TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

ABBREVIATIONS

NOTATIONS

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 MOTIVATION

1.2 OBJECTIVES

1.3 SCOPE OF WORK

1.4 LIMITATIONS

1.5 STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT

CHAPTER 2 BACKGROUND

2.1 TRADITIONAL POWER SYSTEMS

2.2 POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

2.2.1 ROTOR ANGLE STABILITY

2.2.2 VOLTAGE STABILITY

2.3 THE VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTER

2.4 DISTRIBUTED ENERGY RESOURCES

2.5 THE VIRTUAL SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

2.5.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VSG

2.5.2 SWING EQUATION FOR VSG INERTIA EMULATION

2.5.3 DEPENDENCE OF VSG ON INERTIA

CHAPTER 3 MODELING

3.1 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

3.2 PHASE LOOP LOCK

3.2.1 PHASE COMPARATOR

3.2.2 LOOP FILTER

3.2.3 VOLTAGE CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR

 3.3 DC GRID

3.4 SUMMARY

CHAPTER 4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

4.1 ADVANTAGES

4.2 DISADVANTGES

4.3 APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 5 REFERENCES

REFFERENCES
 LIST OF TABLES

4.1 System Parameters for Simulation Studies 21

4.2 System Parameters for VSG in parallel with SG 25
 LIST OF FIGURES

2.1 Simplified block diagram of a VSG unit [15] 10

2.2 Power angle curve of a typical Synchronous Machine [1] 13
2.3 Machine modes during oscillation [1] 13

3.1 Block diagram of a VSG unit [1] 16

3.2 Governor diagram [1] 17
3.3 VSG unit in parallel with the SG in microgrid [1] 18
3.4 SG connected to the grid via VSG unit [1] 19

4.1 Output power of VSG with fixed J = 6 kgm2 and D = 17 pu 22

4.2 Virtual angular velocity of VSG with fixed J = 6 kgm2 and D = 17 pu 22
4.3 Output power of VSG with alternating J : 1 and 6 kgm2 and D = 17 pu 23
4.4 Virtual angular velocity of VSG with alternating J : 1 and 6 kgm2, D =
17 pu 23
4.5 VSG and SG powers with fixed J and D = 17 pu 24
4.6 SG rotor angle with fixed J and D = 17 pu 24
4.7 VSG and SG powers with alternating inertia and D = 0 pu 24
4.8 SG rotor angle with alternating inertia fixed and D = 0 pu 25
4.9 SG Load angle with fixed inertia 26
4.10 DC-link voltage with fixed inertia 26
4.11 SG Load angle with alternating inertia 27
4.12 DC-link voltage with alternating inertia
 ABBREVIATIONS

AC Alternating Current
DC Direct Current
DER Distributed Energy Resource
DG Distributed Generator
HVDC High Voltage Direct Current
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
PCC Point of Common Coupling
PQ Power Quality
PLL Phase Locked Loop
PWM Pulse width modulation
SG Synchronous Generator
SM Synchronous Machine
SRF Synchronous Reference Frame
VSC Voltage Source Converter
VSG Virtual Synchronous Generator
 NOTATIO
NS

CDC DC storage capacitance

D Damping Factor
δ Load angle
∆ω Difference of angular velocity of virtual rotor and grid
fgrid Grid frequency
fbase Base frequency
H Inertia constant of the machine
Igrid Grid current
J Moment of Inertia of the Virtual Rotor
Jbig Bigger value of Moment of Inertia
Jsmall Smaller value of Moment of Inertia
ωm Virtual angular velocity of Virtual Rotor
ω0 Initial virtual angular velocity of Virtual Rotor
ωgrid Grid frequency or reference frequency
Pin Input Power to VSG
Pout Output Power of VSG
Pre f Reference power
RL Grid resistance
S Apparent power
Sbase Base apparent power
Srated Rated apparent power
θm Virtual rotor angle
VDC DC-link voltage
Vgrid Grid voltage
Vre f Voltage reference
XF Filter Inductance
XL Grid inductance
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter introduces the reader to the subject of the report and covers the
motivation for the thesis, the objectives, the scope of work, the limitation and
finally describes the structure of the report.

