UNIT 9

URBAN MORPHOLOGY AND

LAND USE STRUCTURE
Structure
9.1 Introduction 9.4 Summary
Expected Learning Outcomes 9.5 Terminal Questions
9.2 Definition and Scope of 9.6 Answers
Urban Morphology 9.7 References and Suggested
9.3 Theories and Models of Urban Further Readings
Landuse Structure

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Urban centres serve as pivotal points of utilisation of resources and creation of
growth. Cities are the focal points in the occupation and utilisation of the earth
by man. Both a product of and an influence on surrounding regions, they
develop in definite patterns in response to economic and social needs. In any
developed society, cities serve as the focal point for social, political, and
economic activity.

Every advanced society is centred on its cities, which serve as the focal points
of social, political, and economic activity. Their location affects the daily lives of
people who reside in the city and its environs, and they serve a number of
purposes. Every city offers its citizens a range of amenities and services,
including transportation, commerce, manufacturing, healthcare, education,
administration and as a national-international political hub.

The population growth in metropolitan areas led to swift city growth and
accelerated urbanisation of the surrounding neighbourhood. Thus, the two
processes of urbanisation and suburbanisation continuously take place.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After completing the study of this unit, you should be able to:
 understand the concept of urban morphology;
 learn the components of urban morphology;

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 analyse about the pioneering theories and models explaining the urban
land use structure;
 distinguish the modified theories and models explaining the land use
structure classification; and
 classify the theories referring the urban morphology in different parts of
the world.

9.2 DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF URBAN

MORPHOLOGY
The study of urban shapes and the forces and mechanisms influencing the
evolution throughout the time is known as urban morphology. The term "urban
form" describes the primary physical components that make up a city, such as
streets, buildings, road layouts to mention a few. The study of the physical built
form of urban landscapes, the classification of various urban landscape types
according to their morphological traits, and the understanding of variations in
urban form due to social action and historical processes are collectively
referred to as urban morphology.

German author and philosopher Goethe, who focused on biology for his
writings, coined the term "morphology" in 1790. Goethe named the branch of
science that studies the essence of shapes as morphology. Geography
scholars such as Lewis Mumford, Sam Bass Warner, James Vance, and
notable individuals like Michael Batty and Peter Hall and Serge Salat
contributed to establish the field of study of urban morphology. In the first three
decades of the 20th century, research on urban form not only flourished in
central Europe but also expanded to other regions of Europe and beyond.
Schlüter 1989 expands on Fritz's research by providing both macro and micro
scales of analysis. Fritz 1894 provides a comparative assessment of German
cities based on their plans. A morphological reading of Swedish cities is
provided by Leighly 1928. Giovannoni (1931) focuses on the relationship
between new construction and the old city in Italy. The morphology of a city
mainly encompasses the following segments:

URBAN MORPHOLOGY

Components of Urban Morphology Factors Influencing the Urban

Morphology
 Shape
 Structure  Natural Features
 Functions  Historical Evolution
 Socioeconomic Factors
Sub-Components
 Urban Design and Planning
 Street Pattern  Urban Identity
 Building Density  Unique Function
 Land Use
 Architectural Styles
 Public Spaces
 Transportation Networks
 Architectural Styles

Fig. 9.1: Urban Morphology.

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SAQ 1
What do you understand by urban morphology?

9.2.1 Urban Shape

An urban area's general form or outline is referred to as its urban shape. This
all-encompassing parameter offers a panoramic perspective of the city. Over
the course of history, topographical restrictions, technological developments,
socio-cultural change, and economic concerns have all shaped the shapes of
cities. Cities can be classified into several typical forms based on their shape:

 Star-shaped Cities: Like spokes on a wheel, these cities expand outward

from a central hub. Paris serves as a prime example, with its boulevards
extending from the Arc de Triomphe.

 Cities that are shaped like circles or rings have a central core. This design
can be seen at Vienna's Ring Strasse.

 Cities on the Gridiron: These cities, which were common in ancient Rome
and were imitated by numerous American cities, including New York, were
distinguished by a network of perpendicular streets.

 Organic Cities: These have developed organically over time and frequently
have meandering streets and asymmetrical layouts. This feature is seen in
several mediaeval European cities, like Venice.

