Historical Context

 Since ancient times, humans have classified living organisms based on instinct rather than
scientific criteria.

 Early classifications were driven by practical needs for food, shelter, and clothing.

 Aristotle was one of the first to use a more scientific approach, classifying plants by
morphology:

o Trees

o Shrubs

o Herbs

 He categorized animals into two groups:

o Those with red blood

o Those without red blood

Two Kingdom System

 In Linnaeus' time, a Two Kingdom system was established:

o Plantae (plants)

o Animalia (animals)

 Limitations of this system:

o Did not distinguish between eukaryotes and prokaryotes.

o Did not differentiate unicellular and multicellular organisms.

o Failed to separate photosynthetic (e.g., green algae) from non-photosynthetic

organisms (e.g., fungi).

 Many organisms did not fit neatly into these categories, leading to inadequacies in
classification.

Evolution of Classification Systems

 Classification systems have evolved to include:

o Cell structure

o Nature of cell wall

o Mode of nutrition

o Habitat

o Methods of reproduction

o Evolutionary relationships

 The understanding of kingdoms has changed over time, with different scientists proposing
various systems.
Five Kingdom Classification

 R.H. Whittaker proposed a Five Kingdom Classification in 1969:

o Monera

o Protista

o Fungi

o Plantae

o Animalia

 Main criteria for classification:

o Cell structure

o Body organization

o Mode of nutrition

o Reproduction

o Phylogenetic relationships

Table 2.1: Characteristics of the Five Kingdoms

KingdomCell TypeCell WallNuclear MembraneBody OrganizationMode of

NutritionMoneraProkaryoticNoncellulosic (Polysaccharide + amino acid)AbsentCellularAutotrophic
(chemosynthetic and photosynthetic) and Heterotrophic
(saprophytic/parasitic)ProtistaEukaryoticPresent in somePresentCellularAutotrophic (Photosynthetic)
and HeterotrophicFungiEukaryoticPresent with chitinPresentMulticellular/loose tissueHeterotrophic
(Saprophytic/Parasitic)PlantaeEukaryoticPresent (cellulose)PresentTissue/organAutotrophic
(Photosynthetic)AnimaliaEukaryoticAbsentPresentTissue/organ/organ systemHeterotrophic
(Holozoic/Saprophytic etc.)

Changes in Classification

 Earlier systems grouped diverse organisms based on shared characteristics like the presence
of a cell wall.

 This led to the inclusion of prokaryotic bacteria and blue-green algae with eukaryotic plants.

 Fungi were eventually placed in a separate kingdom due to differences in cell wall
composition (chitin vs. cellulose).

 Kingdom Protista was created to include unicellular eukaryotic organisms, which were
previously misclassified.

Future of Classification

 Classification systems will continue to evolve as our understanding of characteristics and

evolutionary relationships improves.

 The chapter will focus on the characteristics of Kingdoms Monera, Protista, and Fungi.

 Kingdoms Plantae and Animalia will be discussed in subsequent chapters.

Kingdom Monera

 Bacteria are the only members of Kingdom Monera.

 They are the most abundant microorganisms, found in various environments, including
extreme habitats.

 Bacteria are categorized by shape:

o Coccus (spherical)

o Bacillus (rod-shaped)

o Vibrio (comma-shaped)

o Spirillum (spiral)

Characteristics of Bacteria

 Bacterial structure is simple, but they exhibit complex behaviors.

 They show extensive metabolic diversity:

o Some are autotrophic, synthesizing their own food from inorganic substances.

Bacteria and Protista

Bacteria

 Bacteria can be classified as:

o Photosynthetic autotrophic

o Chemosynthetic autotrophic

o Heterotrophs (most common, depend on other organisms or dead organic matter

for food)

2.1.1 Archaebacteria

 Live in extreme habitats:

o Halophiles: Extreme salty areas

o Thermoacidophiles: Hot springs

o Methanogens: Marshy areas

 Unique features:

o Different cell wall structure allows survival in harsh conditions.

 Example:

o Methanogens: Found in the gut of ruminants (e.g., cows), produce methane from
dung.

2.1.2 Eubacteria
 Thousands of types, known as "true bacteria."

 Characteristics:

o Rigid cell wall

o Flagellum if motile

 Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae):

o Contain chlorophyll a, are photosynthetic autotrophs.

o Can be unicellular, colonial, or filamentous.

o Can fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialized cells called heterocysts (e.g., Nostoc,
Anabaena).

 Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria:

o Oxidize inorganic substances (nitrates, nitrites, ammonia) for ATP production.

o Important for recycling nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, sulfur).

 Heterotrophic bacteria:

o Most abundant, act as decomposers.

o Important for human activities (curd production, antibiotics, nitrogen fixation).

o Some are pathogens (e.g., cholera, typhoid, tetanus).

Reproduction in Bacteria

 Mainly by fission.

 Under unfavorable conditions, they can produce spores.

 Some reproduce through a primitive form of DNA transfer.

Mycoplasma

 Lack a cell wall, smallest living cells, can survive without oxygen.

 Many are pathogenic.

Kingdom Protista

 Includes all single-celled eukaryotes; boundaries are not well defined.

 Members are primarily aquatic and link plants, animals, and fungi.

 Characteristics:

o Well-defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

o Some have flagella or cilia.

 Reproduction:

o Asexually and sexually through cell fusion and zygote formation.

 2.2.1 Chrysophytes

 Includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids).

