Testytest

1. What is the research process?

a. Find and read background research.
b. Develop a research question.
c. Design a study to test the question.
d. Apply for ethical approval.
e. Run the study and collect data.
f. Analyse the data and see what you found.
g. Write your study up as a research report.

2. Create own design question for correlation and experimental design.

Correlation Design Question:
Examine the correlation between the number of hours spent studying and exam scores among
college students.
One-Tailed Hypothesis:
Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant correlation between the number of hours spent
studying and exam scores among college students.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): College students who spend more hours studying will have
significantly higher exam scores.
Two-Tailed Hypothesis:
Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant correlation between the number of hours spent
studying and exam scores among college students.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): There is a significant correlation between the number of hours
spent studying and exam scores among college students, regardless of the direction (positive
or negative).

Experimental Design Question:

Evaluate whether a new study technique (Technique X) leads to significantly higher exam
scores compared to traditional study methods in a sample of college students.
One-Tailed Hypothesis:
Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference in exam scores between college
students who use Technique X and those who use traditional study methods.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): College students using Technique X will have significantly higher
exam scores than those using traditional study methods.
Two-Tailed Hypothesis:
Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference in exam scores between college
students who use Technique X and those who use traditional study methods.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): College students using Technique X will have significantly
different exam scores (either higher or lower) than those using traditional study methods.

3. Describe emotional and situational triggers in qualitative research

Emotional triggers: Stress and unhappiness.
Situational triggers: Difficult to say no or avoid.

4. French word for black to describe measurements / (quantitative measurements) / 4 types of

data
○ Nominal Data (Data Nominal): Represents categories or labels. Examples could include
colors, names, or categories like "red," "blue," "green," etc.
○ Ordinal Data (Data Ordinal): Represents categories with a specific order or rank.
Examples include education levels like "high school," "college," "graduate school."
○ Interval Data (Data Intervalle): Represents measurable quantities where the intervals
between values are consistent, but there is no true zero point. Examples include
temperature measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit.
○ Ratio Data (Data de Ratio): Represents measurable quantities with a true zero point,
where zero indicates the absence of the quantity. Examples include height, weight, and
income.

Questions Page 1
 income.

5. Name 4 types of validity:

a. Construct validity: The measurement is measuring what it is intended to measure.
b. Internal Validity: The study is designed so other factors cannot explain the results.
c. External validity: The findings can be generalised beyond the sample that was tested.
d. Ecological validity: Findings can be extrapolated to the 'real world'.

6. Name three types of reliability:

a. Inter-rater reliability: If multiple researchers code date, it will be consistent.
b. Test-retest reliability: If a measure is taken at two different points in time, it will be the
same.
c. Internal consistency: Items within a measure respond in similar ways.

7. What are the Ethics of research?

a. Informed consent and debriefing:
i. Participants should be fully aware of their obligations and consent.
ii. After - Participants should be debriefed regarding the aims of the study and the
expected findings.
b. Deception:
i. Passive deception: Not fully informing the participants about details of the study.
ii. Active deception: Purposely misleading participants.
c. Protecting participants from harm
i. Study should be designed to minimize harm to participants.
ii. Data must be treated and stored so that participants' identities stay anonymous.
d. Right to withdraw:
i. Participants should be allowed to withdraw at any time.

8. Write 1 Likert scale question for a questionnaire. How would you score the questionnaire.
How would you combine it. What impact does it have on the data.
How likely are you to use Netflix 1 to 5?
1: very likely
2: likely
3: neutral
4: unlikely
5: very unlikely

Scoring: Each participant chooses a number from 1-5 depending on their likeliness to use
Netflix.

Combining scores: All the scores of all participants are combined to find the average likeliness
of people willing to use Netflix.

Impact on data:
Individual assessment: Each participants likeliness.
Group assessment: The overall group's likeliness.
Analysis of agreement: Helps researchers understand how likely and unlikely people are to use
Netflix.

9. Explain anonymity and confidentiality.

Anonymity: Anonymity means no one knows who said what in the study; it's like a secret
where names are never revealed.
Confidentiality: Confidentiality is keeping people's information safe within the research team,
so it's private and won't be shared publicly.

10. What is the difference between validity and reliability?

Reliability: Consistency and stability of measurement results.
Validity: Accuracy and truthfulness of measurement in capturing what it intends to measure.

Questions Page 2
 Validity: Accuracy and truthfulness of measurement in capturing what it intends to measure.

