Kwame Nkrumah

University of Science
and Technology, Kumasi

LANDSCAPE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

HORT 451 NOTES UNIT FOUR

Compiled By
January 2023
DESMA D. D SOGA
[email protected]
 Course Outline
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 4 Unit 3
Element of Landscape Design Types of Landscape Garden
Introduction
Process Bill of Quantities (Case Study) Formal Garden
What is Landscape?
Line Informal Garden
What is Landscaping? Form Private Estate and Xeriscape Garden
What is Landscape Design Texture Residential Landscape Design Tropicalia Garden
Colour Planning
Landscape Design Industry Rock Garden
Visual Weight Roof Garden
Job Description and Role
Skill Sets Principles of Landscape Design Clients in the Landscape Water Garden
Importance and Benefits Process Industry Flower Beds
Challenges and the Way Forward Simplicity (Repetition) Flower Borders
Variety (Contrast) The Individual or Private Client
Major Groups in Landscape Rhythm (Sequence) Developer Client
Design Emphasis (Focalisation) Cooperate Client Maintenance of Landscape
Scale (Proportion) Public Client Design
Landscape Designer
Landscape Contractor Balance Watering
Landscape Maintenance Unity Mowing
Supervisor/Team Pruning
Landscape Design Procedure Fertilisation
Nursery Man Inception/Primary Brief Stage Mulching
Feasibility Stage Staking
Materials for Landscape Design
Secondary Brief Stage
Hard Landscape Features Design Stage Weed Control
Soft Landscape Features Sketch Design Stage Pest and Disease
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Control
Detailed Design Stage

2 Images from the web with respect to copyrights. It’s a presentation for educational purposes only.
 Types of Gardens
Formal Gardens
• For the formal style, a symmetrical ground pattern is created.

• The walkways, drives and walls are usually of rectangles, squares or arcs of
circles and these are repeated along the buildings.

• Formal gardens require constant care of a skilled gardener to keep them

neat and orderly.

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 Informal Gardens
• These are opposites of formal gardens which do not have straight
geometrical lines.

• The informal garden uses nature as its prototype.

• They are inexpensive to care for.

• Pleasing landscape designs are planned using asymmetric balance

concepts.
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 Xeriscape Gardens
Xeriscape gardens are gardens that are designed with the aim of conserving
water in the landscape. In such gardens;

• Drought-tolerant plants are used to conserve water and establish a waste-

efficient landscape.

• Examples are Succulent and Cacti, they require less water to grow.

• There is reduction in labour needed for regular maintenance.

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 Xeriscape Gardens
• Drought-tolerant turf include Zoysia grass, Paspalum and Bermuda grass
and these grass types stay quite healthy during the dry periods and turn
green as soon as the rains come.

• Lot of mulch is also made use of in xeriscaping since mulches help

conserve water in the soil.

• Pebbles and cobble stones add a lot of interest and variety to such
gardens.

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 Tropicalia Gardens

• This is a garden designed to give a tropical or jungle effect.

• Tropicalia are usually informal in the design and they are made as natural as
possible.

• The key to having the Tropicalia effect lies in: the use of large-leaved plants.

• Most of the herbaceous types grow in large numbers and large-leaved

creepers around bare woody stems of shrubs or trees.

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 Tropicalia Gardens
• The use of suitable ground covers, in such cases low plants such as ferns
and anthuriums may be included.

• Heavy emphasis on unity and simplicity with repetition of the unit rather
than a collection of many forms.

• The whole idea of a Tropicalia is to create a ‘forest’ within a living area.

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 Rock Garden
• Rock gardens consist of plants grown in pockets of soil among rocks.

• On properties, some people have a natural rock arrangement which can be

used to create such a garden.

• Artificial rock garden can be built and can be expensive.

• A rock garden may be difficult to care for because of its uneven surface .

• Any plant that requires little soil, not too much water and can withstand heat
generated from the rock surfaces can be used.
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 Roof Garden
• Rooftop gardens are man-made green spaces on the topmost levels of
industrial, commercial, and residential structures.

• They may be designed to grow produce, provide play space, give shade and
shelter, or simply be there as a living, green area.

