COMPUTER HARDWARE

First Edition

Xikmaal 5/19/25 Hardware

 What is Computer Hardware?

What It Is:

Computer hardware includes all physical parts of a computer — the parts you can
touch. Hardware works together with software (programs) to make a computer
function.

Explanation:

Think of a computer as a body:

• Hardware = bones and muscles

• Software = brain and thoughts
The hardware receives input, processes it, and shows output.

Key Terms:

• Hardware: Physical components (keyboard, monitor)

• Software: Programs/instructions (Windows, Word)
• Input Devices: Send data (keyboard, mouse)
• Output Devices: Show results (monitor, printer)

Diagram Description:
 How Computer Hardware Works

What It Is:

This lesson explains how all parts of the computer talk to each other and work with
software to perform tasks.

Explanation:

When you turn on the computer:

1. Power Supply gives electricity.

2. BIOS checks if hardware is OK.
3. Operating System loads from storage to RAM.
4. CPU begins processing instructions.

Key Terms:

• Booting: Starting the computer

• CPU: Central Processing Unit – the "brain"
• RAM: Temporary memory for fast tasks
• Firmware: Startup software inside the motherboard
• Drivers: Software that lets hardware talk to OS

Diagram Description:

Diagram: Flowchart showing:

 Motherboard & CPU

What They Are:

The motherboard connects all hardware together. The CPU processes all data and
runs commands.

Explanation:

• Motherboard: Like a city map connecting all hardware (CPU, RAM,

drives).
• CPU: Does math, logic, and controls tasks.

Key Terms:

• Chipset: Controls communication between CPU, RAM, storage

• Socket: Slot where CPU is installed
• Core: Mini processor inside a CPU (dual-core, quad-core, etc.)

Diagram Descriptions:

Motherboard Layout: Labeled diagram showing

o CPU socket
o RAM slots
o PCIe slots
o SATA ports

The Processor (CPU)

A processor is an integrated circuit (IC)
supplied on a single silicon chip. All of the
components and pathways necessary for the
movement of data around the processor are
etched on this single chip.
 CPU Types:

The major manufacturers of desktop and laptop computer processors are Intel®
and AMD®, and more recently, Apple.

Intel was founded in the late 1960s and has dominated the personal computer
market for decades, beginning with the Intel 4004 4-bit processor released in 1971.

AMD (Advanced Micro Devices) was founded in 1969 and has historically always
had a lower market share than Intel, but in recent years it has grown its share of the
processor market at Intel’s expense.

Apple has always relied on other companies to design and produce its processors,
beginning with Motorola, and then switching to Intel in 2006. In recent years,
Apple has begun making its own computer CPUs, beginning with the M1
processor in the MacBook Air in 2020.

RAM & ROM

RAM holds open apps and files. ROM stores basic startup code

Explanation:

• RAM stands for Random Access Memory, and ROM stands for Read Only
Memory. RAM is memory that stores the data that you're currently working
with, but it's volatile, meaning that as soon as it loses power, that data
disappears.
• ROM refers to permanent memory. It's non-volatile, so when it loses power,
the data remains.

Key Terms:

• DDR4/DDR5: Modern RAM types

• BIOS/UEFI: Startup menu stored in ROM
• Volatile Memory: Loses data when off (RAM)
• Non-volatile Memory: Keeps data always (ROM)
 Storage Devices (HDD, SSD, NVMe)

What They Are:

These hold your OS, apps, and files. Different types give different speed and size.

The primary storage (main memory) of a computer system is volatile. This

means that when the computer is switched off, the contents of primary storage are
erased. A system was needed whereby work could be saved for use at a later time.
The hard disk drive is the accepted solution to this problem.

Explanation:

• HDD: Old, slow, large

• SSD: Faster, no moving parts
• NVMe: Super-fast SSD that plugs into motherboard directly

Key Terms:

• SATA: Cable used by HDD/SSD

• M.2: Slot used by NVMe SSD
• Read/Write Speed: How fast data is moved

Comparison Table: Storage Devices

Type Speed Durability Price

HDD Slow Low Cheap
SSD Fast High Mid
NVMe Fastest Very High Expensive

Device Images:

• HDD: Large boxy shape

• SSD: Thin and flat
• NVMe: Small stick-like chip
 Graphics & Expansion Cards

What They Are:

Expansion cards, including graphics cards, are circuit boards that can be inserted
into a computer's expansion slots to enhance its functionality.