11. What are the steps to developing a questionnaire?

a. Consider your research and what you want to measure.
b. Review existing research and measures.
c. Gather information to inform questionnaire development.
d. Develop the items for your questionnaire.
e. Pilot your questionnaire.
f. Revise your questionnaire
g. Back to pilot stage

12. Describe the difference between open-ended and closed questions:

Open-ended:
Participant can give unconstrained response
BUT Participant may give irrelevant response.
Can collect a detailed qualitative dataset.
BUT analysis can be complex and time-consuming.
Closed:
Participant cannot provide irrelevant answer.
BUT the appropriate response might not be included.
Quantitative data can be easier to analyse.
BUT Data quality is only as good as the quality of measure.

13. How to write a well worded question?

Be specific.
Avoid double negatives.
Avoid conflating two issues.

14. What are the different types of closed questions?

Catagorical response. Yes or no.
Rank ordering.
Likert-scale. Strongly agree to strongly disagree.

15. What do you need to consider when designing a questionnaire?

Think about the question order
i. Aim to put important questions first.
ii. Make the first few questions easy.
iii. Have an equal number of positively and negatively marked items.
iv. Include relevant background or demographic questions.
Think about layout and formatting.
i. Give instructions for completing the questionnaire.
ii. Pick a clear font and make sure the layout is understandable.
iii. Ensure the pages are not too crowded or too spaced out.
iv. Make sure the page turn doesn’t impact on completion.
v. Finish by thanking participants and tell them what to do next.
vi. Proof-read it multiple times.

16. What are ethical considerations to keep in mind when designing questionnaires on sensitive
topics?
Word questions carefully.
Avoid intrusive or upsetting questions.
Warn participants on upsetting topics.
State that participants can refuse to answer specific questions.
Include open-ended questions asking participants to add anything.

17. What is a familywise error.

5% chance of making a type 1 error. The mistake of making at least one false conclusion when
conducting multiple statistical tests on a set of data.

Questions Page 3
 conducting multiple statistical tests on a set of data.
Solution: run one overarching analysis.

18. Reasons for qualitative research design.

To generate theory
To gain deeper insight
To explore a group of people's experiences or perceptions
To understand how meanings are constructed

19. What are the different approaches to qualitative research?

i. Approaches to reasoning:
a. Deductive reasoning
Starting from the wide picture (the theory) and working down from this to the
specifics (hypothesis testing). Also called top- down reasoning. Quantitative
studies emphasize deductive reasoning.
b. Inductive reasoning
Starting with the specifics (the data) and working up from this to generate ideas
about the bigger picture (theories and concepts). Also known as bottom-up
reasoning. Qualitative studies emphasize inductive reasoning.

ii. Approaches to epistemology:

a. Positivism
A philosophy of science which suggests that true knowledge can only be gained
through objective scientific methods. This approach is linked to deductive,
quantitative studies.
b. Interpretivism
A philosophical approach which suggests that it is only possible to understand
something in the context of how people perceive and make sense of it (how they
interpret it). This approach is linked to inductive, qualitative studies.

iii. Approaches to ontology:

a. Objectivism
An approach to the perception of reality which suggests that phenomena exist
outside of social actors. Quantitative research generally takes an objectivist
approach.
b. Constructionism
An approach to the perception of reality which suggests that phenomena are
created by the actions and perceptions of social actors, and are a continuous
process. Qualitative research generally takes a constructionist approach. This is
also referred to as social constructionism.

20. What are the methods of data collection in qualitative research?

Questionnaires
Interviews and focus groups
Observation and real-world interactions
Diaries and participant logs
Online data collection
Secondary data sources

21. What are the different types of sampling in qualitative research?

i. Purposive sampling:
a. Select potential participants based on criteria which addresses the research
questions.
ii. Theoretical sampling:
a. Used in grounded theory to recruit cases against which the emerging theory can
be tested.
iii. Key informants:
a. People whose experience, position or expertise mean that they have especially

Questions Page 4
 a. People whose experience, position or expertise mean that they have especially
valuable insight into the research topic or can give a wider perspective on it than
other potential participants.

22. What are some of the reasons we use interviews and focus groups?
Primary data collection
Hypothesis or research question generation
Measure development
Understand findings

23. What are the different levels of interview structure?

i. Question order
ii. Wording
iii. Changes to questions between interviews
iv. Participant responses
v. Participant questions allowed
vi. Level of interaction between interviewer and participant
vii. Interviewer skill level needed
viii. Type of data/analysis