• In roof garden, groundcovers, herbaceous perennials, shrubs, herbs, and

small trees can be grown. Trees can be grown in more than 50 cm depth of
the growing medium.

• Roof top gardens can be installed as an extensive, semi-intensive and

intensive gardens.
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 Water Garden
• Water garden is made of a pool, pond, lake or stream.

• Relatively big amount of soil is needed to fill the base.

• It should be formed before making the lawn and placement of other

structures on the project site.

• Waterlogged area and slow drained land are suitable for this garden.

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 Water Garden

• It is better positioned at the corner or center of the garden and can be

combined with artificial plantings.

• It takes long time to for the full effect of the garden to be enjoyed.

• Generally, water plants are used in the installation of a water garden.

• It is comparatively costly and laborious in constructing.

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 Beds and Borders
• Beds and borders are planted to give colour to the landscape.

• They also help break the monotony of the natural green of plants especially
in areas where there are large areas of green.

• Planting in beds and borders should be graded for colour, height, and form
and the plants should merge to give the desired effect.

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 Beds and Borders
• They include annuals, biennials, herbaceous perennials, ferns, fern-like
plants, orchids, cacti and succulents and shrubs.

• They could take any shape especially geometric shapes; square, oval etc.

• Beds stand as an island of selected flowering plants with other garden

fixtures.

• Beds should be viewable from different angles.

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 Beds and Borders
• Borders are planted against a wall or hedge.

• The plants in a border will therefore be affected by shadow from the wall,
possible reduced impact of rain.

• Take into consideration the backdrop when planning the colour scheme of
the border.

• Be aware also of the fact that maintenance works on the wall or hedge can
affect the plantings in the border.
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 Maintenance of Landscape Design
• Watering
• Mowing
• Pruning
• Fertilisation
• Mulching
• Staking
• Weed Control
• Pest and Disease Control

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 Watering
• Watering is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to the soil to
help grow landscape plants.

• Landscape plants require adequate water to survive.

• The amount of water a plant receives affects its growth and development.

• It is essential that the water supplied is clean and free from suspended
particles as well as not high in salinity levels.

• Both underwatering and overwatering impact plant growth and development.

• Water plants only when they need it and apply only enough to satisfy their
needs.
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 Watering
• Examine the plants to know its water needs by observing them for signals or
checking the soil for moisture.

• Watering of plants is best done in the morning and it discourages

development of disease-causing pathogens because foliage dries in a short
time.

• Water plants thoroughly to reduce the amount of water and frequency of

watering.

• Mulch landscape plants to keep soil cool and to reduce water lost to
evaporation.
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 Watering

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 Watering
Factors to consider in determining how much water to apply to plants include:
• Plant Species
• Plant Size
• Plant Age
• Stage of Plant Development
• Soil Texture
• Slope of Land
• Environmental Conditions

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 Watering
Methods of Watering Landscape Plants:

• Sprinkler Irrigation

• Drip Irrigation

• Surface Irrigation

• Manual Irrigation

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 Watering
Factors to Consider in Selecting an Efficient Irrigation System:
• Size and topography of area.
• Type of plants
• Labour requirements (time and cost)
• Uniformity of application
• Quality, quantity, and availability of water
• Cost of installation
• Life expectancy of system
• Economics of operation
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 Mowing
• Mowing is a recurring cutting of a portion of a grass shoot.

Benefits of Mowing
• Frequent mowing encourages the grass to grow healthier and greener.
• Regular mowing reduces the breeding grounds and entry points for pest
and diseases.
• Consistent mowing at the right height will control weeds and protect the
lawn from disease.
• A freshly cut and mowed lawn increases the kerb appeal and adds to the
beauty of the landscape.
• Scheduled mowing makes ongoing maintenance easier.
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 Mowing
• Sound mowing is perhaps the single most important factor contributing to
the attractiveness and longevity of any turfgrass area.

• Two important components of mowing are cutting height and frequency.