1.1 MOTIVATION
In classical power systems, the Synchronous Machine (SM) with speed
governor and excitation control offers favorable features to support the system
operation within a dis- tributed control scheme. Indeed, SMs contribute to the
system damping through their inertia, participate in the primary frequency
regulation through the droop response of the speed controller, and provide
local control of voltage or reactive power flow. These capabilities, and
especially the inertial and damping response common to all SMs, are not
inherently offered by the power electronics interfaces commonly adopted for
the integration of renewable energy sources. A distributed model for
production and local control is also opening the possibility of islanded
operation, which is inherently feasible with one or more controllable SMs in
the islanded area. Such islanding operation is usually more complex to achieve
with power converter interfaces designed for integration with a large-scale
power system.

Power from many traditional large-scale generation facilities is currently being

replaced by distributed generation capacity from wind power and
photovoltaics. The traditional control structures implemented in the power
converters for these applications rely on the synchronization to a stable grid
frequency supported by large rotating inertias and are not inherently suitable
in a Smart Grid context. Thus, from an implementation perspective, significant
research efforts are still devoted towards development of control schemes for
power electronic converters explicitly conceived to address the conditions
emerging in future Smart Grids. Given the inherent benefits of the SMs
outlined above, a captivating approach is the control of power electronic
converters to replicate the most
essential properties of the SM and by that gain equivalent features from a
functional point of view. Thus, several alternatives for providing auxiliary
services like reactive power control, damping of oscillations and emulation of
rotating inertia with power electronic converters have been proposed. Some of
these control strategies are explicitly designed to mimic the dynamic response of
the traditional SM, and can therefore be classified in broad terms as Virtual
Synchronous Generators (VSG).

Conventional enormous synchronous generators (SGs) comprise rotating

inertia due to their rotating parts. These generators are capable of injecting the
kinetic potential energy preserved in their rotating parts to the power grid in
the case of disturbances or sudden changes. Therefore, the system is robust
against instability. On the other hand, penetration of distributed generating
(DG) units in power systems is increasing rapidly. The most challenging issue
with the inverter-based units is to synchronize the inverter with the grid and
then to keep it in step with the grid even when disturbances or changes happen
A power system with a big portion of inverter based DGs is prone to
instability due to the lack of adequate balancing energy injection within the
proper time interval. The solution can be found in the control scheme of
inverter based DGs. By controlling the switching pattern of an inverter, it can
emulate the behavior of a real synchronous machine. In the VSG concept, the
power electronics interface of the DG unit is controlled in a way to exhibit a
reaction similar to that of a synchronous machine to a change or disturbance.
The VSG control generates amplitude, frequency, and phase angle for its
terminal voltage based on its power command. Therefore, as a corollary, it can
contribute to the regulation of grid voltage and frequency.

The VSG concept and application were investigated in The same concept
under the title of synchro-converter is described in The VSG systems
addressed in is designed to connect an energy storage unit to the main grid.
Hesseetal implement a linear and ideal model of a synchronous machine to
produce current reference signals for the hysteresis controller of an inverter.
Xiang-Zhen et al. The work carried out in introduces a mechanism for
voltage, frequency, and active and reactive power flow control of the VSG.
The effect of the VSG on the transient response of a microgrid is addressed
in a more recent publication Various research groups has introduced a new
VSG design, enhanced the voltage sag ride-through capability of the VSG ,
evaluated it in various voltage sag conditions, and finally added reactive
power control to have a constant voltage at VSG terminals.

1.2 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this thesis is to explore the characteristics of a Virtual Synchronous Generator
and its performances in various fields and how it can be an alternative to conventional
Synchronous Machine.

Also the operation of the VSG with fixed inertia compared to its operation with alternating
inertia will be discussed in detail. The following objectives are to be carried out:

1. Design a relevant system to study

2. Build a simulink model of the system
3. Explore the system behavior and identify relevant test cases
4. Simulate said test cases
5.Present and discuss the results

1.3 SCOPE OF WORK

As stated in the task description, the focus of this thesis is on the applicability of VSG when
connected to the power grid. The VSG may be in parallel with other machines or it may be also
used as an interface between Synchronous Generator and the Grid. The aim will be to study how
the controllers of the different components will interact with each other and what effect they have
on load flow and other parameters such as grid frequency. The stability of the grid and its
enhancement due to the introduction of alternating inertia will be studied in the events of fault at
load point or in the case of voltage sag.

