MODULE TWO

RELATIVE ISOTOPIC MASSmass of an isotope relative to 1/12th of the

mass of a carbon-12 atom

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASSweighted mean mass of an atom of an element

compared to the mass of 1/12 of a carbon-12 atom

RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS mass of a molecule compared to the pass

of a carbon-12 atom

MASS SPECTOMETERa sample is vaporised then ionised to form positive

ions,the ions are accelerated

Heavier ions move slowly and are more difficult to deflect so the ions are
separated

The ions are detected on a mass spectrum as a mass to charge ration

(relative mass/relative charge

IDEAL GAS EQUATION (pv=nrT) a equation to use when the

approximation of verything being at RTP is not accurate enough

Percentage=actual/theoretical * 100

Atom economy=desired/all * 100

STRONG ACIDScompletely dissociates its H+ ions in water

A weak acid is indicated by the arrow with two directions

A base is a substance that reacts with an acid to form a salt and water an
alkali is a soluble base

TITRATIONmethod to measure the volume of a solution that reacts

exactly with another one -can be used to find concentration of a solution

To prepare solutions use a volumetric flask,pipette to measure the solution

in the conical flask ,use burette to pour solution repeat until titres are
concordant

ORBITAL a region around a nucleus that can store up to two electrons

with opposite spins

In the periodic table the blocks are allocated based on where the highest
energy subshell is (ie p orbital or d or s)

COVALENT is localised IONIC is delocalised

DATIVEa covalent bond in which the shared pair of electrons are

supplied from one of the bonding atoms that was originally a lone pair eg
NH4+
AVERAGE BOND ENTHALPYenergy required to break one mole of
covalent bonds in a gaseous state

WHEN THERE ARE FOUR BONDING REGIONS

No lone pairstetrahedral

One lone pairpyramidal

Two lone pairsnon linear

NUMBER OF BONDING REGIONS doesn’t matter if it’s a double bond eg

carbon dioxide has TWO DOUBLE BONDS ie it is a linear molecule with no
lone pairs

ELECTRONEGATIVITYtendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of

electrons

The atom with the smallest atomic radius and highest nuclear charge is
the MOST ELECTRONEGATIVE

The difference in electronegativity determines what type of bond will be

made eg non polar bond,polar bond,hydrogen bond

LONDON FORCESmovement of electrons within a molecule can cause an

instantaneous dipole to exist but its position will constantly be switching-
in that moment a dipole is produced that affects the dipoles of other
molecules causing overall attraction between the molecules

A larger molecule has more electrons to move and cause an

instantantaneous dipoles to form

PERMANENT DIPOLE interactions between permanent dipoles in polar

molecules

HYDROGEN BONDspecial type of permanent dipole interaction between

hydrogen AND nitrogen, carbon and fluorine

The lone pair is attracted to the hydrogen

WATER: hydrogen bonds hold water molecules open and apart in a lattice
like structure causing water molecules in ice to be spread further apart
than in water -which is why ice is less dense than liquid

MODULE 3
PERIODIC TABLE:

Mendeleev arranged them in order of atomic mass (not atomic number or

sub atomic particles)
Lined up elements in groups with similar properties if it didn’t match he
swapped them around and left GAPS of elements he assumed would fit

FIRST IONISATION ENERGY energy required to convert one mole of

gaseous atoms into one mole of gaseous ions (to remove one mole of
electrons)

Affected by atomic radius, nuclear charge and electron shielding

As successive ionisation energies occur there is less shielding and nuclear

attraction on remaining electrons increases decreasing atomic radius so
MORE energy needed to remove this electron

Jump from 2nd to 3rd ionisation energy indicates group 2

Across a period ionisation energy generally increases-noble gas being the

highest

PERIOD 2:boron and oxygen drop

BORON(removing an electron from 2p ) much further away is easier less

energy

OXYGENremoving from the pair is easier since the pair repels one
another so is more easily removed

NOBLE GASES HAVE HIGHEST IONISATION ENERGIES

DOWN THE GROUPionisation energies decrease(atomic radius and

shielding increase)