Box 1: Urban Expansion Forms

 Infilling: infilling indicates that urban expansion occurs in the internal blank
area of the existing urban land.
 Extension: Non-infilling urban growth adjacent to built-up areas. In most
cases, this form of urban expansion is based on formal urban development
plans and housing schemes.
 Edge-expansion: Edge-expansion indicates that the new urban areas extend
outward along the edge of existing urban land.
 Linear Expansion: Development along major axes of urban transportation
infrastructure, such as roads and rail routes, is referred to as "linear
development." Areas along transportation infrastructure become more
desirable for both individual housing and economic development as a result
of the growing motorisation of goods and people transportation.
 Scattered development: It is defined as non-contiguous, low-density
development in an area that is adjacent to an urbanised area. It is brought
about by the rise in real estate activities and land monetisation, the tension
between "traditional" and "modern" land tenure systems, and a deficiency of
suitable land use policies.
 Leapfrogging: leapfrogging indicates the new urban areas developed
independently and without overlapping with any existing urban area.
(Source: Based on Camagni et al. (2002))

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9.2.2 Urban Structure
Urban structure is the interior design or configuration of several elements that
make up a city. It encompasses the distribution of open spaces, the structure
of buildings, the design of streets, and the organisation of land use. To
comprehend the structure of urban area one must examine:
 Street Patterns: These might be radial patterns, like those seen in Moscow,
grid patterns, like those found in Manhattan, or irregular patterns (as found
in many ancient cities).
 Building Pattern: What layout do structures have? Do they have a lot of free
space between them, or are they closely packed? Are they tall buildings or
low-rises?
 Land Use Distribution: This refers to how residential, commercial, industrial,
and recreational zones are distributed spatially.
 Transportation Network: A city's accessibility and mobility are determined by
the design and interconnectivity of its highways, trains, airports, and ports.

The spatial arrangement and distribution of commercial, industrial, residential,

institutional administrative and recreational structures make up the urban
area's structure. For example, commercial, institutional and residential
buildings are typically situated close to one another so that employees may
travel there with ease.

SAQ 2
Write about the components of urban morphology.

9.2.3 Urban Function

In the larger context urban morphology is important in describing the socio-
economic and cultural fabric of the urban environment in addition to being a
study of the arrangement of different forms of built-up areas including
buildings, roads and other transport networks.

Understanding the present status of resource availability in urban settlements

involves assessing natural resources like energy and water, as well as man-
made resources such as land, housing, roads, and industries. Analysing the
land use pattern in urban settlements involves examining how different areas
are utilized for industrial, residential, commercial, and agricultural purposes.

In a broad sense there are four schools of urban morphology:

1. Italian School of Thought: The 1940s saw the establishment of the Italian
school, which is centered on the work of Saverio Muratori. In order to
integrate new architectural works into the syntax of the urban tissue,
Muratori tried to create an "operational history" for the cities he studied,
especially Venice and Rome. Contributions like those of Gianfranco
Caniggia, which conceptualize the city as the organic outcome of a
dynamic procedural typology and see political-economic forces shaping a

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built landscape already conditioned by a specific logic, set of elements, and
characteristic processes, branch off of this perspective.
2. British School of Thought: Town-plan analysis is a technique that was
established by M.R.G. Conzen, the focal point of the British school.
According to Conzen, the crucial elements for analysis are: The plan for the
town, Structure of building forms, usage pattern of the land. There are three
complexes of plan elements in the town plan itself: The layout of streets
within a street system. Block plans consist of plots (or lots) combined into
street blocks and buildings. To understand urban form, according to
Conzen, one must grasp how various features and qualities have been
layered over time. The application of this understanding to the management
of ancient and modern townscapes has been studied by Conzen's
disciples, including J.W.R. Whitehand.
3. French School of Thought: The Versailles School of Architecture, the main
location of the French school, has produced a wealth of methodological
knowledge for the study of urbanisation processes and related architectural
models. The built environment and the social world have a dialectical
relationship in which each shapes the other, and much emphasis is placed
on the relevance of constructed space for maintaining social activities.
4. Monocentric models and the theories associated with the Chicago School:
In the early 1900s, studying how cities functioned was the aim of research.
To help in the description and comprehension of different city types and the
neighbourhoods that composed them, they developed a variety of urban
land use models. Every model meant to describe urban land use centres on
the central business area (CBD). Monocentric models of urban land use
became popular in the 1920s and 1930s, especially at the University of
Chicago. These models, presuming a single Central Business District,
examined trends in the distribution of the population and economic activity.
The Multiple Nuclei Model by Harris and Ullman, the Sector Model by Hoyt,
and the Concentric Zone Model by Burgess are a few examples.
Understanding land use changes and social group interactions was the
goal of the Chicago School of Urbanism.