1.4 LIMITATIONS
The thesis will cover the control strategies of the various components of the system
to a greater extent than the physical components themselves. The model
that is built in this thesis introduces a set of limitations. Several
Simplifications have been done

When modeling in order to better fit the scope, and to make the modeling easier. The
modeling is covered in detail in Chapter 3, so this section will cover what limitations
the model has, and why it has them. As mentioned in the scope of work, the modeling
of the physical components themselves has not been a priority. The power electronic
converters in the model for example, is based on average models. The average model of
a converter cannot represent harmonics, so harmonics cannot be studied. The average
model also assumes the converter to be ideal, which implies that there are no losses
in the electronics. The power system studied in this thesis is not very complex and has
been simplified to a great extent in order to make analysis and simulations easier. This
low complexity imposes limitations on how advanced the test cases can be. It also limits
the relevancy of the findings to real life cases by making them more theoretical and
related to only a small part of an actual system. This is of course all related to the
scope of work and a design and analysis of much more complex system would not have
been feasible with the time and resources at hand. The system do not contain any
infrastructure for reconnecting the VSG to the grid if it initially was running in island
operation. The system would need to have a synchronization controller such as the
one described in [10] in order to make reconnection possible. The lack of this
technology in the system means that scenarios such as synchronization of the VSG with
an already operational synchronous generator cannot be studied. Furthermore, no
application specific constraints of the DC side of the VSC are considered and thus the
modeling and control of the energy source or storage on the DC side of the converter is
not further discussed.
 STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT
The thesis work in five chapters is described as given below.

Chapter 1 gives an introduction to Virtual Synchronous Generators. It also gives a

comparison between the conventional SM and the VSG. It discusses about the
driving force behind doing this project and along with it the various objectives that
needs to be carried out. It also throws some light on the scope of its work and at the
same time restricts itself with the unavoidable limitations.

Chapter 2 covers the background for the technologies and concepts of the subject

matter studied in the thesis. A detailed information about the VSGs and its
characteristic behavior in different aspects has been discussed. The role of virtual
inertia in the work ing of VSG has been broadly discussed. Lastly, it mentions
about the VSG control unit and how it generates the necessary control signals.

Chapter 3 gives an overview of the system description and also the modeling of the
system has been covered. Here the possible configuration of the VSG with the rest of
the system such as the Grid and other machines has been discussed.

Chapter 4 discusses all the results of the simulations of the relevant test cases while
presenting graphical plots for the same. Various comparisons are done for the
enhance- ment of performance of the VSG and the same will be proved with the help
of the results.
Chapter 5 presents the important conclusions of the work and also suggest
 CHAPTER 2

BACKGROUND

This chapter covers all the technical aspects of the various concepts studied in
this thesis and also all the state of the different technologies are discussed.

2.1TRADITIONAL POWER SYSTEMS

In traditional power systems, generation is provided by a rather small number

of large power plants, which are connected to the transmission system. In a
traditional power generation unit, a prime mover (usually a turbine or a
combustion engine) converts the primary source of energy into mechanical
energy. The prime mover drives a synchronous machine (SM), which
transforms the mechanical energy into electrical energy. A governor (speed
controller/governor) controls the power output or the speed, based on a given
active power-frequency droop characteristic. An exciter provides the field
(excitation) current, necessary to create the magnetic field inside the SM. An
automatic voltage regulator (AVR) controls the field current and, in consequence,
the SM terminal voltage.

The stability of a traditional power system is strongly affected by its controls,

which are highly distributed in a hierarchical configuration. Controllers
operate directly on individual elements like boilers, prime movers, excitation
systems, power (electronic) converters and transformer tap changers. The
controllers of closely linked elements are coordinated by plant controllers.
System controllers supervise the plant controllers at system control centers,
and pool-level controllers coordinate the system controllers at pool control
centers.

Within the distributed control structure, traditional power generation units

support tra- ditional power system operation in different ways. They
participate in the system damp- ing via their inertia, contribute in the primary
frequency regulation by means of their governor droop characteristics, and
take part in the local control of voltage or reactive
power flow through their excitation controls. Such features are not intrinsic to
the conventional control of the renewable energy sources (RES) power
electronics interfaces, which depend on the synchronization to a stable grid
frequency.

2.1 POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

Power system stability refers to the capacity of an electric power system to

recover op erating equilibrium after undergoing a disturbance, with most of
the system remaining intact. The initial operating conditions and the nature
of the disturbance influence this ability.

