Unit 2
Scientific Foundations of Psychology
Chapters 1 & 2 all modules
Key People: Describe these important people. What did they contribute to psychology?
Person Key Contributions to Psychology
Wilhelm Wundt Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the University of
(1832-1920) Leipzig, Germany.
Edward Titchener Titcher used introspection to search for the mind’s structural elements.
(1867-1927)
G. Stanley Hall Hall was a pioneering American psychologist and educator. His
(1846-1924) interests focused on childhood development and evolutionary theory.
Hall was the first president of the American Psychological Association
and the first president of Clark University.
William James James was a legendary teacher-writer who authored an important 1890
(1842-1910) psychology text. He was influenced by Charles Darwin. He promoted
functionalism. He also mentored Calkins.
Mary Whiton Calkins became a pioneering memory researcher and the first woman to
Calkins be president of the American Psychology Association.
(1863-1930)
Margaret Floy Washbunr was the first woman to receive a psychology Ph.d..
Washburn Washburn synthesized animal behavior in The Animal Mind (1908).
(1871-1939)
Sigmund Freud The controversial ideas of this famed personality theorist and therapist
(1856-1939) have influenced humanity’s self-understanding. He came up with the
oedipus complex.
Ivan Pavlov Pavlov was a Russian physiologist known primarily for his work in
(1849-1936) classical conditioning. From his childhood days Pavlov demonstrated
intellectual curiosity along with an unusual energy which he referred to
as “the instinct for research”
John B. Watson Working with Rosalie Rayner, Watson championed psychology as the
(1878-1958) scientific study of behavior. In a controversial study on a baby who
became famous as “Little Albert” he and Rayner showed that fear could
be learned.
Jean Piaget Piaget was a Swiss psychologist known for his work on child
(1896-1980) development. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and
epistemological view are together called “genetic epistemology”. Piaget
placed great importance on the education of children.
B.F. Skinner This leading behaviorist rejected introspection and studied how
(1904-1990) consequences shape behavior.
Carl Rogers Rogers was an AMerican psychologist and among the founders of the
(1902-1987) humanistic approach in psychology believed that humans have one
basic motive, that is the tendency to self-actualize. That for a person to
achieve self-actualization they must be in a state of congruence.
Charles Darwin Darwin argued that natural selection shapes behavior as well as bodies.
(1809-1882)
Dorthea Dix “I… call your attention to the state of the Insane Persons confined
(1802-1887) within this commonwealth, in cages”. Dix was an American advocate
on behalf of the indigent mentally ill who, through a vigorous and
sustained program of lobbying state legislatures and the United States
Congress, created the first generation of American mental asylums.
Concept Terms:
1. Psychology- is a science that seeks to answer such questions about us all- how and why
we think, feel, and act as we do, (science of behavior and mental processes).
2. Empiricism- the ideas that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and
experimentation enable scientific knowledge.
3. Structuralism- an early school of thought prompted by Wundt and Titchener; used
introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.
4. Functionalism- an early school of thought prompted by James and influenced by
Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the
organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.
5. nature-nurture issue- the long standing controversy over the relative contributions that
genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.
Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and
nurture.
6. natural selection- the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to
survive and reproduce in a particular environment will(in competition with other trait
variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
7. basic research- pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.
8. applied research- scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
9. hindsight bias- the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have
foreseen it (also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon).
10. Theory- an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations
and predicts behaviors or events.
11. Hypothesis- a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
12. operational definition- a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures(operations)
used in a research study.
13. Replication- repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants
in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced
14. case study- a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth
in the hope of revealing universal principles.
15. Survey- a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitude or behaviors of a
particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
16. random sample- a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has
an equal chance of inclusion.
17. naturalistic observation- a descriptive technique of observing
18. Correlation- A measure of the extent which two factors vary together, and thus well
either factor predicts the other.
19. correlation coefficient- a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from
-1.00 to +1.00)
20. scatter plot- A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two
variables. The direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of
scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicated high correlation).
21. illusory correlation- perceiving a relationship where none exists or perceiving a
stronger-than-actual relationship.
22. Experiment- a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more
factors(independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavioral or mental process
(the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to
control other relevant factors.
23. random assignment- Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by
chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between different groups.
24. singleblind procedure- Study occurs when the participants are deliberately kept ignorant
of either the group to which they have been assigned or key information about the
materials they are assessing, but the experimenter is in possession of this knowledge.
25. doubleblind procedure- An experimental procedure in which both the research
participants and the research staff are ignorant(blind) about whether the research
participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation
studied.
26. placebo effect- Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on
behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the
recipient assumes is an active agent.
27. experimental group- In an experiment, this group is exposed to the treatment, that is, to
one version of the independent variable.
28. control group- In an experiment, this group is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts
with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the
treatment.