SAQ 3
What are the factors affecting urban morphology?

9.3 THEORIES AND MODELS OF URBAN

LANDUSE STRUCTURE
9.3.1 Burgess’s Concentric Zone Model
The Concentric Zone Theory was first put forth by E.W. Burgess in 1925.
Urban morphology or ecological theory of city structure are other names for
this model. This model's main goal was to map Chicago's urban social
problems, such as crime. In this process of mapping, he discovered that there
is a concentric zone or pattern in the land use surrounding the Central
Business District. The reason this model is called the concentric zone model is

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that the many sites were established as rings surrounding the central
metropolitan region from which the city evolved. Ernest Burgess provided a
model that explains the spatial distribution of various social groupings in a
metro area. Social groups determined by a household's socioeconomic status
and proximity to the city or central region.

The strong association between economic status and proximity to the central
area is considered in the Burgess model. This is also known as the concentric
zone model, concentric model, or concentric theory at times. This model takes
into consideration the economic factors that propel development. The
surrounding residential neighbourhoods would grow farther apart as a result of
the CBD's expansion.

Burgess Classified the city structure in five zones which forms concentric ring
pattern and has specific characteristics to its land use. These include:

Zone-I: Central Business District: This is the central zone or heart named
‘Loop’ of the city accommodating the major commercial and institutional land
uses and very well connected to other parts of the city. The land value in this
zone is highest in the city area.

Zone-II: Transition Zone: This zone has two sections, one which has old
congested manufacturing area and is highly polluted part of the city. The other
part is a mixed land use consisting the old residential with low- income
population and industrial area.

Zone-III: Workers’ Homes: This is a very densely populated residential zone

with mix of old and new buildings. This zone accommodates low to lower
middle-income class worker who prefers to live relatively closer to central
business district.

Fig. 9.2: The Concentric Zone Model, also known as the Burgess Model.
(Source: Knox and Pinch, 2014, 158)
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Zone-IV: Better Residential Area/ White Collar Homes: This is an affluent zone
having better residential buildings with open spaces and gardens. The markets
in this area has very high-end products available to cater the needs of higher
order white collar workforce.

Zone-V: Commuters’ Zone: The farthest zone from the CBD accommodates
the affluent population of the city living in huge mansions and who can afford
the travel to workplace by own vehicles.

Criticism of Concentric Zone Model

The model is criticised for being too specific to North American metropolises,
not fitting more with major metropolises or those that have recently grown.
There are numerous hypotheticals aspects that make it unfit for other
metropolises. The topography is not always isotropic, so, the zones may not
be perfectly circular with constant width. This theory also has not included the
role of governance and local bodies towards redevelopment. The current
development plans talk about decongesting the central parts of the city and
developing industrial areas in outskirts of the city and transportation network
also to bypass the city centres.

Nonetheless, the Burgess model continues to be helpful in elucidating

concentric urban development, presenting the intricacy of urban land use, and
explaining the expansion of American cities in the early to mid-20th century.

SAQ 4
What is concentric zone model?

9.3.2 Hoyt's Sector Model

In 1939, Homer Hoyt published "The Structure and Growth of Domestic
Neighbourhoods in American metropolises," which developed Burgess's ideas.
He studied 142 US metropolises and found that they were more complex than
simple land use rings. Hoyt's model suggests that the center of the megacity
(Central Business District) remains the center due to easy access to
marketable businesses.

The Hoyt Model, sometimes referred to as the Sector Model, is an urban land
use model that discusses how activities are arranged spatially in metropolitan
areas. Academicians and researchers have always been interested in large
cities and towns as research topics.In1939, Homer Hoyt developed the sector
model, commonly referred to as the Hoyt Model, which describes how cities
expanded and activities clustered into concentric circles. Land use, settlement
geography, urban expansion, transport geography and spatial organisation
has been concerns for scholars.

Components of Sectoral Model

1. CBD

The hub of commercial activity at the heart of the urban area is known as the
central business district, or CBD with a lot of vertical expansion as land values

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are high. It is directly connected to every other sector by land border, train,
and river.