Power systems undergo a great diversity of disturbances. Load variations

take place constantly, acting as small disturbances, and power systems have
to operate satisfactorily while adapting to such changing conditions. The
components must also come through large disturbances, such as the loss of
a large generator or a short circuit in a transmission line. Such disturbances
can result in structural changes caused by the isolation of faulted elements or
deliberate disconnections to maintain the major part of the system in
operation. Interconnected power systems can also be deliberately divided
into independent systems called "islands".

Simplifying assumptions are made to concentrate on the aspects determining

the specific kinds of stability problems. Stability in traditional power
systems has been conse quently classified into various categories. This
facilitates the identification of essential aspects that contribute to instability
and the development of methods for enhancing stability.

2.1.1 ROTOR ANGLE STABILITY

For SMs to be interconnected, the frequency of their stator voltages and

currents has to be the same, and, since their rotors mechanical angular speed
is synchronized to that angular frequency, the rotors of all interconnected
SMs need to be in synchronism. The stability category concerned with the
capacity of the interconnected SMs of a power system to stay in synchronism
after undergoing a disturbance is called rotor angle stability. Such ability is
determined by the capacity of each SM to sustain or regain equilibrium

even after small disturbances. That operating equilibrium is disrupted when

the power system undergoes a disturbance, which causes the acceleration or
deceleration of the rotors.

2.1.2 VOLTAGE STABILITY

The stability category concerned with the capacity of a power system to keep
voltage levels within their limits at all buses after undergoing a disturbance
is called voltage stability. Such ability is determined by the capacity to
sustain or regain equilibrium between power (load) supply and demand.
Corresponding instability arises as a gradual voltage drop or increase in
some buses. Voltage instability occurs often together with rotor angle
stability. One can result in the other, and it can be difficult to differenti- ate
them. The distinction has been made nevertheless in the traditional
classification of power system stability with the purpose of comprehending
the factors causing the problems, so that suitable design and operating
methods can be elaborated.

2.2 THE VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTER

In this thesis, voltage source converters will be used as an application to be

the interface of the grid with a battery storage unit. It will be controlled as a
virtual synchronous machine and the combination of the VSC and battery
may sometimes be referred to as simply "the VSG". A voltage source
converter is a power electronic device used to convert DC to AC (inverter
mode) or AC to DC (rectifier mode). The VSC use transistors, usually the
insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) in parallel with diodes to achieve
self-commutation. The IGBT is controlled by a signal which enables the
closing or opening of the IGBT switch.

The operation of the VSC is done through the concept of pulse-width-

modulation(PWM). This involves comparing a control signal with a saw-tooth
signal to provide "on or off" orders to the IGBT/diode blocks of the VSC.
However, this thesis will not focus on the switching operation of the VSC, but
rather on the controller of the VSC.

The control signals to the VSC are sent by the VSG control unit after being
modulated by the PWM. The VSG control unit generates signals with the
help of the reference provided by the Frequency detector and the Power
meter which are basically the volt- ages and currents measurements of the
Grid.

2.3 DISTRIBUTED ENERGY RESOURCES

Environmental, technological and economic incentives are shifting

paradigms in power systems. Traditional generation units exploiting
centralized energy resources are giving way to smaller, more distributed
energy resources (DER). DER include distributed storage (DS), demand
response (DR) loads and distributed generation (DG), and encompass a wide
range of emerging technologies, most of which have power electronics
interfaces to the electrical power system. As opposed to traditional
generation units, most DER are connected to distribution networks.

One of the major differences from traditional generation is that DG

interfaced with power electronics cannot inherently supply the instantaneous
power needs because of the absence of large rotors. Since most DG are inertia-
less and respond slowly to control signals, load tracking problems occur when
operating without the presence of traditional generation. Thus, a system with
groups of such DG designed to operate in that condition needs some sort of
(distributed) energy storage to guarantee initial energy balance.