Both of these factors depend on the:

➢ turfgrass species
➢ utility of the grass
➢ cultivar
➢ level of lawn quality desired
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 Mowing
• The optimum cutting height is determined by the growth habit and leaf
width of the turfgrass species.

• Repeated mowing below the recommended height for each species is a

primary cause of turf injury.

• Mowing at higher than the recommended height results in increased thatch.

• Mowing frequency is determined by the growth rate and the utility of the
grass.

• The growth rate is influenced by grass species, time of year, weather

conditions, and level of management.
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 Bahia 3’’ – 4’’ 3½’’ – 4½’’

Ideal Mowing Height

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 Mowing
• Grass species that have fine textured (narrow) leaf blades (Zoysia) and that
grow horizontally can usually be mowed shorter than an upright-growing
grass with coarser (wider) leaf blades (St. Augustine’s).

• Grass that receives repeated athletic use will need more frequent mowing to
reduce potential injuries and to improve the playing surface, while low
maintenance lawn areas would need less frequent mowing.

• The proper choice of mowing equipment depends on the type of grass and
the conditions of usage and maintenance.

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 Mowing
• There are a number of mower types. The most accurate are the reel mowers
(cylinder mowers), rotary mowers are intermediate and sickle-bar mowers
are the least.

• For high-quality sport or recreational areas, reel mowers are used and sickle
bar mowers are used mainly across road side.

• Rotary mower should be used where perfect appearance is not necessary.

And where ease of operation, maintenance and price are of significant
concern.

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 Mowing Equipment

• Rotary Mower
• Reel Mower
• Brush Cutter
• Sickle Bar Mower

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 Mowing
Mowing Procedure
• Pick up all stones, sticks and other debris before mowing to avoid damaging
the mower or injuring someone with flying objects.

• Mowing should be done only when the turf is dry. This is because the mower
is less likely to clog with wet/soggy clippings.

• It is important to sharpen mower blades often. A clean cut minimises the

damaged area and reduces tip browning of the blades.

• A clean cut also decreases moisture loss and eliminates bruised blades which
are a site for disease entry.
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 Mowing
Mowing Procedure
• Mow in a different direction every time the lawn is cut. This helps prevent
wear patterns, reduces the grain (grass lying over in the same direction),
and reduces the possibility of scalping.

• Adjust cutting height by setting the mower on a driveway or sidewalk and

using a ruler to measure the distance between the ground and the blade.

• Sweep up any clippings left on paved surfaces to avoid potential water

pollution and also clean mower blades after operating it.

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 Pruning
Pruning is the removal of plant parts on purpose to enhance growth and
maintain the usefulness of the plant.
Purpose for pruning:
• To enhance the plant’s flowering and/or fruiting display.

• Remove dead, diseased, broken parts to prevent insect infestation and

diseases.

• Remove crossing or rubbing branches.

• Control natural shape and size.

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 Pruning
Purpose for pruning:
• Safety for users.

• Enhance visibility.

• Provide for sun exposure and air circulation.

• Restore balance/symmetry and improve appearance.

• Rejuvenate deciduous shrubs.

• To recover from transplant shock.

• Maintain and improve plant health.

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 Pruning Tools

• Snips
• Loppers
• Secateurs
• Pole Pruners
• Grass Shears
• Pruning Saws
• Hedge Shears
• Pruning Knives

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 Pruning
Pruning Matured Trees
• Pruning of shrubs involves four methods namely; shearing, thinning,
heading back and renewal pruning.

• A tree that was properly pruned when young should need little pruning
when matured.

• Mature branches are usually heavy and easily break and rip off tree back if
being sawed off by one cut.

• Three-cut pruning method is adopted for removing large branches/limb of

matured trees.
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 Pruning
The 3-Cut Pruning Method

• 1st cut is made under the branch about 30 cm away from the trunk and
goes halfway through the branch to prevent bark tearing.

• The 2nd cut is made about 8 cm away from the 1st cut from the top of the
branch. This is cut through and it will eliminate the weight of the branch.
If the falling branch tears the bark off the trees as it drops, the bark tear
will stop at the first cut.

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 Pruning
The 3-Cut Pruning Method

• The 3rd cut removes the stub.