29. independent variable- In an experiment,the factor that is manipulated; the variable
whose effect is being studied.
30. dependent variable- In an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that
may change when the independent variable is manipulated.
31. confounding variable- A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a
study’s results.
32. Mode- The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.
33. Mean- The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then
dividing by the number of scores.
34. Median- The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half the
scores are below it.
35. Range- The difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a distribution
36. standard deviation- A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean
score
37. normal curve (normal distribution)- a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes
the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean( about 68% fall
within the standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.
38. positively skewed distribution- When a distribution has a few extreme scores toward
the high end relative to the low end, it has a positive skew (or is positively skewed), such
that the mean is greater than the mode.
39. negatively skewed distribution- When a distribution has a few extreme scores toward
the low end relative to the high end, it has a negative skew (or is negatively skewed).
40. p value- probability value, is a number describing how likely it is that your data would
have occurred by random chance(that the null hypothesis is true). The level of statistical
significance is often expressed as a p-value between 0 and 1.
41. statistical significance- A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result
occurred by chance.
42. Coercion- The process of attempting to influence another person through the use of
threats, punishment, force, direct pressure, and other negative forms of power.
43. Confidentiality- The requirement that therapists, psychiatrists, psychologists, and most
other mental health professionals protect their client’s privacy by not revealing the
contents of therapy.
44. informed consent- Giving potential participants enough information about a study to
enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
45. Debriefing- The post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any
deceptions, to its participants.
7 MODERN PERSPECTIVES/APPROACHES
Modern Describe Perspective’s Main Key people associated with
Perspective Focus Perspective
Psychoanalytic/ Focuses on the role of the -Sigmund Freud
Psychodynamic unconscious mind and its influence
on conscious behavior, early
childhood, experiences,
development of sense of self, and
other motivations.
Behavioral Focuses on how behavioral -John B. Watson
responses are learned through -Ivan Pavlov
classical or operant conditioning. -B.F. Skinner
Cognitive Focuses on memory, intelligence, -Jean Piaget
perception, thought processes, -Noam Chomsky
problem solving, language, and
learning
Biological/ Focuses on influences of hormones, -James Olds
Neurobiological brain structures, and chemicals, -Roger Sperry
diseases, etc. Human and animal -George Miller
behavior is seen as a direct result of
events in the body.
Evolutionary Focuses on human thoughts and -Charles Darwin
actions in terms of natural selection. -David Buss
Some psychological traits might be
advantageous for survival, and these
traits would be passed down from
the parents to the next generation.
Humanistic Focuses on human potential, free -Carl Rogers
will, and possibility of -Abraham Maslow
self-actualization.
Socio-Cultural Focuses on the behavior of -Lev Vygotsky
individuals as the result of the -Albert Bandura
presence(real or imagined) of other
individuals, as part of groups, or as
part of a larger culture.
Study Questions:
1. When and how did modern psychological science begin and how has it developed
from the 1920s through today?
Psychological science had its modern beginning with the first psychological laboratory founded
in 1879 by the German philosopher and psychologist Wilhelm Wundt. After that many works of
scholars helped add onto psychological science.
2. What is psychology’s big historic issue (debate)?
Psychology’s big historic issue(debate) is whether human traits are inherited or they develop
through experience. The debate over nature-nurture- the relative contributions that genes and
experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.
3. What are positive and negative correlations and why do they enable prediction but
not cause and effect?
In a positive correlation two sets of data tend to rise or fall together. In a negative correlation one
set of data rises while the other falls. Scatterplots can help us see these correlations. Correlations
help us see statistical relationships between two things with little or no effort to control
extraneous variables. It can describe the strength and direction of two variables. This does not
imply causation and can’t prove a cause-effect relationship.
4. How do experiments, powered by random assignment, clarify cause and effect?
Random assignment is assigning the participants to the experimental or control group by chance.
This minimizes preexisting differences and the independent variable will be studied(put to
different participants) at random.
5. Identify and describe the major ethical dilemmas in psychological research and
experimentation.
When conducting psychological research and experimentations there are ethical guidelines the
researchers should give to the human participants. These ethical guidelines are informed consent,
protection from harm, debriefing, right to withdraw, and to keep the research confidential.
- Informed consent is the process by which researchers working with human participants
describe their research project and obtain the subject's consent to participate in the
research based on the subject's understanding of the project's methods and goals.
- Protection from harm(risk) is that the participants must be protected from physical and
mental harm.
- Debriefing is a set of procedures including counselling and giving information aimed at
preventing psychological morbidity and aiding recovery after a traumatic event, which
must be fully explained at the conclusion of the experiment.
- Right to withdraw is a concept in clinical research ethics that a study participant has the
right to end participation in that trial at will.
- Confidentiality is when the information between a participant and researcher cannot be
shared, in many studies participants are referred to by a number instead of their names.
