive

structure of the discipline in the learner’s mind

 Types of Advance Organizers
Expository Organizers:
o Used for completely unfamiliar material.

o They provide ideational anchorage by introducing

abstract concepts to scaffold the learning process.

Comparative Organizers:Used for relatively familiar

material. They integrate new concepts with similar
existing concepts in the cognitive structure,
 Focus/Objectives of AOM

• Develop Cognitive Structure:

• Knowledge of Concepts:

• Arrangement of Knowledge:

• Linking New and Previous Knowledge

Syntax/Structure of AOM

• General Presentation (Advance Organizer):

• Specific Presentation (Learning Task):

• Strengthening Cognitive Organization:

 Principle of Reaction in AOM

§ The teacher or instructional material controls the

learning situation.
§ Teachers facilitate discussions, guide students to
clarify meaning, reconcile new material with
existing knowledge, and promote critical thinking.
 Social System of AOM

§ The teacher takes a more active role, explaining and

structuring the content.

§ The student has a more passive role, primarily listening

and processing the material.

§ Lecture method is commonly used for delivery in AOM.

 Support System of AOM

§ Well-organized learning materials, including the

Advance Organizer and subsequent content, form the

most important support.

§ Additional tools such as charts, models, and film strips

can be used to further enhance understanding.

 Evaluation and Application of AOM

• Traditional Evaluations: Oral and written exams

are considered suitable for evaluating the

effectiveness of the model.

• Subject Versatility: The model is applicable

across all subjects, especially those requiring

structured and hierarchical learning.

Instructional Effects of the Advance Organizer Model

• Enhances Meaningful Learning

• Improves Information Retention and Recall

• Promotes Conceptual Understanding

• Facilitates Transfer of Knowledge

Nurturant Effects of the Advance Organizer Model

• Encourages Independent Learning

• Enhances Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving

• Boosts Motivation and Engagement

• Develops Organizational and Study Skills

Inquiry Training Model

• Richard Suchman

• The model is based on the assumption that

knowledge is tentative and constantly evolving.

• It supports the idea that students learn best when

they participate in the inquiry process,

encouraging them to explore new strategies and

integrate them into their existing knowledge

Key Assumptions of the Inquiry Training Model

• Natural curiosity

• Self-awareness of thinking

• Cooperative inquiry

• Alternative explanations
Objectives/Focus of the Inquiry Training Model

• Enhancing thinking ability

• Forming conclusions

• Fluency in thinking and speaking

• Training inquiry skills

Syntax of the Inquiry Training Model
1. Encounter with the Problem

Ø In this phase, the teacher introduces a puzzling

situation or problem to the students.

Ø The aim is to create new knowledge and stimulate

curiosity.

Ø The teacher also explains the inquiry procedures to

guide the students through the process.

Syntax of the Inquiry Training Model
2. Data Gathering – Verification
Ø Students gather detailed information about the
problem.
Ø They seek clarifications and explore their doubts about
the problem.
Ø The teacher prepares the environment for inquiry
success by adopting an encouraging attitude.
Ø Verification involves asking questions and identifying
valid or invalid points.
Syntax of the Inquiry Training Model
3. Data Gathering – Experimentation

Ø In this stage, students actively engage in asking

questions related to the problem.

Ø The teacher responds with yes or no, guiding students

towards understanding.

Ø The questioning continues until the mystery of the

problem is solved.
Syntax of the Inquiry Training Model
4. Formulating an Explanation

Ø In this phase, the teacher invites students to formulate

explanations.

Ø Students discuss their ideas, and rules may be

formulated from their findings.

Ø Deviations in reasoning are checked to ensure efforts

are directed correctly.

Syntax of the Inquiry Training Model
5. Analysis of the Inquiry Process

Ø Students reflect on the methods they used during the

inquiry process.

Ø This phase helps them evaluate the strategies they

employed and find suitable solutions to problems.

Ø Reflection ensures that students improve their approach

to future inquiries.
Principles of Reaction in the Inquiry Training Model

Ø Confirming responses
Ø Directing question reconstruction
Ø Identifying invalid points
Ø Using inquiry-specific language
Ø Creating a free intellectual environment
Ø Encouraging clear explanations
Ø Motivating meaningful interaction
Social System of the Inquiry Training Model

Teacher’s role: The teacher has a controlling role in

creating an intellectual environment where students
are encouraged to explore, discuss, and experiment.
Learner involvement: Students are actively engaged
in the inquiry process, with opportunities for
collaboration and discussion with both peers and the
teacher.
Social System of the Inquiry Training Model

Group interaction: Cooperative inquiry encourages

interaction with resources and other learners,
leading to a broader and deeper understanding of
the subject matter.
Support System of the Inquiry Training Model