2. Industry

As transportation arteries linking rural and other urban areas to the CBD,
industries and the industrial sector are located immediately along railroads
and rivers. There are several types of environmental contamination linked to
this zone, including noise, water, and air pollution.

3. Low-Class Residential and

The lowest income neighbourhoods, sometimes referred to as "working class

housing," are situated in the less appealing areas that border the
manufacturing and industrial sectors and have direct access to the central
business district.

Fig. 9.3: Hoyt’s Sector Model.

(Source: Knights, 2008)

4. Middle-Class Residential

Middle-class residents in this area can afford more expensive travel and desire
better living conditions. It is more closely related to CBD and has certain
industry connections as well. There is the largest residential area in this area.

5. High Class residential

The location that is most remote and outside of downtown is this one. This
neighbourhood is home to wealthy and well-off citizens. This neighbourhood
includes big homes, is peaceful, has less traffic, and is clean.

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Fig. 9.4: An extract from Hoyt’s work, showing the different rents
charged in different parts of cities across the United States, which he
called ‘sectors.
(Source: Hoyt, 1939 p77.)

Limitations of Sector Model

Hoyt's concept, which is built on antiquated rail transit, ignores the possibility
of individual cars, which enable individuals to commute from less expensive
land outside of urban limits. Additionally, the new ideas about fringe cities are
not included in the model. It is a monocentric representation of cities; multiple
business centres are not accounted for in this model.

9.3.3 Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model

In 1945, Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman published a new model of the
megacity, recognising that as metropolises grow, they swallow over lower
agreements around the edge. This model is more flexible than previous
models, as it doesn't have a specific position for each zone. It also accounts
for the development of the motor auto, making the CBD less accessible.
However, it doesn't consider crucial features of metropolises, such as high-rise
structures, homogenous zones, government programs, and planning laws.
The model's balance between inflexibility and simplicity makes it useful in
certain situations.

Similar to the Burgess model or Concentric zone model of 1925, the Multi
Nuclei model is based on the structure of Chicago. Nonetheless, it runs
counter to Burgess Model's monocentric approach. With consideration for the
city's complexity, expansion throughout time, central area influence, and city
centre, the Harris model can be seen as an attempt to describe the structure
of the city. A city may begin with a single central business area (CBD), but as
time goes on, the activities disperse and change, according to Harris and
Ullman. People from the surrounding areas are drawn to the dispersed
activities, which also serve as minor nucleus on their own. These tiny nuclei
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become more significant, enlarge, and begin to affect the value of the
surrounding property as well as the expansion of nearby activity.

To give a more plausible explanation of the cities, this model was necessary.
Instead of focusing all economic activity in one location, the influence of cars
on individual travel and increased goods movement created opportunities in
several locations. People began shifting locations, lowering rent, and slightly
increasing transportation costs in an effort to maximise their profits.

This is mostly due to the expensive land, higher rent, distance from the city's
edge, and length of commute. As a result, the centre area's activity and
specialised services are dispersed. The newly constructed nucleus establishes
their own identities even though the kind, quantity, and form of services
provided may differ from those of the initial or original city centre. These
neighbourhoods, each with unique traits and importance, may be dispersed
around the city. These may provide specialised services or a range of
services. These tiny city centres have an impact on the growth and structure of
urban areas.

Fig. 9.5: Generalisations of Internal Structure of Cities.

(Source: Harris and Ullman, 1945.)

The model's activities can be viewed as autonomous zones that impact the
activity surrounding them. A "nuclei" is said to have grown when such activities
are close to one another, as they are also formed by their dependence on one
another. The activities listed in the model are as follows:

 Central business district

 Light manufacturing
 Low-class residential
 Middle-class residential
 Upper-class residential
 Heavy manufacturing
 Outlying business district
 Residential suburb
 Industrial suburb

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Fig. 9.6: The Comparative Images of Pioneering Model.

(Source: Adapted from Figures. 9.3, 9.4 and 9.5 above)

Assumptions for Multiple Nuclei Model

The land is not flat, which is an advantage over the Burgess model and offers
a more useful application of the numerous nuclei paradigm.

No one has special access to or privileges over other residents of the city.
Instead, resources are dispersed equally throughout the community.

1. Population distribution in residential areas is even; individuals are not

concentrated in one area or enclave but are instead dispersed throughout
the neighbourhood.