HALOGENS

Boiling point INCREASES down the group due to more electrons so

stronger London forces

A more reactive halogen will displace a lesas reactive halogen from its
compound

DOWN THE GROUP REACTIVITY DECREASES (atomic radius increases less

nuclear attraction to capture an electron)

DISPROPORTIONATION-->redox reaction where the same element is both

oxidised and reduced

TESTING FOR ANIONS

-carbonate test using an acid eg DILUTE nitric acid if you see bubbles, it is
a carbonate
--sulphate test most are soluble, but BARIUM SULFATE is very insoluble so
add barium chloride or barium nitrate(if you are going to test for chloride
ions later)

-halide ions test using silver nitrate to form a silver halide (white is
chlorine, cream is bromine, yellow is iodine)

Chlorine is soluble in ALL ammonia solutions bromine only in concentrated

and iodine in neither

CARBONATESULFURIC HALIDE

CARBONATE FIRST: because it’s the only one that bubbles

SULFATE NEXT: barium can form barium CARBONATE which is a precipitate

HALIDE LAST: silver carbonate and sulphate exist and can be formed

1)add nitric acid to see bubbling

2)add barium nitrate

3)add silver nitrate then ammonia solution to confirm WHICH halide is

present

TO TEST FOR AMMONIUM IONSreact with aqueous metal hydroxide it will

form ammonia gas it will turn red litmus paper blue

ENTHALPYproducts-reactants

Standard enthalpy changes is UNDER standard conditions eg 100kpa,

298K ,1mol/dm^3 ,standard states

Of reaction

Enthalpy change accompanying a reaction in the molar quantities shown

in a chemical equation under standard conditions with all reactants and
products in their standard states

Of formation

Enthalpy change when one mole of a compound is formed from its

elements under standard conditions with all products and reactants in
their standard states

Of combustion

Enthalpy change that takes place when one mole of a substance racts
completely with oxygen under standard conditions………..

Of neutralisation
One mole of water formed

To measure use q=mcAT

M is the mass of the thing heated then DIVIDE BY MOLES of the thing
burnt or used to create heat to find the enthalpy change of reaction

BUT: heat loss to surroundings, incomplete combustion ,evaporation and

NON STANDARD conditions can lead to less exothermic

AVERAGE BOND ENTHALPY-->reactants SUBTRACT PRODUCTS

HESS LAWmethod to allow enthalpy changes to be determined indirectly

the total enthalpy change of all routes will be the same

HOMOGENEOUSreacts to form an intermediate which then forms the

product(the two bumps on the graph)

HETEROGENEOUSadsorb and desorp

DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUMa state reached of a reversible reaction where the

rate of forward and reverse reaction are equal and concentration of
products and reactants do not change-within a closed system

CHROMATE is yellow DICHROMATE is orange

High pressure is expensive and dangerous high temperature is expensive

and may have to be used for faster reactions

To calculate Kc products OVER reactants

If it is more than one equilibrium is towards product if it is less than one it

is towards reactants

LATTICE ENTHALPY enthalpy change with the formation of one mole of

an ionic compound from its gaseous ions under standard conditions)

It is an exothermic change since bonds are made

Enthalpy change of formationwhen one mole of a compound is formed

from its elements under standard conditions

Of atomisationenthalpy change that takes place with the formation of

mole of gaseous atoms from the element in its standard states

Of electron affinitywhen one mole of electrons is added to gaseous

atoms to form one mole of gaseous atoms
First one is exothermic(electron is added easily) second is ENDO thermic
since there is repulsion between the ion and electron

Of solutionwhen one mole of a solute dissolves in water to form its

aqueous ions(endothermic bonds are broken)

Of hydrationWhen one mole of gaseous ions form one mole of aqueous

ions

You can form lattice enthalpies using them

FACTORS AFFECTING LATTICE ENTHALPYsmaller ion has larger charge

density so stronger ionic bonds(more exothermic LE),ionic charge