Confronting materials: The teacher provides

materials that challenge students to think critically
and solve problems.
Resource materials: Relevant resources, articles,
or books related to the inquiry topic help students
deepen their understanding.
Inquiry material development: Teachers develop
specialized materials to further facilitate the
inquiry process, guiding students through the
complexities of their investigation.
Application of the Inquiry Training Model

Subject applicability: This model is highly effective in

the natural sciences, where inquiry-based learning
thrives. It encourages students to explore,
experiment, and reason through scientific
phenomena.
Adaptability to other subjects
Instructional Effects of the Inquiry Training Model

Ø Develops Scientific Thinking and Inquiry Skills

Ø Enhances Problem-Solving and Reasoning

Abilities

Ø Improves Questioning and Data Collection Skills

Ø Encourages Active Engagement with Learning

Ø Promotes Understanding of the Scientific Method

Nurturant Effects of the Inquiry Training Model

Ø Fosters Curiosity and a Lifelong Love for

Learning
Ø Encourages Open-Mindedness and Skepticism
Ø Develops Independence and Self-Directed
Learning
Ø Builds Patience and Resilience in Learning
Ø Strengthens Collaboration and Communication
Skills
 CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL (CAM)
• Developed by Jerome S. Bruner, Jacqueline Goodnow, and
George Austine
• A concept is a category where all members share specific
attributes not shared by others.
• Concepts have three elements:
• Examples: Instances of the concept (positive or negative).
• Attributes: Characteristics of the examples.
• Attribute Values: Specific values of each attribute.
 Objectives/ Focus of CAM

• To teach specific concepts.

• To understand the nature of concepts.

• To create awareness about thinking strategies

and improve concept-building skills.

To provide practice in inductive reasoning

 Phases of CAM

Phase I – Presentation of Data and Identification of Concept

• Teacher presents examples (positive and negative) in a pre-

arranged order.

• Examples are labeled as "Yes" (positive) or "No" (negative).

• Students hypothesize the concept by comparing and

justifying attributes.
Phase II – Testing Attainment of Concept
Students test their hypothesis by:

§ Correctly identifying new unlabeled examples.

§ Generating their own examples.

Phase III – Analysis of Thinking Strategies

§ Students analyze their thinking strategies used during concept

attainment.

§ Questions for reflection:

• Did they focus on attributes or the concept?

• Did they evaluate attributes one at a time or multiple at once?

• How did they adjust their strategy if their hypothesis failed?

 Principles of Reaction
The teacher should:

§ Be supportive of students’ ideas and hypotheses.

§ Guide students to analyze their concepts and

strategies.
 Social System of CAM

§ The model involves active interaction between

teacher and students.

§ The teacher plays a facilitator role, maintaining

control over the process.

 Support System of CAM

§ Requires well-designed materials with positive and

negative examples of the concept.

§ Use of educational boards, graphic materials, or

other visual aids can enhance understanding.

 Applications of CAM

§ Suitable for all age groups and grade levels.

§ Widely applicable in subjects like:

o Language Teaching (e.g., grammar).

o Science (e.g., discovery and inquiry techniques).

§ Effective in revealing the depth of students'

understanding and reinforcing prior knowledge.

Instructional Effects of the Concept Attainment Model

• Develops Conceptual Understanding

• Enhances Critical Thinking and Classification Skills

• Improves Pattern Recognition and Inductive Reasoning

• Strengthens Problem-Solving Abilities

• Facilitates Transfer of Knowledge

Nurturant Effects of the Concept Attainment Model

• Encourages Independent Learning and Curiosity

• Fosters Logical Thinking and Decision-Making Skills

• Promotes Attention to Detail and Precision

• Develops Patience and Persistence

• Encourages Metacognition (Thinking About Thinking)

 SCIENTIFIC ENQUIRY MODEL

The Scientific Enquiry Model was propounded by J.

Schwab and is particularly effective in subjects like

mathematics and science.

Core Concepts of the Scientific Enquiry Model

• emphasizes active student involvement in the

learning process.

• helps in developing problem-solving skills and

enhances creativity in students.

• This model is grounded in the scientific method,

where students engage in inquiry-based learning.

Focus/Objectives of the Scientific Enquiry Model

• Active Involvement

• Problem-Solving Skills

• Creativity Enhancement
Syntax/Structure of the Scientific Enquiry Model

• Step I - Problem Statement:

• Step II - Hypothesis Formation:

• Step III - Carrying Out the Solution:

Principle of Reaction in the Scientific Enquiry Model
• The teacher provides support in ensuring that students focus

on the enquiry process, particularly in the field of science.

• Student reactions and responses to activities are an

important part of the model, as they help in refining

understanding and problem-solving.

Social System of the Scientific Enquiry Model
• Active Participation: Both the teacher and students

remain actively involved throughout the inquiry process.

• Learning by Doing: Students learn through hands-on

experiences and direct engagement with the problem-

solving process.
Support System of the Scientific Enquiry Model
• The model requires a flexible instructor who is skilled

in guiding students through the enquiry process.