2. The cost of transportation is constant within the city and is not affected by
geography.

3. Profit maximising is the process by which a specific activity determines

where the most profit is possible to make. This can be accomplished by
experimenting with different combinations of rent, labour costs,
transportation expenses, and market proximity; the combination that
produces the greatest outcome determines the activity's eventual location.

Limitations Harris & Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model

Formation of well-defined zones or “nuclei” required the considerable size of

the city as the small or new towns do not have a very well-defined location
because of which they are usually scattered. Another drawback is the limited
activities which are considered in the model along with the very rigid and
specific boundaries of the activities. No consideration has been seen about
the influence of physical relief and government policy.

9.3.4 Kearsley’s Model

Kearsley's urban structure model is a modified version of Burgess's
concentrated zone model, which described a typical American city with five
concentrated zones of land use. G.W. Kearsley explained that the Burgess
model is the foundation for explaining urban geography and a city's structure.
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Kearsley's model of the urban structure is a conceptual framework that
describes the typical patterns of urban development in Western cities that
started taking place in the 20th century post-war.

His model of urban structure included modern aspects of urbanisation such

government participation and other social patterns that shaped the nature of
the city. Suburbanisation, gentrification, satellite towns, decentralisation of
economic activity, slum removal and rehabilitation, commuter villages, and
ghettoisation are a few of these. The foundation of the Burgess model is the
idea of central land use, in which the CBD is a valuable resource that is
desired by all land uses. Kearsley refined these fundamental formulations and
made changes to the Burgess model. The variety of suburban, exurban, and
even regional developments that define contemporary western metropolis
structures were highlighted by his model.

Fig. 9.7: Kearsley's Urban Structure Model (Pacione, 2009).

Nevertheless, there are certain restrictions and difficulties to take into account
when using the model. In order to decide which places should have access to
utilities or services, it mostly depends on socioeconomic data and ignores
factors like cultural diversity or the effects on the environment. However,
suburban sprawl and exurban development are taken into consideration by
Kearsley's Modified Burgess model, which gives us insight into the structure of
the entire metropolitan city.

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9.3.5 White’s Model
White (1987) proposed a revision of the Burgess model that incorporates
these trends in order to guide our understanding of the twenty-first-century
city.

Elements of the Model

1. Core: The city's central area is still the CBD. Even though its purposes
have evolved throughout time, the government and major banks are still
housed there.
2. Zone of Stagnation: White portrays the area as stagnant. He contends that
the CBD grows vertically as opposed to spatially expanding outward.
3. Pockets of Poverty and Minorities: These comprise economically and
socially marginalized and highly segregated groups, such as the homeless.
4. Elite Enclaves: Rich people can choose from a wide variety of housing
options and are better equipped to shield themselves from the issues facing
the city. The majority reside in upscale homes on large lots in
neighbourhoods on the outskirts of cities.
5. The Diffused Middle Class: These regions make up much of the city and
are in the space between the outer reaches of the central city and the
metropolitan periphery. This suburban area is distinguished by its diversity
in society.
6. Industrial Anchors and Public Sector Control: Patterns of land use and
residential development can be significantly influenced by industrial parks,
universities, hospitals, R&D centers, commercial and office centers,
corporate headquarters, and other large institutional property holders.
7. Epicentres and Corridors: One characteristic of the changing city of the
twenty-first century is the rise of peripheral epicentres, which are situated
where an axial superhighway and an outer beltway connect and offer a
range of services comparable to those offered by the central business
district. Developments along corridors, can also serve as hubs for dense
populations of people.

When combined with more recent adjustments, the classical models offer an
invaluable glimpse into how Western cities are evolving structurally.
Nonetheless, a significant shortcoming is the scant attention paid to the
processes that underlie the identified land use patterns. The political
economics interpretation of urban change was developed with this criticism as
its foundation.

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Fig. 9.8: White’s Model for Twenty First Century City.

(Source: White M. (1987 America Neighbourhood and Residential Differentiations, New York).

9.3.6 Vance’s Urban Realms Model

An expansion of the multiple-nuclei model, Vance's urban realms model is
based on the San Francisco the Bay area, but it has also been used in other
US locations. Large self-sufficient urban communities that are centered on a
location separate from the conventional downtown and core city are the
distinguishing characteristics. Each realm's dimensions and other features are
determined by a number of criteria, including the following:

1. The Terrain: Topography, which includes mountains, rivers, and other

impediments, will aid in defining a region's boundaries.
2. The size of Metropolis: A bigger metropolis might have more and bigger
domains.
3. The level of economic activity in each realm, which determines how big it
can go and how much territory it can service.
4. Each realm's internal transportation network; a readily reachable economic
center expands each realm's sphere of influence and correspondingly its
region of coverage.
5. Transportation infrastructure between realms: circumferential lines (like
freeways) and airports, for example, so that people can travel to other
realms and metropolis without having to go through the CBD and its center
realm.