The technical challenges associated with the centralized control of a

significant number of units is a fundamental problem for DER. In such a
complex control system, the mal- function of a control, communication or
software component could potentially cause a system collapse.
2.4 THE VIRTUAL SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

The concept of a Virtual Synchronous Generator was first presented in The

paper uses the abbreviation "VISMA", while this thesis will use "VSG". The
original application for the VSG was for use in distributed energy sources.
As discussed in, the traditional power system has a vertical structure with
power production in one end and consumption in the other. The large,
centralized power plants of the traditional power system use synchronous
machines for electric power generation. The synchronous ma- chine possess
several important parameters such as inertia and damping that are crucial

Fig. 2.1 Simplified block diagram of a VSG unit [15]

for the operation of a power system. However, the power system is moving
toward more distributed energy sources, such as photovoltaics (PV) and
local energy storage. The connection of these sources to the grid is achieved
through the use of power electronics such as VSC. A distributed power
source that is connected to the grid with a VSC does not introduce properties
such as inertia and damping of which the power system relies on. The idea of
the VSG is therefore to control the VSC in such a way that it mimics the
behavior of a synchronous machine, and in that way provide the properties
of damping and inertia that the power system is wanting as shown in Fig 2.1.
The underlying idea behind the VSG concept is to emulate the essential
behavior of a real SM by controlling a power electronic converter. Thus, any
VSG implementation contains more or less explicitly a mathematical model
of a SM. The specific model of the SM and its parameters is largely an
arbitrary design choice as proved by the many different solutions discussed
in literature. However, the emulation of the inertial characteristic and
damping of the electromechanical oscillations are common features for every
VSG implementation. Additional aspects as the transient and sub-transient
dynamics can be included or neglected, depending on the desired degree of
complexity and accuracy in reproducing the SM dynamics. Furthermore, the
parameters selected for VSG implementations are not constrained by the
physical design of any real SM. Thus, the VSG parameters can be selected to
replicate the behavior of a particular SM design or can be specified during
the control system design to achieve a desired behavior.

If the purpose of VSG is to accurately replicate the dynamic behavior of a

SM, a full order model of the SM has to be included in the converter control
system. This includes a 5th order electrical model with dq-representation of
stator windings, damper windings and the field winding, together with a 2nd
order model resulting in a 7th order model.

2.4.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VSG

The VSG concept can offer a basis for realizing flexible decentralized
converter control schemes that can operate both in grid connected and
islanded conditions, and that can almost seamlessly switch between the
corresponding operating modes. Furthermore the inherent inertial
characteristic of the VSG can provide services as frequency support and
transient power sharing as primary control actions. These are indeed based
only on local measurement and do not depend on external communications
as in typical alternative schemes. Still, there is no conflict between this
local controllability and the ability to operate in a hierarchical structure
while following external references and set-points provided by a centralized
controller for optimizing the system operation. Moreover, a further
advantage of the VSG approach lies in its conceptual simplicity, due to the
immediate and intuitive physical interpretation of its behavior with analogy
to the corresponding behavior of a physical machine.

The dominant behavior of SMs in terms of inertia response and damping can
be modelled by the traditional swing equation. Considering these general
characteristics, several control strategies have been developed for allowing
power electronic converters to provide synthetic or virtual inertia to the
power system, and have been proposed for a variety of applications like for
instance wind turbines, energy storage systems and HVDC transmission
schemes. Some of these control methods provide a synthetic iner- tial
response to variations in the grid frequency and only a few aims to explicitly
repli- cate the features of the traditional SMs. However, emulation of the
inertia and damping effects requires an energy buffer with sufficient capacity
to represent the energy storage effect of the emulated rotating inertia
available. Thus, the amount of virtual inertia that can be added to the system
by a single VSG unit will be limited by the DC-side configuration and by the
current rating of the converter.
2.4.2 SWING EQUATION FOR VSG INERTIA EMULATION

While a full order model faithfully represents the behavior of a real SM, it
adds un neces sary complexity if the goal of the VSM is to emulate the
inertia and damping properties of the SM. Indeed, these two main aspects
can be already captured by the swing equation (2.1) well known from the
literature on power system stability and dynamics.

dωm
Pin- Pout = Jωm( ) + D∆ω (2.1)
d
t
where Pin , Pout , J , ωm and D are the input power (as same as the prime
mover power in a SG), the output power of the VSG, the moment of inertia
of the virtual rotor, the virtual angular velocity of the virtual rotor, and the
damping factor, respectively. ∆ω is given by ∆ω = ωm - ωgrid, ωgrid being the
grid frequency or the reference frequency when the grid is not available.
Having the essential parameters, (2.1) can be solved by numerical
integration.