They provide additional features and capabilities that the computer's basic
configuration may not initially include.

A graphics card, for example, processes video calculations and generates a feed of
graphics output to a display device like a monitor, allowing for improved visual
performance.

Explanation:

• Integrated GPU: Inside CPU – basic display

• Dedicated GPU: Separate card – gaming, video editing
• Expansion Cards: Add extra ports or functions (sound cards, Wi-Fi cards)

Key Terms:

• PCIe: Slot where expansion cards are placed

• VRAM: Memory in a GPU
• HDMI/VGA: Display ports

Diagram Descriptions: Sound card and Network card

Motherboard with PCIe Cards.

 Input/Output Devices & Power Supply

What They Are:

• Input: Send info in (keyboard, mouse)

• Output: Get results (monitor, speaker)
• PSU: Power Supply Unit – gives electricity to all parts

Explanation:

Each component needs power. The PSU converts wall electricity into usable
power.

Key Terms:

• Watt (W): Power measurement

• Connector Types: SATA power, 24-pin ATX, PCIe 6/8 pin
• Modular PSU: You connect only needed cables

Diagram Descriptions:

1. PSU Image: Box with lots of colored cables

2. Input/Output Table

Input Output
Keyboard Monitor
Mouse Speakers
Scanner Projector
 System Cooling & BIOS Settings

What They Are:

• Cooling: Keeps computer cool

• BIOS: Allows hardware settings control

Explanation:

Overheating can crash your system. BIOS lets you manage fan speed, boot order,
etc.

Key Terms:

• Heatsink: Absorbs heat from CPU

• Thermal Paste: Helps transfer heat between CPU and cooler
• Fan Curve: Fan speed based on temperature

Diagram Descriptions:

1. Cooling System Image:

• diagram showing: Fan → pushes air Heatsink → absorbs heat

Thermal Paste → between CPU and cooler
 What is BIOS?
BIOS stands for Basic Input/Output System. It is firmware built into your
computer’s motherboard. When you power on your computer, the BIOS is the very
first program that runs. Its job is to:
• Initialize and identify the hardware components (CPU, RAM, hard drive,
keyboard, etc.)
• Run a quick hardware check (this is the POST process, which we’ll
explain in a moment)
• Load the bootloader, which starts your operating system like Windows or
Linux
The BIOS also gives you access to the BIOS Setup Utility, where you can
configure settings like boot order, CPU features, system clock, and more.

What is CMOS?
CMOS stands for Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor, and in this
context, it refers to a small memory chip on the motherboard that stores the
settings configured in the BIOS.
For example, when you set the system clock or choose which drive to boot from in
the BIOS, those settings are saved in the CMOS chip — not in the BIOS
firmware itself.
The CMOS is powered by a small battery on the motherboard (often a coin-sized
CR2032 battery). This battery keeps the CMOS chip powered even when the
computer is off, so your BIOS settings don’t get lost.
If the battery dies or is removed, the BIOS will lose your settings and revert to
default. That’s why your computer may forget the time or boot settings if the
CMOS battery is dead.

What is POST?
POST stands for Power-On Self-Test. It is not a chip or a physical part, but
rather a process that the BIOS performs immediately after the computer is powered
on.
The purpose of POST is to test critical hardware components to make sure they
are working correctly. It checks things like:
• Is the CPU responding?
• Is RAM installed and functional?
• Is the graphics card working?
 • Is the keyboard connected?
If everything checks out, the computer continues booting.

Troubleshooting Techniques
&
Fixing Hardware Problems
 1. RAM (Random Access Memory)

Common Problems:

Issue Explanation
Computer beeps on startup BIOS detects RAM error.
Blue Screen of Death Faulty or incompatible RAM causes system
(BSOD) crashes.
System fails to boot RAM may be improperly seated or damaged.
Frequent application crashes RAM can't store or access needed data correctly.

Fixes:

• Reseat the RAM: Turn off PC, remove and reinstall RAM sticks.
• Use only compatible RAM: Check motherboard specs.
• Run memory diagnostics: Use tools like MemTest86.
• Clean RAM contacts: Use an eraser or alcohol swab.
• Replace the faulty module if confirmed bad.