• The teacher should be equipped with effective teaching

methods and a variety of support materials such as

laboratory equipment to facilitate the inquiry process.

 Evaluation and Application of the Scientific Enquiry Model

• Evaluation: The evaluation in this model is primarily based

on practical exams where students demonstrate their

ability to solve problems and apply the scientific method.

• Application: This model is particularly applicable in

science subjects, but can also be used in other fields

where inquiry and problem-solving are essential.

Instructional Effects of the Scientific Inquiry Model

• Develops Scientific Knowledge and Conceptual Understanding

• Enhances Problem-Solving and Inquiry Skills

• Strengthens Logical Thinking and Data Interpretation

• Encourages Application of Knowledge to Real-World Situations

Nurturant Effects of the Scientific Inquiry Model

• Fosters Curiosity and a Love for Learning

• Develops a Scientific Attitude (Skepticism and

Open-Mindedness)

• Encourages Collaboration and Teamwork

• Builds Patience, Perseverance, and Resilience

• Promotes Ethical Responsibility and

Environmental Awareness
 INDUCTIVE THINKING MODEL

The Inductive Thinking Model is based on the theory of Hilda

Taba, who developed a series of teaching strategies to foster

inductive reasoning, particularly the ability to categorize and

use categories. This model was presented in her book

Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice (1962).

Core Assumptions of Hilda Taba's Approach

• Thinking can be taught

• Thinking is an active transaction:

• Lawful sequences in thought

Three Teaching Strategies for Developing Inductive Thinking
Strategy 1: Concept Formation :

• Identifying and enumerating data relevant to a topic or problem.

• Grouping these items into categories based on shared attributes.

• Labeling and categorizing the groups.

• Taba uses tasks designed to engage students in the process of

identifying categories and their attributes.

Strategy 2: Interpretation of Data :
• Interpreting, inferring, and generalizing data.
• Students build hypotheses about relationships,
explore causation, and build generalizations from
these relationships.
• The goal is to develop a deeper understanding of how
data relates to real-world phenomena.
Strategy 3: Application of Principles:

Students first engage in concept formation activities,

then proceed to interpreting data and finally move to

applying principles.

The key task is to predict consequences from established

conditions.
Objectives/Focus of the Inductive Thinking Model
• Develop thinking skills: Focuses on observation,

comparing, finding patterns, and generalizing.

• Teaching specific concepts: While developing thinking

skills, the model also teaches specific concepts or

generalizations.
Syntax/Structure of the Inductive Thinking Model

Strategy 1: Concept Formation

1. Phase I: Enumeration and Listing – Identify and
list relevant data.

2. Phase II: Grouping – Organize the data into groups

based on common attributes.

3. Phase III: Labeling and Categorizing – Label the

groups and categorize them accordingly.
Strategy 2: Interpretation of Data

4. Phase IV: Identifying Critical Relationships –

Identify relationships within the grouped data.

5. Phase V: Exploring Relationships – Explore and

investigate these relationships further.

6. Phase VI: Making Inferences – Make inferences

based on relationships and data exploration.

Strategy 3: Application of Principles
7. Phase VII: Predicting Consequences – Predict
consequences from established principles or conditions.

8. Phase VIII: Explaining or Supporting the Predictions –

Provide explanations or justifications for the predictions.

9. Phase IX: Verifying the Prediction – Verify or test the

accuracy of the predictions.
Principles of Reaction in the Inductive Thinking Model

• Task alignment with cognitive levels: The teacher

matches tasks to students' cognitive levels and readiness.

• Gradual shift of control: Initially, the teacher controls the

learning activities. However, as students gain proficiency,

they gradually assume greater control over the process.

Social System of the Inductive Thinking Model

• model promotes a cooperative classroom

atmosphere with active student participation.

Teacher's role: The teacher initiates each phase and

determines the sequence of activities.

 Support System of the Inductive Thinking Model

• Students need raw data to organize, categorize, and

analyze effectively.

• Teachers should provide tools and materials that

support the analysis and interpretation of data, helping

students engage in the inductive reasoning process.

 Application of the Inductive Thinking Model
• This model is designed to instruct students in concept

formation and simultaneously teach specific concepts.

• It nurtures skills in logic, language, and the meaning of

words, while also fostering an understanding of the

nature of knowledge.
Instructional Effects of the Inductive Thinking Model

• Enhances Concept Formation and Categorization Skills

• Strengthens Analytical and Logical Thinking

• Develops Problem-Solving and Inquiry Skills

• Promotes Data Interpretation and Generalization

• Encourages Active Participation in Learning

Nurturant Effects of the Inductive Thinking Model

• Fosters Curiosity and Inquiry-Based Learning

• Develops Open-Mindedness and Critical Thinking

• Builds Independence and Self-Directed Learning

• Encourages Flexibility in Thinking

• Improves Decision-Making and Judgment Skills