Maintenance and Testing of Electrical Machine

Week 12 Lecture No 38
Topic Name: Protection of Transmission line

Introduction

A transmission line carries electricity from a producing substation to the various distribution

units. It transmits the voltage and current wave from one end to the other. The transmission line's

conductor has a constant cross-section of the whole length of the line. Air functions as a dielectric

or insulating material in between the conductors. For safety reasons, the line is considerably

further from the ground. The electrical tower supports the transmission line's cables. The tower is

made of steel, which gives the conductor a tremendous amount of strength. Transmission lines are

a vital part of the electrical distribution system, as they provide the path to transfer power between

generation and load. Transmission lines can vary in length from several hundred feet to several

hundred miles, and in voltage (line-to-line) from 66KV to 750KV. The overhead transmission line

has a greater fault incidence rate than the other crucial components of the electrical power system

because it is mostly exposed to ambient conditions and their greater length. Faults in transmission

lines are abnormal conditions that disrupt the normal flow of electrical power. These faults can

cause significant damage to the electrical system, lead to power outages, and pose safety risks.

Hence Faults in transmission lines are a critical aspect of power system management, requiring

careful planning, monitoring, and response to ensure reliability and safety.

Causes of transmission line faults-

• Overvoltage because of switching surges.
• Lightning effect.
• Insulation breakdown.
• Because of more external and internal stresses on the conductor.
• Falling of trees on the transmission line.
 • Heavy rain, snowfall and wind.
• Perching of birds.
• Accidental short circuit because of string or snakes.
• Accident of vehicle with poles of Transmission lines or Towers.
• Chemical pollution.
Different Types of fault in Transmission system- Transmission line faults are traditionally

divided into two categories: series (open circuit) faults and shunt (closed circuit) faults. Each fault

has with different characteristics and impacts on the power system.

Series (Open Circuit) Faults- Series faults occur when there is an interruption in the continuity

of the transmission line, such as a break in one or more conductors. Series faults cause an

abnormal shift in phase voltage. When one or more phases are open, the load becomes

unbalanced, causing the voltages to deviate from their normal values.

Shunt (Closed Circuit) Faults-Shunt faults involve a short circuit condition, where a conductive

path is established between phases or between phases and ground. These faults cause abnormal

current flow and can be further divided into symmetrical and asymmetrical faults

Symmetrical Faults: These are faults where all three phases are equally affected. They are less

common but more severe. Since all phases are equally affected, it’s called a symmetrical fault.

Symmetrical faults generate very high fault currents, which can damage equipment if not cleared

promptly.

Three-Phase Fault (3Φ or 3-Φ Fault): All three phases are shorted together or to the ground.

It’s the most severe type of fault but is rare.

Asymmetrical Faults: These faults involve one or two phases and are more common but less

severe compared to symmetrical faults.

Single Line-to-Ground Fault (LG Fault): One phase comes in contact with the ground. It’s the

most common type of fault.

Line-to-Line Fault (LL Fault): Two phases come in contact with each other without involving
the ground.

Double Line-to-Ground Fault (LLG Fault): Two phases come in contact with each other and
the ground.

The protection of lines presents a problem quite different from the protection of substation

apparatus such as generators, transformers and bus bars. Transmission protection systems are

designed to identify the location of faults and isolate only the faulted section. Some of the specific

requirements of line protection are:

 The ability of the protection system is to isolate only the faulty section of the network. In
the event of short-circuit, the circuit breaker closest to the fault should open, all other

circuit breakers remaining in a closed position.

 The presence of additional protection systems to take over if one fails. In case the nearest
breaker to the fault fails to open, back-up protection should be provided by the adjacent

circuit breakers.

 The relay operating time should be just as short as possible in order to preserve system
stability, without unnecessary tripping of circuits.

Types of Protection

Transmission line protection techniques can be broadly categorized into unit and non-unit

protection schemes. Each type serves specific purposes and is selected based on the requirements

and characteristics of the transmission line being protected.

(1) Unit Protection Schemes: Unit protection schemes provide protection to a specific

section of the power system, such as a transmission line or a transformer, by comparing

 measurements at both ends of the protected section. These schemes are highly selective

and can quickly identify faults within the selected area.

(2) Non-Unit Protection of Transmission Lines- Non-Unit protection covers a broader area

and is designed to protect the transmission line without being confined to a specific zone.

It typically provides backup protection and may operate for faults both within and outside

the primary protected area. Time-Graded Overcurrent Protection and Distance Protection.