2. ROM (Read-Only Memory)

Common Problems:

Issue Explanation
System can’t boot or load BIOS BIOS/firmware stored in ROM is corrupted.
Error messages during POST ROM may be unreadable or damaged.

Fixes:

• Reflash BIOS: Update or restore BIOS using a USB flash drive (if
supported).
• Replace ROM chip: In rare cases, physical ROM chips may be replaced.
• Clear CMOS: Reset BIOS to factory settings using jumper or battery
removal.
 3. BIOS (Basic Input Output System)

Common Problems:

Issue Explanation
No display / Black screen BIOS failed to initialize hardware.
Wrong date/time after restart CMOS battery is dead.
Stuck on POST screen BIOS is misconfigured or corrupted.
Boot device not found BIOS doesn’t detect storage drives.

Fixes:

• Reset BIOS: Use CMOS jumper or remove the CMOS battery.

• Update BIOS: Download and install the latest firmware from the
motherboard’s site.
• Replace CMOS battery: CR2032 battery for maintaining settings.
• Check boot order: Set correct boot device in BIOS setup.

4. HDD (Hard Disk Drive)

Common Problems:

Issue Explanation
Clicking or grinding noises Physical damage inside the drive.
Slow performance Failing sectors or fragmented files.
Drive not detected Loose cables, bad ports, or dead drive.
OS not booting Corrupted system files or dead HDD.

Fixes:

• Check cables and power: Reseat SATA and power cables.

• Run disk check: Use chkdsk or tools like CrystalDiskInfo.
• Defragment HDD: Only for spinning drives (not SSDs).
• Backup & replace: Replace if health is poor or it's physically damaged.
• Use external adapter to test drive on another PC.
 5. Power Supply Unit (PSU)

Common Problems:

Issue Explanation
No power to the computer PSU is dead or unplugged.
PC randomly shuts off Inconsistent power output.
Burning smell or sparks PSU is failing dangerously.
Fans spin but no display PSU may not deliver enough power to components.

Fixes:

• Use a multimeter or PSU tester to check output voltages.

• Replace with a known good PSU for testing.
• Clean out dust: Overheating may cause shutdowns.
• Ensure proper wattage: PSU should match or exceed system requirements.

6. Touchpad (Laptop Trackpad)

Common Problems:

Issue Explanation
Cursor doesn’t move Touchpad disabled or driver issue.
Erratic movement Dirty surface or sensitivity setting.
No gestures or multi-touch Missing driver features.
Touchpad not detected Driver corruption or hardware fault.

Fixes:

• Check if touchpad is disabled: Toggle using Fn key + function key (like

F7).
• Update/reinstall drivers: Use Device Manager or manufacturer’s website.
• Clean the touchpad surface: Remove dirt or oil.
• Enable in BIOS: Some BIOS settings allow enabling/disabling touchpad.
• Test in Safe Mode: Helps determine if the issue is driver-related.
 Common Beep Codes & Their Meanings
Beep Code Meaning Likely Faulty Component

1 short beep System is OK No problem

2 short beeps Minor POST error Display or keyboard

1 long, 2 short Video error Graphics card or monitor

1 long, 3 short Video memory error Video card

Continuous RAM or keyboard error RAM or keyboard not

beeping connected

3 short beeps Base 64K memory failure RAM

4 short beeps System timer failure Motherboard

5 short beeps Processor error CPU

6 short beeps Keyboard controller failure Keyboard/motherboard

7 short beeps Virtual mode exception CPU

8 short beeps Display memory read/write GPU

failure

9 short beeps BIOS checksum error BIOS chip

10 short beeps CMOS read/write error CMOS/BIOS

11 short beeps Cache memory error CPU or cache

 Common POST & Boot Error Signs with Meanings
Symptom Possible Cause What It Means / What to
Check

No power at all PSU or power cable Check if PSU is working and

issue plugged in properly

PC turns on but no GPU, RAM, or Check GPU and RAM seating,

display monitor issue test monitor and cables

Beeping sounds Hardware error Listen to beep pattern and refer to

code table

Time and date reset CMOS battery Replace the CMOS battery
failure

Keyboard not USB port or Try a different port or keyboard

responding keyboard issue

No boot device found HDD/SSD or cable Check BIOS boot order and drive
problem connections

Overheating Fan failure or dust Clean fans, reapply thermal paste

buildup if needed

Random PSU or RAM issue Test RAM, check PSU wattage

restarts/shutdowns and condition

Touchpad not working Disabled or driver Enable with Fn key or update

issue drivers
 TROUBLESHOOTING
SOFTWARE PROBLEMS
 TROUBLESHOOTING SOFTWARE PROBLEMS

Software problems are issues caused by errors in programs, applications, the

operating system, drivers, or settings — not by faulty hardware. Troubleshooting
these problems requires careful observation of signs and step-by-step diagnosis.