2.4.3 DEPENDENCE OF VSG ON INERTIA

The quantities of the VSG, such as its output frequency and power oscillate
after a change or disturbance similar to those of a synchronous machine.
However, the tran- sient condition tolerance of an inverter-based generating
unit is much less than a real synchronous machine. Therefore, a VSG
system may stop working redundantly due to oscillations with high
amplitude after a change or disturbance. On the other hand, VSG control has
an advantage in that its swing equation parameters can be adopted in real
time to obtain a faster and more stable operation. This property of the VSG
system is used to introduce the VSG with adoptive virtual inertia . This
scheme removes the oscillations and thereby, increases the reliability of the
VSG unit against changes or disturbances. In this concept, the value of the
virtual moment of inertia is changed based on the relative virtual angular
velocity (the difference between virtual mechanical velocity generated by the
VSG and grid angular frequency) and its rate of change.

Consider the power-angle curve of Fig. 2.2. After a change in system, for
example, a change in prime mover power from Pin0 to Pin1, the operating
point moves along the power curve, from point a to c and then from c to a.
The machine condition during each phase of an oscillation cycle is
summarized in Fig 2.3. One cycle of the oscillation consists of four
segments. During each segment, the sign of the dωm/dt together with the sign
of the relative angular velocity ∆ω defines the acceleration or deceleration.
For example, in segment 3 of Fig. 2.2, during transition from points c to b,
both dωm/dt and
∆ω are negative and act in the same direction; therefore, it is an acceleration
period, whereas when they have opposite signs like segment 4, it is a
deceleration period.
 Fig. 2.2 Power angle curve of a typical Synchronous Machine [1]

Fig. 2.3 Machine modes during oscillation [1]

The objective is to damp frequency and power oscillation quickly by

controlling the acceleration and deceleration term. The derivative of angular
velocity, dωm/dt indicates the rate of acceleration or deceleration.
Considering equation (2.1), it is observed that this rate has a reverse relation
to the moment of inertia, J . Based on this fact, one can select a large value
of J during acceleration phases (a to b and c to b) to reduce the acceleration
and a small value of J during deceleration phases (b to c and b to a) to boost the
deceleration. The big moment of inertia Jbig and the small one Jsmall can be
chosen within a wide range depending on the rated power so that the
difference between Jbig and Jsmall determines the damped power in each half-
cycle of oscillation by alternating inertia. The value of Jbig can be equal to the
normal value of J . However, applying a very larger value than the normal J
will result in a smaller frequency excursion at the first quarter-cycle but a
sluggish response. The value of Jsmall determines the transient of the second
quarter-cycle of oscillation. A very small value of Jsmall (< 0.1kgm2) will
result in a satisfactory response.

During each cycle of oscillations, the value of J is switched four times. Each
switching happens at the points that the sign of either ∆ω or dωm/dt varies.
Before the disturbance, the VSG is operating with the normal value of J.
When the disturbance happens, the transition from a to b starts with ∆ω > 0
and dωm/dt > 0. In this condition, the Jbig is adopted. At the end of the first
quarter-cycle, that is point b, the sign of dωm/dt changes. It means that the
small value for J is adopted at this point. At point c, the sign of ∆ω changes
and J retrieves it big value. It will be the end of the first half-cycle. During
the second half-cycle, the value of J is switched to the Jsmall at point b, and
again at the end of one cycle at point a, Jbig is adopted. This procedure is
repeated for each cycle of oscillation until the transients are suppressed and ∆ω
equals zero at the new equilibrium point, that is, point b. A threshold for ∆ω
can be applied to avoid the chattering of J during normal operation.
However, this threshold is set to zero in this paper.
 CHAPTER 3

MODELING

In this chapter a detailed analysis of the considered system has been carried
out, as well as a description on how it has been modeled has been discussed.