Time-Graded Overcurrent Protection

Time-graded overcurrent protection is a method used to protect transmission lines by coordinating

the operation of protective devices so that the device closest to the fault operates first, minimizing

the impact of the fault on the power system. This is achieved by setting time delays for each

protective device in a sequence, with the time delay increasing as we move farther away from the

source. The goal is to isolate the fault as close to the fault location as possible, minimizing the

outage area and ensuring the rest of the system remains operational.

Working:

Protective relays are installed at various points along the transmission line. Each relay is

associated with a circuit breaker. When a fault occurs, the relay detects the overcurrent and sends

a signal to the corresponding circuit breaker to open and isolate the faulty section. Time-graded

protection of a radial feeder can be achieved by using (i) definite time relays and (ii) inverse time

relays. Definite time overcurrent relays are used by adjusting the operating time of relay in

increasing order from the far end of the feeder to the source. When fault occurs, it starts a timing

unit that trips the circuit breaker after a preset time independent of the fault current. The

difference in the time setting of two adjacent relays is usually kept at 0.5 s.
This difference is to cover the operating time of the circuit breaker. The time of operation of each

relay is fixed and is independent of the operating current. Fig shows the overcurrent protection of

a radial feeder by definite time relays. The relay C has an operating time of 0·5 second while for

other relays, time delay is successively increased by 0·5 second. When a fault occurs beyond C,

relays of all section come into action i.e. fault current flows through all of them. Relay placed in

section C has least time setting, so it operates after 0.5 s and the fault is cleared. Once fault is

cleared relays of section A and B are reset. When relay or circuit breaker of section C fails i.e.

fault remains un-cleared. In this situation, after 1 s, the relay of section B operates that trips the

circuit breaker of section B will trip. Somehow if the circuit breaker of section B also fails to

operate, after 1.5 s, circuit breaker of section A trip.

Time graded over current protection scheme is preferred where the impedance (distance) between

two substations is low i.e. fault current practically remains constant when fault occurs on any

section of the feeder.

Advantages of Time-Graded Overcurrent Protection

Selective Isolation: Only the faulty section of the line is isolated, reducing the impact on the

overall system.

Simplicity: The method is straightforward and widely used, particularly in radial systems.

Cost-Effective: It requires fewer sophisticated devices compared to differential protection or

distance protection.
The disadvantage of this system is that if there are a number of feeders in series, the tripping time

for faults near the supply end becomes high (2 seconds in this case). However, in most cases, it is

necessary to limit the maximum tripping time to 2 seconds. This disadvantage can be overcome to

a reasonable extent by using inverse-time relays.

Distance protection: Distance Protection is a Non-Unit System of Protection. It is commonly

used for transmission lines, where faults are more likely to occur due to the high voltage and

current levels. It is a reliable and fast-acting form of protection, capable of detecting faults

quickly and accurately, which helps to minimize damage to the power system and prevent power

outages. Distance protection is not affected by type of fault. Since it protects a certain Length of

Transmission Line, it is called a distance protection.

Distance protection: Time-graded are not suitable for the protection of very long high voltage

transmission lines. It gives an excessively long time delay in fault clearance at the generating

station end when there are more than four or five sections. So, distance relaying is applied

for faster protection. Distance relay come in various types based on their operating characteristics

and the shapes of their impedance measurement zones on the R-X (Resistance-Reactive) plane.

According to the length of transmission line different distance relay is preferred.

1. When the length of an overhead transmission line is up to about 50 km and the line

voltage is comparatively low (< 20 kV), it is usually considered as a short transmission

line. In that case Reactance type distance relays is used.

2. When the length of an overhead transmission line is about 50- 150 km and the line voltage

is high (>20 kV<100 kV), it is considered as a medium transmission line. Impedance type

distance relays is suitable for medium length lines

 3. When the length of an overhead transmission line is more than 150 km and line voltage is

very high (> 100 kV), it is considered as a long transmission line. Mho type

distance relays is suitable for long lines.

Working Principle of Distance Protection-Impedance Type Distance relay measures the

Impedance between the Relay Location and the point where the fault is incident and compares it

with the Set Value. If the measured Impedance is less than the Set Value, the Relay operates and

Isolates the Faulty Section. Since, the Line Impedance is directly proportional to Line Length, we

get the exact Location of the Fault in Kilo meters. The Input Quantities to the Distance Relay is

Voltage and Current and the Output it gives is V/I which is Impedance (Z). Since it uses two

Input Quantities, its Reliability is more than that of Overcurrent Relay, which uses only one Input

Quantity (i.e. current).