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Fig. 9.9: Vance’s Urban Realms Model, 1967. (Source: Chen, 2020)

9.3.7 Griffin- Ford Model

Two geographers named Ernest Griffin and Larry Ford developed the Latin
American City Model in 1980. They discovered that many of the cities in this
area are structured similarly. Eventually, later in 1996, they published an
updated model that is still in use today.

During the colonial era, Spain ruled over towns throughout Latin America. A
prerequisite that had been included was for the cities to be laid out in a grid
around a central plaza. The impoverished lived on the periphery, and the
wealthy were concentrated around the square. This would mark the beginning
of such trends observed in cities throughout Latin America.

Components of the Model

1. Central Business District: The central business district serves as the hub of
all Latin American cities. The city's commerce and leisure centers are
located in these regions with all developed infrastructure, which also offer
the best job prospects.
2. The area surrounding the CBD is known as the Zone of Maturity. It is home
to middle-class inhabitants who moved there after the wealthy went into the
elite residential area. Its infrastructure is completely developed.
3. Spine and Elite Residential Sector: Subsequent to the central business
district, the commercial spine, encircled by affluent residential complexes,
is the second most prominent area in Latin American cities. Nearly all of the
city's professionally constructed homes are located in the exclusive
residential area, where the high class and upper middle class reside.
4. Zone of Maturity: The CBD and the surrounding area make up the mature
zone, which is regarded as an inner-city site. These neighbourhoods had
better-built homes, and in many cities, middle-class inhabitants relocated

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into these neighbourhoods after upper-class residents left the inner city and
moved into the affluent residential region.
5. Zone of In Situ Accretion: Between the mature zone and the periphery
squatter settlement zone, the zone of in situ accretion serves as a
transitional area with mixed inexpensive homes for cities in Latin America
6. Zone of Peripheral Squatter Settlements: The most impoverished residents
of Latin American cities reside in the area around these peripheral squatter
communities. There is little any infrastructure in these places, and many
people build their own dwellings from scraps.
7. Age Differences in Latin American City Structure: Age inequalities play an
essential role in the overall organisation of Latin American cities, just as
they do in the zone of peripheral squatter settlements. The zone of maturity
is typically larger and the cities seem more structured in older, slower-
growing cities than in younger, faster-growing cities.

Fig. 9.10: Griffin and Ford Model, 1980.

(Source: albahaeaphg.wordpress.com)

Revised Model of Latin American City Structure

Larry Ford offered an updated model of Latin American city structure in 1996
as a result of the cities' continued development making them more intricate
than the 1980 basic model had indicated. The changes included were as
follows:

1. There should be a Market and a CBD in the new core city. This shift
demonstrates how many cities now have their original CBDs in addition to
their downtown’s establishments.

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2. A mall or edge city has been added to the spine and elite residential sector
to serve as a supply of goods and services for the residents of that area.
3. Nowadays, industrial parks and distinct industrial sectors exist outside of
the central business district in many Latin American towns.
4. Many Latin American cities have perifericos, or ring highways, connecting
malls, edge cities, and industrial parks to provide easier transportation for
workers and residents.
5. The elite residential area and the periferico are in close proximity to middle
class housing tracts in many Latin American cities nowadays.
6. In order to preserve their historical landscapes, certain Latin American
cities are also going through gentrification.

Although it still considers the old model, this updated model of Latin American
city structure takes into consideration the ongoing development and changes
that happen in the quickly expanding region.

SAQ 5
Briefly define the Griffin Ford Model.

9.3.8 T.G. Mcgee Model

In 1967, the T.G. McGee model was developed to illustrate the land use of
medium-sized towns in Southeast Asia. In the residential zone, McGee's
model is comparable to the Griffin-Ford model; however, McGee's model lacks
CBD regions. The sophisticated social center found in many Southeast Asian
metropolises has undergone changes. The majority of large cities are port
cities, built originally for trade along the coast. Created in 1967, Terry McGee's
seminal concept of a Southeast Asian megacity has been simplified to account
for rising population and expanding civic areas. It highlights how newly created
inland zones have been tailored to fit the needs of the Asian environment.