 Found in freshwater and marine environments.

 Characteristics:

o Microscopic, float in water (plankton).

o Most are photosynthetic.

o Diatoms have silica-embedded cell walls, forming indestructible shells.

 Diatomaceous earth: Accumulation of diatom cell wall deposits, used in polishing and
filtration.

2.2.2 Dinoflagellates

 Mostly marine and photosynthetic.

 Appear in various colors due to pigments.

 Characteristics:

o Cell wall has stiff cellulose plates.

o Most have two flagella.

 Red tides: Rapid multiplication of red dinoflagellates (e.g., Gonyaulax) can harm marine life.

2.2.3 Euglenoids

 Mostly freshwater organisms in stagnant water.

 Characteristics:

o Have a flexible protein-rich layer (pellicle) instead of a cell wall.

o Two flagella (one short, one long).

o Photosynthetic in sunlight, heterotrophic in darkness.

 Example: Euglena.

2.2.4 Slime Moulds

 Saprophytic protists that move along decaying material.

 Under suitable conditions, form plasmodium which can grow large.

 In unfavorable conditions, plasmodium forms fruiting bodies with spores.

 Spores are resistant and can survive adverse conditions.

2.2.5 Protozoans

 All are heterotrophs, living as predators or parasites.

 Believed to be primitive relatives of animals.

  Major groups:

1. Amoeboid protozoans: Move using pseudopodia (e.g., Amoeba).

2. Flagellated protozoans: Free-living or parasitic, cause diseases (e.g., Trypanosoma).

3. Ciliated protozoans: Aquatic, actively moving due to cilia.

Biological Classification

Deuteromycetes

 Reproduction:

o Only by asexual spores known as conidia.

 Structure:

o Mycelium is septate and branched.

 Ecological Role:

o Some are saprophytes or parasites.

o Many are decomposers of litter, aiding in mineral cycling.

 Examples:

o Alternaria, Colletotrichum, Trichoderma.

Kingdom Plantae

 Definition:

o Includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms, commonly called plants.

 Nutrition:

o Some members are partially heterotrophic (e.g., insectivorous plants).

 Examples: Bladderwort, Venus flytrap (insectivorous plants), Cuscuta

(parasite).

 Cell Structure:

o Eukaryotic with prominent chloroplasts and cell walls made of cellulose.

 Groups Included:

o Algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms.

 Life Cycle:

o Two distinct phases: diploid sporophytic and haploid gametophytic.

o These phases alternate, a phenomenon called alternation of generations.

Kingdom Animalia

 Definition:
 o Characterized by heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that are multicellular and lack
cell walls.

 Nutrition:

o Depend on plants for food; digest food in an internal cavity.

o Mode of nutrition is holozoic (ingestion of food).

 Growth:

o Follow a definite growth pattern, growing into adults with specific shapes and sizes.

 Reproduction:

o Primarily sexual reproduction through copulation, followed by embryological

development.

 Features:

o Higher forms exhibit elaborate sensory and neuromotor mechanisms.

o Most are capable of locomotion.

Viruses, Viroids, Prions, and Lichens

 Classification:

o Not included in Whittaker's five kingdom classification.

 Viruses:

o Non-cellular organisms with an inert crystalline structure outside living cells.

o Infect host cells to replicate, often killing the host.

o Contain either RNA or DNA, but not both.

o Examples of diseases caused by viruses: mumps, smallpox, herpes, influenza, and

AIDS.

 Structure:

o Composed of a protein coat (capsid) made of capsomeres, which can be helical or

polyhedral.

 Symptoms in Plants:

o Mosaic formation, leaf rolling, yellowing, dwarfing, and stunted growth.

Infectious Agents and Symbiotic Associations

Viroids

 Discovered as a new infectious agent smaller than viruses.

 Causes potato spindle tuber disease.

 Composed of free RNA.

  Lacks a protein coat, hence the name "viroid."

 RNA has low molecular weight.

Prions

 Infectious neurological diseases transmitted by abnormally folded proteins.

 Similar in size to viruses.

 Notable diseases caused by prions:

o Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) - mad cow disease in cattle.

o Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) in humans.

Lichens

 Symbiotic associations between algae and fungi.

o Algal component: phycobiont (autotrophic).

o Fungal component: mycobiont (heterotrophic).

 Algae provide food for fungi; fungi provide shelter and absorb nutrients and water.

 Their close association makes it hard to distinguish them as separate organisms.

 Lichens are good pollution indicators; they do not grow in polluted areas.

Summary

 Biological classification began with Aristotle based on morphological characters.

 Linnaeus classified organisms into two kingdoms: Plantae and Animalia.

 Whittaker proposed a five kingdom classification: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and
Animalia.

 Criteria for classification include:

o Cell structure

o Body organization

o Mode of nutrition and reproduction

o Phylogenetic relationships

 Kingdom Monera includes bacteria, which are diverse in metabolism and can be autotrophic
or heterotrophic.

 Kingdom Protista consists of single-celled eukaryotes with defined nuclei and organelles.

 Kingdom Fungi includes diverse structures and habitats, primarily saprophytic, with both
asexual and sexual reproduction.
 Kingdom Plantae encompasses all chlorophyll-containing eukaryotic organisms with
alternation of generations.

 Kingdom Animalia includes multicellular, heterotrophic organisms lacking cell walls, primarily
reproducing sexually.

 Acellular organisms like viruses and viroids, as well as lichens, are not included in the five
kingdom system.