We will now consider a simple system consisting of lines in series such that power can flow only

from left to right. The relays at A, B and C are set to operate for impedance less than Z1, Z2 and

Z3 respectively. Suppose a fault occurs between sub-stations B and C, the fault impedance at

power station and sub-station A and B will be (Z1 + Z) and Z respectively. It is clear that for the

portion shown; only relay at B will operate. Similarly, if a fault occurs within section A B, then

only relay at A will operate. In this manner, instantaneous protection can be obtained for all

conditions of operation.
Three-Zone distance protection

In actual practice, it is not possible to obtain instantaneous protection for complete length of the

line due to inaccuracies in the relay elements and instrument transformers. Thus the relay at A

would not be very reliable in distinguishing between a fault at 99% of the distance A B and the

one at 101% of distance A B. This difficulty is overcome by using ‘three-zone’ distance

protection.

The zone 1- Typically set to cover 80-90% of the protected transmission line. This ensures that

the relay only detects faults within the majority of the line it protects, avoiding overreach into

adjacent lines. Instantaneous operation with no intentional time delay. Zone 1 provides fast

protection for faults occurring close to the relay.

The zone 2- Set to cover the entire length of the protected line plus 20-50% of the next adjacent

line. This zone provides backup protection in case the primary protection (usually Zone 1) fails.

Operates with a short time delay (typically 0.3 to 0.5 seconds) to allow Zone 1 relays to clear the

fault first. Zone 2 clears the fault if Zone 1 fails or if the fault is beyond the reach of Zone 1.

The zone 3- element provides back-up protection in the event a fault in the next section is not

cleared by its breaker. Zone 3 is typically set to cover 120-150% of the second line. Operates with

a longer time delay (typically 1.0 to 1.5 seconds). Zone 3 serves as a backup for Zone 2 and

provides protection for severe system disturbances or faults on adjacent lines.

Advantages of Three-Zone Distance Protection:

Selectivity: Each zone is carefully defined to ensure that the correct section of the line is isolated,

minimizing unnecessary outages.

Speed: Zone 1 provides fast, instantaneous protection for the majority of the protected line,

ensuring quick fault clearance.

Backup Protection: Zones 2 and 3 provide reliable backup protection, ensuring that faults are

cleared even if the primary protection fails.

Flexibility: The reach and time settings of each zone can be adjusted to suit different system

configurations and requirements.

Differential Pilot-Wire Protection

Differential pilot-wire protection is a type of protection scheme used for high-voltage

transmission lines, particularly short lines or feeders. It provides fast and selective protection by

comparing electrical quantities (usually current) at both ends of the protected section. The scheme

uses pilot wires (communication links) to transmit information between the relays at either end of

the transmission line. The fundamental principle is based on comparing the current entering and

leaving the protected section. Under normal conditions, the sum of currents entering the section

should equal the sum of currents leaving it. As soon as a fault occurs between the two ends, this

condition no longer holds and the difference of incoming and outgoing currents is arranged to

flow through a relay which operates the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty line. But If a fault

occurs outside the protected section, the currents at both ends should still balance, and the relay

does not trip. There are several differential protection schemes in use for the lines. Here we cover

the Merz-Price voltage balance system under differential pilot wire method.

Merz-Price voltage balance system. – Fig shows the single line diagram of Merz-Price voltage

balance system for the protection of a 3-phase line. Identical current transformers are placed in

each phase at both ends of the line. The pair of CTs in each line is connected in series with a relay

in such a way that under normal conditions, their secondary voltages are equal and in opposition

i.e. they balance each other. Under healthy conditions, current entering the line at one-end is equal

to that leaving it at the other end. Therefore, equal and opposite voltages are induced in the
secondary of the CTs at the two ends of the line. The result is that no current flows through the

relays. Suppose a fault occurs at point F on the line as shown in Fig. This will cause a greater

current to flow through CT1 than through CT2. Consequently, their secondary voltages become

unequal and circulating current flows through the pilot wires and relays. The circuit breakers at

both ends of the line will trip out and the faulty line will be isolated.

Advantages –

I. This system can be used for ring mains as well as parallel feeders.

II. The system can detect even small internal faults, ensuring quick isolation of the faulty

section.

III. This system provides instantaneous protection for ground faults. This decreases the

possibility of these faults involving other phases.

IV. This system provides instantaneous relaying which reduces the amount of damage to

overhead conductors resulting from arcing fault.

Limitations-

I. Proper functioning of the system relies on the exact matching of current transformers

(CTs) at both ends of the line.

II. A break in the pilot-wire circuit will cause the system to fail to operate.

III. The system is costly due to the extensive length of pilot wires required. Also Installing

and maintaining pilot wires over long transmission lines can be costly and challenging.

IV. For long lines, the charging current resulting from pilot-wire capacitance may be enough

to trigger relay operation even under normal conditions.

V. The system is not suitable for line voltages above 33 kV due to construction challenges in

matching the current transformers.