In 1967, Jerry McGee's book "Southeast Asian city: a social geography of the
primate cities of Southeast Asia" was published. In it, McGee created the most
significant model of a southeast Asian metropolis. Updates since then have
taken into account the rapid increase in population and consequent growth of
the metropolitan area. Locating new industrial zones—which are found inland,
where there is an abundance of inexpensive land—rather than on the coast is
crucial. Despite modifications to better fit the Asian experience, take note of
how close it is to Hoyt's Sector Model.

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Fig. 9.11: Terry McGee’s 1967 Model of a Southeast Asian City.

(Source :McGee, 2002)

SAQ 6
Write about the concept of McGee Model.

9.3.9 Harm De Blij Model

In the 1962, Geographer Harm de Blij was studying the city of Mombasa,
Kenya and observed that the central city is informally partitioned in three major
ethnic groups. He continued to study more African cities and found similarities
to develop the Sub-Saharan African City Model. He investigated the civic
evolution of Sub-Saharan African metropolises. Since several African
countries were formed by arbitrary social borders rather than by ethnic or
public groupings, domestic areas are distinguished by wealth and race.

Components of the Model

1. Three CBDs – Traditional market, European colonial center, modern

developing CBD
2. Mining and industry on outskirts of city – Townships close to areas where
they work
3. Ethnic neighborhoods – Reflect tribal identities

This model has been criticised for not accounting for informal economy, ethnic
neighbourhoods and lack of middle class and wealthy section of the society.

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Fig. 9.12: Harm de Blij Model of a Sub-Saharan African City.

(Source: Ernst & Ford, 1980)

SAQ 7
What is Sector Model?

9.4 SUMMARY
In this unit you have studied so far:
 The study of urban shapes, structure, the forces and mechanisms influencing
the evolution throughout the time is known as urban morphology.
 The broad components of urban morphology include shape, structure and
functions of a city.
 The factors affecting urban morphology include natural features, historical
evolution, socioeconomic factors, functions, urban design and planning.
 Ernest Burgess's Chicago research in 1925 presents a model of the internal
structure of cities, with social groups grouped physically in a series of rings
around the central business district.
 Homer Hoyt in 1939 proposed a theory of urban structure that holds that a
city grows in a succession of specific sectors. T.G. McGee gave a model in
1967 that illustrates the similar land-use patterns of medium-sized cities in
Southeast Asia.
 Harris and Ullman suggested multiple nuclei model in 1945.
 Kearsley attempted to modify the Burgess model to include contemporary
aspects of urban change, such as inner city decline and decentralisation.
 Griffin Ford model was given in 1980 that combines radial sectors and
concentrated zones to incorporate globalisation with Latin American culture.
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 In the 1962, Geographer Harm de Blij was studying the city of Mombasa,
Kenya and observed that the central city is informally partitioned in three
major ethnic groups.
 White in 1987 proposed a revision of the Burgess model that incorporates
these trends in order to guide our understanding of the twenty-first-century
city.

9.5 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the Concentric Zone Theory in detail with its criticism.
2. Evaluate the Hoyt’s Sector model of urban land use structure.
3. Evaluate the Multiple Nuclei model of the internal structure of city.
4. Describe the modified Burgess Model as given by Kearsley.
5. Discuss the model of Latin American city’s land use structure.
6. Illustrate the land use of in Southeast Asian and African towns with suitable
diagram.

9.6 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
1. The study of urban shapes, structure, the forces and mechanisms
influencing the evolution throughout the time is known as urban
morphology.
2. The broad components of urban morphology include shape, structure and
functions of a city. These consist the following:
• Street Pattern
• Building Density
• Land Use
• Architectural Styles
• Public Spaces
• Transportation Networks
3. The factors affecting urban morphology are as follows:
• Natural Features
• Historical Evolution
• Socioeconomic Factors
• Urban Design and Planning
• Urban Identity
• Natural Features
• Historical Evolution
• Socioeconomic Factors
• Urban Design and Planning
• Urban Identity
4. Ernest Burgess's Chicago research in 1925 presented a model of the
internal structure of cities, with social groups grouped physically in a series
of rings around the central business district, known as concentric zone
model.
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…………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………………………………
5. This model was given in 1980 that combines radial sectors and
concentrated zones to incorporate globalisation with Latin American culture.
It consists of a strong CBD with a business orientation. The dwellings in the
no amenity areas are of the lowest quality and decrease in value as one
moves out from the central business district.
6. T.G. McGee gave a model in 1967 that illustrates the similar land-use
patterns of medium-sized cities in Southeast Asia. The old colonial port
zone serves as the model's focal point; there is no CBD in Asia, but the port
zone is surrounded by distinct CBD clusters.
7. In an attempt to address the shortcomings of Burgess model, Homer Hoyt
in 1939 proposed a theory of urban structure explaining that a city grows in
a succession of specific sectors rather than circles.