• Start the third pruning cut on the outside edge of the branch-bark ridge and
cut through the branch to the outside edge of the collar swelling on the
underside of the branch.

• Remove only the branch, do not damage the trunk or branch collar.

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 The 3-Cut Pruning Method
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 Hedge Pruning
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 Fertilising
• Tree and shrub fertilisation is especially important in urban and suburban
areas of the country where soils have been altered due to construction.

• Even where soils have not been affected, fertilisation may be needed as
part of a maintenance program to increase plant vigour or to improve root
or top growth.

• Trees and shrubs in residential and commercial landscape plantings are

frequently fertilised to keep them healthy and attractive.

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 Fertilising

• It is a matter of common knowledge that the root of trees spread as far as

or further than the tops and that most of the feeding roots are at the
extremities of the large roots.

• Trees growing in lawn areas usually receive some nutrients when the grass
is fertilised. This is usually sufficient to maintain most trees in fertile soil.

• Fertiliser should not be applied within 30cm of the stem of a young tree
since fertilizer can burn and injure the young stem tissues.
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 Fertilising
• Fertiliser is no stand-in for environmental factors, such as sunlight and
water, which must be in balance if a tree or shrub is to grow into its full
potential.

• Trees and shrubs that are healthy and growing robustly are less susceptible
to attack by insects and diseases.

• An application of fertiliser may, in some instances, improve the plant’s

resistance to further infestations of certain pests.

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 Fertiliser Types

They are two types of fertilisers:

• Organic Fertiliser
➢ Manure – (Animal or Plant)
➢ Compost

• Organic fertilisers tend to work slowly and over the long-term.

• It can help to build up your soil over time.

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 Fertiliser Types

• Inorganic Fertiliser

➢ Nitrogen
➢ Phosphorus
➢ Potassium
➢ Trace Elements

• They are made of up chemical components that contain necessary nutrients

and work for a successful short-term growth.

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 Fertiliser Forms
Fertiliser comes in a few different forms. These are;

➢ Liquid
➢ Powder
➢ Granular

• Liquid fertilizers are often diluted with water.

• Powdered fertilizers also need water to be productive.
• Granular lawn fertilizers can easily be spread on top of soil.

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 Organic Fertilizers Inorganic Fertilizers

Types of Fertilizers
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 Fertiliser Objectives

How and when to fertilise landscape trees and shrubs depends on:
• Maintenance objectives (stimulate new vs. maintain existing growth).

• Tree and shrub ages (generally more for younger and less for older plants).

• Plant stress levels.

• Trees that are fast growing should be fertilised yearly. Well-established,

mature trees usually require fertiliser once every three to four years.

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 Mulching
• Mulches are defined as materials that are applied to the soil surface as
opposed to materials that are incorporated into the soil profile for
beneficial purposes.

• It is used primarily to help the health of the soil and the growth of plants,
but it can also be used as a decorative feature.

• Mulches can also help build soil quality and structure over time and serve
as habitat for beneficial organisms (insects, earthworms, bacteria, fungi,
etc.)

• Mulches prevent loss of water from the soil by evaporation.

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 Mulching
Types of Mulches
➢ Organic Mulch Materials ➢ Inorganic Mulch Materials
• Shredded Leaves • Gravels, Pebbles and
• Pine/Conifer Bark Crushed Stones
• Sawdust • Landscape Cloth
• Wood chips • Rubber tires
• Cocoa Hulls • Black Polyethylene film
• Grass clippings • Clear Plastic Sheet
• Groundcovers • Aluminum-coated
• Coconut Husk Plastic or Foil
• Compost • Crushed Seashells
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 Staking
• Staking newly planted trees or shrubs is a common practice, but it is not
always necessary. Staking often has detrimental effects on tree or shrub
development and growth.

• Most shrubs and trees with limbs close to the ground will not require
staking for stability or protection. Low branches keep people and
equipment away from the trunk.

• Trees and shrubs may require support for a short time to hold them upright
until they become established.

• Do not stake a tree or shrub any longer than necessary.

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 Staking
• Closely spaced tree saplings purchased from plant nurseries in containers
will require staking due to weak trunks.