COMMON SIGNS OF SOFTWARE PROBLEMS

Sign What It Might Mean

Slow system performance Too many background programs, malware,
or insufficient resources
Application crashes or freezing Corrupted software, incompatible drivers,
or system updates
Blue Screen (BSOD - Windows) Driver errors, software conflicts, or serious
system corruption
System restarting unexpectedly Software updates gone wrong, malware, or
corrupted system files
Error messages (e.g., “DLL missing”, Application file corruption or missing
“Program not responding”) dependencies
Internet or network issues DNS misconfiguration, proxy settings, or
corrupted browser data
Unable to install or update software Permission issues, low disk space, or
corrupted Windows Installer

CAUSES OF SOFTWARE ISSUES

• Virus or malware infection

• Corrupt system files or applications
• Bad drivers (wrong or outdated)
• Improper system shutdowns
• Conflicting programs or background processes
• Incomplete software installations or updates
• User misconfiguration of settings
 FIXES FOR COMMON SOFTWARE PROBLEMS
1. Restart the System
• Why: Clears memory, stops faulty processes, and resets basic system
functions.
• When to Use: Any time performance drops or errors start showing
suddenly.

2. Run Antivirus or Antimalware Scan

• Why: Malware can slow down the system or interfere with software.
• Tools: Windows Defender, Malwarebytes, Avast, etc.

3. Update the Operating System and Drivers

• Why: Fixes known bugs and improves compatibility.
• How: Use Windows Update (or Software Updater in Linux/macOS) and
Device Manager for drivers.

4. Uninstall and Reinstall Faulty Software

• Why: Corrupt installations can cause freezing or errors.
• How: Use "Add/Remove Programs" in Windows or corresponding tools in
Linux/macOS.

5. Run System File Checker (SFC) – Windows

• Command:
• sfc /scannow
• Why: Scans and fixes corrupted system files.

6. Check Startup Programs

• Why: Too many auto-launching programs can slow down or conflict with
system performance.
• Tool: Use Task Manager > Startup in Windows or msconfig.

7. Boot into Safe Mode

• Why: Starts Windows with minimal drivers and background apps, ideal for
diagnosis.
• Use Case: When normal mode fails or crashes repeatedly.

8. Restore System to Earlier Point

• Why: Reverts system settings to a stable state.
• Tool: "System Restore" in Windows (requires restore points).
 SIGNS THAT POINT TO SPECIFIC SOFTWARE ISSUES
Sign Likely Issue Fix
“Program Not Memory leak, corrupted Reinstall or replace the
Responding” frequently app application
Long boot time Too many startup Disable unneeded apps at
programs startup
No sound but hardware Missing or wrong audio Update/reinstall audio
is fine driver driver
Can’t connect to Wi-Fi IP conflict, DNS error, Reset adapter, flush DNS,
or firewall or check firewall
Browser freezing or Too many extensions or Clear cache, disable
crashing corrupted cache extensions
System crashes after Driver conflict or Roll back update or update
update update error drivers

HOW TO RECOVER YOUR DATA FROM A CRASHED COMPUTER

USING RECOVERY SOFTWARES?

METHOD: Recover Your Files Using External Software Tools

WHAT YOU NEED:
• A working computer
• A USB flash drive or external hard drive
• A recovery tool (free or paid)
• Basic knowledge of changing boot order in BIOS/UEFI
Step 1: Choose a Recovery Tool (Bootable)
Pick a recovery tool that lets you boot into a working environment and copy
your files.
Recommended Free Tools:
Tool Name What It Does
Hiren’s BootCD PE Boots into Windows PE, lets you access files and
tools
Ubuntu Live USB Linux OS you can boot into and access Windows
files
Rescuezilla Backup and recover disk images, access partitions
EaseUS Data Deep scan for lost data after system crash
Recovery (paid/limited free)
Recuva (via Hiren) Recover deleted files (free version)
 Step 2: Create a Bootable USB
Use a working computer and these steps:
A. Using Hiren’s BootCD PE:
1. Download ISO from: https://www.hirensbootcd.org/
2. Use Rufus to create a bootable USB:
o Open Rufus
o Select your USB
o Choose the ISO file
o Start the process
B. Using Ubuntu Live USB:
1. Download Ubuntu ISO: https://ubuntu.com/download/desktop
2. Use balenaEtcher or Rufus to make bootable USB