Terminal Questions
1. You should describe the theory critically, who gave it and its components.
Refer to Sec. 9.3.1 Burgess’s concentric zone model.
2. You should attempt to discuss the elements of the model along with its
drawbacks. Refer to Sec. 9.3.2 Hoyt's Sector model
3. Critically discuss the model in detail along with the relevant diagram. Refer
to Sec. 9.3.3 Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model
4. Discuss Kearsley’s model in detail along with the modifications he has
suggested in Burgess’ model with suitable diagram. Refer to Sec. 9.3.4
Kearsley’s Model.
5. You should write about Griffin- Ford Model where they have proposed the
land use structure model for Latin American cities which is different from
cities of the developed world. Refer to Sec. 9.3.7 Griffin- Ford model.
6. You should write in the detail the T.G. McGee Model and Harm De Blij
model explaining the Southeast Asian city and African city respectively.
Refer to Sec. 9.3.8 T.G. McGee Model and 9.3.9 Harm De Blij model.

9.7 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED

FURTHER READINGS
1. Carter, H. (2010). The Study of Urban Geography, Arnold Publishers
London.
2. Chen JD (2015). The urban realms model by Vance,
https://worldgeographyindonesia.wordpress.com/2015/05/07/the-urban-
realms-model-by-vance. Accessed 10 June 2023
3. Ernst & Ford (1980).A Model of Latin American City Structure,
Geographical Review, Vol. 70, No. 4 ,pp. 397-422,
https://doi.org/10.2307/214076,https://www.jstor.org/stable/214076
4. Fyfe, N. R. and Kenny, J. T. (2020). The Urban Geography Reader.
London, UK: Routledge.

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5. GAUBATZ, P. (1998). Understanding Chinese Urban Form: Contexts for
Interpreting Continuity and Change. Built Environment (1978-), 24(4),
251–270.http://www.jstor.org/stable/23289160
6. Harris and Ullman, (1945). The nature of cities. The Annals of the
American Academy of Political and Social Science, 242(1), pp.7-17.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1026055 Accessed on April 21, 2022.
7. Hoyt, (1939). The Structure and Growth of Residential Neighbourhoods in
American Cities. https://archive.org/details/structuregrowtho00unitrich
Accessed 15 March 2022.
8. Kaplan, D. H., Wheeler, J. O. and Holloway, S. R. (2008). Urban
Geography, John Wiley, New York.
9. Key Geographic Concepts and Models associated with Notable
Geographers, https://albahaeaphg.wordpress.com/wp-
content/uploads/2019/04/aphg-model-concepts_greaet.pdf, accessed on
August 2023.
10. Knox, P. L., and McCarthy, L. (2005). Urbanisation: An Introduction to
Urban Geography, Pearson Prentice Hall, New York.
11. Lutters and Ackerman, (1996). An Introduction to the Chicago School of
Sociology. https://userpages.umbc.edu/~lutters/pubs/1996_SWLNote96-
1_Lutters, Ackerman.pdf Accessed 11 May 2018.
12. McGee, T.G. (2002). Reconstructing "The Southeast Asian City" in an Era
of Volatile Globalization,Asian Journal of Social Science, Vol. 30, No. 1,
pp. 8-27 , https://www.jstor.org/stable/23654622
13. Oliveira, Vítor (2020). Urban Morphology. Urban Studies. doi:
10.1093/obo/9780190922481-0004.
14. Pacione, M. (2009). Urban Geography: A Global Perspective. Taylor and
Francis, UK.
15. Ramachandran, R., (1992). Urbanisation and Urban Systems of India.
New Delhi, India: Oxford University Press.
16. Singh, S and Saroha, J. (2021). Urban Geography, Pearson Education.

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