• In public or high-traffic areas, staking also may be helpful to protect young

trees from damage by mechanical equipment or vandalism.

• The purpose of staking is to prevent movement of the lower trunk and root
system. Movement of the top is desirable and will strengthen the tree.

• Stakes should be removed after one growing season, but may remain in
place for a second season only if additional support is required.

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 Types of Staking Types of Staking Tying Material
• Single Staking Elastic Webbing
• Double Staking Belting
• Oblique Staking Fabric Ties
• Guy Staking Polythene Tapes
Flexible Tubing etc.

• All stakes should penetrate the soil to at least 60cm (2ft) deep. If the stake
moves in the ground, it will not anchor the plant.
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 Single Staking

• This is the standard method for staking bare-root trees, with a tree trunk that
is less than 5 cm in diameter.
• For most trees, the stake should be one-third of the height of the tree. This
anchors the roots and allows the stem to sway and thicken.
• There should be a gap of 2.5-3cm (about an inch) between the stem and the
stake and inserted after planting.
• Stakes should be inserted on the side of the prevailing wind so that the tree
is blown away from the stake.

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 Double Staking
• This is the standard method of staking container-grown and root balled trees
with a trunk of 5 to 10 cm in diameter.

• Two stakes are inserted opposite each other (180 degrees apart) around the
tree outside the root ball, and secured to the trunk by long ties.

• This method is also useful on windy sites.

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 Image of Single Staking Image of Double Staking

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 Oblique Staking
• It is also referred to as Angled Staking

• An oblique stake is used for trees planted on slopes.

• Drive a stake in before or after planting at a 45 degree angle, leaning into

the prevailing wind.

• Secure with a flexible tree tie.

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 Guy Staking
• This involves anchoring 3 cables in the ground and fastening these cables
with turnbuckles to 3 other cables (guy wires) holding the trunk in place.
• Guying is particularly useful for large trees with over 10 cm diameter when
transplanted.
• Stakes are firmly placed in the soil beyond the planting hole at a 30° angle
and arranged in a triangle shape equidistant from the trunk.
• Secure strong wire to low stakes inserted at a 45 degree angle away from the
tree.
• Prevent rubbing by covering the wire with rubber hosepipe where it is
wrapped around the stem or branches of the tree.
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 Image of Oblique Staking Image of Guy Staking

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 Image of Guy Staking

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 Weed Control
• Weeds are self-growing and undesirable plants found in a landscape area.

• The major source of these weeds brought into the landscape is from external
sources include unclean nursery plants, contaminated topsoil or weed-
infested mulches.

• Weeds are competitive in all phases of plant establishment especially for

newly installed plants due to competition for water, light, nutrients and
space.

• To reduce or eliminate early competition, weeds must be controlled prior to

planting by using preemergence or postemergence weedicides.
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 Weed Control
• Weeds can be classified as annuals or perennials under ornamental
horticulture.

• Weed invasion can lead to inferior quality plants, a decrease in the aesthetic
value or appearance of ornamental plants.

• After ornamental plants are well established a successful integrated weed

management strategy should be put in place to control the weeds.

• Weed management in landscape architecture involves, preventative,

mechanical, cultural and chemical control.

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 Weed Control Methods
Preventative Measures
• It involves the use of weed-free seeds, sods and sprigs is encouraged.

• The topsoil used at planting or later used as a topdressing for lawns should
be weed-free.

• Equipment used on the site should be clean and re-cleaned before moving to
new sites to remove weed seeds and other vegetative material.

• With regards to turfgrass, selective grasses that have adapted to the locality.
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 Weed Control Methods

Mechanical Control of Weeds

• This process is carried pot through hand removal or by mowing.

• The hand removal method ensures that the roots of weeds buried in the soil
are extracted.

• This can done using a hoe, a hand weeder or a hand cultivator .

• Using mowers to mow can also prevent seed formation in annual weeds and
reduce competition for light and space but increase competition for water
and nutrients.
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Weed Control Methods

Cultural Measures

• Watering, fertilizing, mowing and mulching at the appropriate time, rate,

height and frequency are best practices that can reduce weeds in a
landscape.