Step 3: Boot Crashed Computer from USB

1. Insert the bootable USB into the crashed computer
2. Turn it on and press the boot key (often F12, F9, ESC, or DEL)
3. Choose the USB drive to boot from

Step 4: Access Your Files

➤ Using Hiren’s BootCD PE:
• Loads a minimal Windows interface
• Open File Explorer
• Browse your internal drives (C:, D:, etc.)
• Copy your files to a USB drive or external hard disk
➤ Using Ubuntu Live USB:
• Select “Try Ubuntu”
• It boots to desktop without installing anything
• Open Files app (like Explorer)
• Browse the Windows partition and copy your data

Step 5: Back Up Your Data

Once you access your files:
• Plug in an external USB drive
• Copy important folders (Documents, Pictures, Desktop, Downloads, etc.)
• Verify copied files before reinstalling Windows
TIPS:
• Focus on user folders like:
C:\Users\YourName\Documents
C:\Users\YourName\Desktop
• If the disk is encrypted with BitLocker, you’ll need the recovery key to
access it.
• If you don’t want to boot from USB, you can also remove the hard drive
and connect it to another PC using:
o SATA to USB adapter
o External drive enclosure

Password Reset with Hiren’s BootCD PE (Windows 10)

What You’ll Need:

• A working computer
• An empty USB drive (at least 4 GB)
• Hiren’s BootCD PE ISO file
• Tool to create a bootable USB (e.g., Rufus)

Step 1: Download the Tools

1. Download Hiren’s BootCD PE ISO:

o Official site: https://www.hirensbootcd.org/download/
2. Download Rufus (to make a bootable USB):
o https://rufus.ie/

Step 2: Create the Bootable USB

1. Plug in your USB.

2. Open Rufus.
3. Under Device, select your USB.
4. Under Boot selection, choose the Hiren’s ISO you downloaded.
5. File system: NTFS or FAT32.
6. Click Start and wait for the process to finish.
 Step 3: Boot from the USB

1. Insert the USB into the locked PC.

2. Power on and press the boot menu key (usually F12, ESC, F9, or DEL).
3. Choose the USB drive to boot from.

🛠 Step 4: Reset the Password

Once Hiren’s BootCD PE loads into its custom Windows environment:

1. Go to Start Menu → Utilities → Security.

2. Open NT Password Edit.

In NT Password Edit:

• Click (Re)open.
• Navigate to your Windows partition (usually
C:\Windows\System32\config\SAM).
• Select the user account.
• Click Change Password or Clear Password.
• Click Save Changes.
• Close the tool.

Step 5: Reboot and Log In

1. Remove the USB drive.

2. Restart the PC.
3. Log in — the password should now be cleared or reset!

You're Done!

Consider newer tools like:

• Hiren’s BootCD PE
• Lazesoft Recover My Password
• PassFab 4WinKey
• Offline NT Password & Registry Editor
 BYPASSING OR RESSETING A BIOS (or UEFI) PASSWORD

BIOS/UEFI Password Types:

There are typically two types of BIOS passwords:

1. User Password – Needed to boot the PC.

2. Setup/Admin Password – Needed to enter BIOS settings.

LEGAL NOTICE:
Only attempt this on a device you personally own or have explicit permission to
repair. Unauthorized access is illegal and could damage the system or void
warranties.

BIOS Password Reset Options

1. Remove CMOS Battery (Desktop/Laptop)

• What it does: Clears all BIOS settings including passwords.

Steps:

1. Turn off and unplug the computer.

2. Open the case (or laptop back panel if accessible).
3. Locate the CMOS battery (silver coin-shaped battery).
4. Remove it for 5–10 minutes.
5. Put it back and reboot.

⏱ Some motherboards reset instantly; others may take longer.

Not always possible on newer laptops due to soldered batteries or password

stored in EEPROM.