24. What are the pros and cons of interviews and focus groups
i. Interview pros:
a. Interviewer has a higher degree of control
b. 1:1 interaction can encourage participant to reveal more
c. Can elicit high detail about individuals' thought, feelings, and experiences
d. In-depth look at how individuals use talk
e. Easier to arrange
f. Recordings easier to transcribe
ii. Interviews cons:
a. More artificial situation
b. Less breadth yielded
c. No opportunity to see group talk or dynamics in action
d. More time consuming to conduct
e. May be more costly
iii. Focus groups (3-8 people) pros:
a. Group interaction enables more realistic social situation
b. Can gain breadth of views and experiences
c. Group dynamics can be revealing
d. Can see talk in action within groups
e. Less time-consuming to conduct
f. May be less costly
iv. Focus groups (3-8 people) cons:
a. Moderation has lower degree of control
b. Lower level of detail yielded
c. Group dynamics can be distracting and challenging
d. Harder to arrange
e. Recordings are harder to transcribe

25. Discuss the 6 different types of group sampling:

Homogenous:
Participant share key features
Heterogenous:
Participants are different
Pre-existing group:
Participants know one another
New group:
Participant have never met
Concerned group:

Questions Page 5
 Concerned group:
Subject matter is important to the participants
Naïve group:
Participants have no particular connection to the subject matter

26. What are the 5 steps to planning an interview of focus group schedules
i. Break research questions down into topics
ii. Identify appropriate sequence of topics
iii. Develop potential questions, with prompts and probes
iv. Review draft schedule: re-order, re-word, and delete questions as needed
v. Pilot

27. Identify and discuss the types of questions

Descriptive questions:
Ask participants to give a general account of something.
Structural questions:
Find out about the way a participant makes sense of the world.
Contrast questions:
Prompt participant to compare events and experiences.
Evaluative questions:
Ask how a participant feels towards something.

28. Give examples of demographic items/ 3 examples of demographic information

Age
Gender
Race
Education level
Income
Religion

29. Effects on Descriptive Data:

Easy Interpretation: Quick insights into common trends.
Simple Comparison: Easily compare averages for different groups.
Quick Decision-Making: Facilitates speedy decisions based on clear data patterns.

30. Name 3 ways data can be extracted and show how item scores can show summary of
variables. Also explain how that may affect descriptive data? Three (Easy) Ways to Extract
Data:
Look at each scale separately.
Look at entire questionaire.
Look at each item seperately.

31. How Item Scores Can Show Summary of Variables:

Mean (Average): Averages item scores to show a typical value.
Range: Displays the difference between the highest and lowest scores, indicating data spread.
Mode: Identifies the most frequent item score, revealing common responses.

32. Name and describe 5 active listening techniques

Paraphrasing:
Repeat what they said in your own words.
Probing:
Ask open-ended questions to learn more.
Summarizing:
Recap the main points.
Reflecting:
Mirror their emotions.
Clarifying:
Ask for more details to be clear.

Questions Page 6
 Ask for more details to be clear.

33. Define a variable?

Something that can change or vary, like a number or a characteristic, and is used in research to
measure or study different aspects.

34. Define operationalization.

Term to describe how a variable is clearly defined by the research. Turning ideas into something you
can measure or observe in a study.

35. Name non-verbal interactions (communication without words)

facial expressions (smiles, frowns),
body language (posture, gestures),
eye contact,
gestures (hand movements)
Proximity (physical distance),
Tone of voice, and
Touch
Appearance

36. Write qualitative and quantitative design question and give hypothesis and null hypothesis.
(15 marks)
Qualitative Design Question:
Explore the lived experiences of individuals who have undergone a career change in midlife.
One-Tailed Hypothesis:
Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference in the lived experiences of individuals
who have undergone a career change in midlife.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Individuals who have undergone a career change in midlife report
significantly more positive lived experiences.
Two-Tailed Hypothesis:
Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference in the lived experiences of individuals
who have undergone a career change in midlife.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): There is a significant difference in the lived experiences of
individuals who have undergone a career change in midlife, regardless of the direction
(positive or negative).
Quantitative Design Question:
Does the amount of daily time spent on TikTok relate to how mentally well student aged 18-21
feel?
One-Tailed Hypothesis:
Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant relationship between daily time spent on Tiktok
and self-reported levels of mental well-being in students aged 18-21.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Student aged 18-21 who engage in longer daily time on TikTok
report significantly higher levels of mental well-being.
Two-Tailed Hypothesis:
Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant relationship between daily time spent on TikTok
and self-reported levels of mental well-being in students aged 18-21.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): There is a significant relationship between daily time spent on
TikTok and self-reported levels of mental well-being in students aged 18-21, regardless of the
direction (positive or negative).

37. Difference between one-tailed and two-tailed hypothesis:

1-tailed:
Where you predict which conditions will have higher scores.
2-tailed:
Where you predict a difference but with no directional prediction.

Questions Page 7
38. What are the 4 Assumptions for parametric design?
Date must be independent.
Data must be normally distributed.
DV should be at interval or ration level.
Homogeneity of variance across groups.

Questions Page 8