• The prevention and control of pests and diseases incidence on plants can
help the plants to ward off weeds especially for turfgrasses.

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 Weed Control Methods
Chemical Control of Weeds
• The use or weedicide is a short term but quickest means in preventing or
controlling weeds in an amenity.

• The results can be seen immediately after application.

• The chemicals can be applied before weed seeds germinate (pre-emergence)

or applied to emerged weeds (post-emergence).

• These weedicides can also be selective or non-selective.

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 Physiological Disorders, Pests And Diseases
Plant Diseases
• A plant may be said to be diseased, when there is a harmful deviation from
normal functioning of physiological processes.

• Diseases in plants can lead to a reduction in yield or appearance.

• Diseases can be Non-infectious or Infectious.

• The cause of physiological disorders may be attributed to either a parasitic

organism or an environmental condition.

• There are some disorders that may be as a result of deficiencies or toxicities.

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 Plant Disease Control
• Exclusion: Removal of disease plants through quarantines, inspections and
certification.
• Avoidance: Done by planting certified, disease free stock plants. Also avoid
wounding plants when pruning or using other garden equipment as well as
delay planting.
• Eradication: Elimination of disease-causing organisms or conditions. This
can be done by crop rotation, sanitation, elimination of alternate hosts,
chemical application and heat treatment.
• Protection: It means treating a healthy plant before it becomes diseased
through biological and chemical means.
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 Plant Disease Control
• Resistance: Resistance, immunity, tolerance and susceptibility are the terms
that describe a plant’s genetic makeup and its reaction to plant pathogens.

• Resistance and susceptibility, are levels or degrees of a plant’s reaction to a

pathogen.

• If a plant never becomes diseased, the term immune is used and tolerant
describes a plant which may become diseased yet grow much like a healthy
plant.

• Planting resistant cultivars is the easiest means of disease control.

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 Pests
• A pest is an animal that damages plants. Some common examples include
snails, caterpillars, spider mites, et cetera
• They can kill plants, slow plant growth, damage plant stems, leaves, flowers
and fruits.
• Plant pests are commonly grouped into two main types;
▪ Chewing
▪ Sucking
• Chewing pests tear, bite or chew parts of the plants: leaves, stems or roots.
• These pests have special piercing mouthparts sucks sap out and pumps saliva
into the leaf and stem.
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 Control of Plant Pests

• Biological
• Cultural
• Chemical
• Integrated Pest Management

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 Biological Control of Plant Pests
• This uses useful living organisms, such as predators or parasites, to control
pests.

• Predator insects feed on the pests and can control their numbers.

• There are some parasites that live part of their life inside plant pests and
finally kill them.

• Biological control can occur naturally or growers can release predators and
parasites deliberately.

• It is cheap in the long term and does not harm the environment and useful
insects.
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 Cultural Control of Plant Pests
• Cultural control involves changing the environment to make it undesirable
for pests.

• Quarantine of plants, planting medium and seeds to prevent pests.

• Practice of crop rotation to break the life cycle and reduce pests build-up.

• Using resistant plant varieties.

• Ensuring good management and work practices through disposal of debris,

eliminating infested plants, removal of weeds, spraying effectively and
efficiently, clean tools etc.

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 Chemical Control of Plant Pests
• Pesticides are used to control pests. These chemicals are also called
insecticides.

• Deciding which pesticide to use is determined by; the type of pest that needs
controlling, the type and value of the crop and the presence of any
beneficial insects.

• There are three main types of pesticides: contact, stomach and systemic.

• Oils can be used to suffocate pests by blocks their breathing holes.

• Large chewing pests can be controlled with poison baits or traps.

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 Integrated Pest Management
• Integrated pest management (IPM) is where a grower uses a combination of
cultural, biological and chemical methods to prevent or control pests.

• This approach came about because pests and diseases have developed
resistance to chemicals, and consumers have become concerned about
chemical use and residues.

• The method to use depends on the presence of natural enemies, the type of
cultural control methods available and environmental factors.

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 THANK YOU

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