3.1 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

The studied system, seen in Fig. 3.1, is representing the block diagram of a
simplified VSG unit connected to the grid. It consists of:

1. A Distributed Generator

2. An Energy Storage device

3. A VSG control unit

4. A Frequency detector

5. A Power measurement device

6. A VSC unit

Fig. 3.1 shows the structure of a DG using the basic VSG control. The primary
source of the DG could be photovoltaic panels, fuel cells, a gas engine or other
distributed en- ergy resources (DERs). The energy storage is designed for
emulating the kinetic energy stored in rotating mass of a SG, in order to supply
or absorb insufficient/surplus power generated by the primary source in
transient state [9]. As this paper focuses on the control scheme of the inverter,
the design and control of the primary source and energy storage are beyond the
scope of this paper. In this scheme, a distributed resource is con- nected to the
main power system via an inverter controlled with the VSG concept. The well-
known swing equation of SGs is used as the heart of the VSG model. A
governor
 Fig. 3.1 Block diagram of a VSG unit

model shown in Fig. 3.2 is implemented to tune the input power

command based on the frequency deviation. Having the essential
parameters, the Swing Equation can be solved by numerical
integration. By solving this equation in each control cycle, the
mo- mentary ωm is calculated and by passing through an
integrator, the virtual mechanical phase angle θm is produced. Vre
f in Fig. 3.1 is the voltage reference that determines the voltage
magnitude at the inverter terminal. Implementing a controller for
Vre f results in a regulated voltage and reactive power at the VSG
terminal. However, Vre f is set con- stant in the simulations and
experiments because voltage control does not affect the idea of
this paper. The phase angle and the voltage magnitude reference
are used as the VSG output voltage angle and magnitude 0
commands for generating pulsewidth modulation pulses for the
inverter. The value of J together with D determines the time
constant of the VSG unit. Selecting the proper value of them is a
challenging issue without a routine. Mimicking a synchronous
machine, J is given by J = 2HSbase/ω2 where H is the machine
inertia constant, Sbase is the base power of the machine, and ω is
the system frequency. The parameter H tells that for which
period of time the machine is able to supply the nominal load
based solely on the energy stored in the rotating mass. The
higher H, the bigger the time constant, resulting in a slower
response but smaller frequency deviation after a change or
disturbance. Although it depends on the machine size and power,
for typical synchronous machines H varies between 2 and 10
secs. Voltage source converter is used as an interface of the grid
with a battery storage unit. It will be controlled as a virtual
synchronous machine and the combination of the VSC and battery
may sometimes be referred to as simply "the VSG". A voltage
source converter

Fig. 3.2 Governor diagram

is a power electronic device used to convert DC to AC (inverter

mode) or AC to DC (rectifier mode). The VSC use transistors,
usually the insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) in parallel
with diodes to achieve self-commutation. The IGBT is controlled
by a signal which enables the closing or opening of the IGBT
switch.

The operation of the VSC is done through the concept of pulse-width-

modulation(PWM). This involves comparing a control signal with a
saw-tooth signal to provide "on or off" orders to the IGBT/diode
blocks of the VSC. However, this thesis will not focus on the
switching operation of the VSC, but rather on the controller of the
VSC.

The control signals to the VSC are sent by the VSG control unit
after being modulated by the PWM. The VSG control unit
generates signals with the help of the references provided by the
Frequency detector and the Power meter which are basically the
volt- ages and currents measurements of the grid.

3.2 PHASE LOOP LOCK

phase-locked loop or phase lock loop (PLL) is a control system

that generates an output signal whose phase is fixed relative to
the phase of an input signal. Keeping the input and output phase
in lockstep also implies keeping the input and output frequencies
the same, thus a phase-locked loop can also track an input
frequency. Furthermore, by incorporating a frequency divider, a
PLL can generate a stable frequency that is a multiple of the
input frequency.

These properties are used for clock synchronization,

demodulation, frequency synthesis, clock multipliers, and
signal recovery from a noisy communication channel. Since

1969, a single integrated circuit can provide a complete PLL

building block, and nowadays have output frequencies from a
fraction of a hertz up to many gigahertz. Thus, PLLs are widely
employed in radio, telecommunications, computers (e.g. to

distribute precisely timed clock signals in microprocessors),

grid-tie inverters (electronic power converters used to integrate
DC renewable resources and storage elements such as
photovoltaics and batteries with the power grid), and other

electronic applications.

Simple analog PLL is an electronic circuit consisting of a

variable frequency oscillator and a phase detector in a feedback
loop . The oscillator generates a periodic signal Vo with
frequency proportional to an applied voltage, hence the term
voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). The phase detector
compares the phase of the VCO's output signal with the phase of
periodic input reference signal Vi and outputs a voltage
(stabilized by the filter) to adjust the oscillator's frequency to
match the phase of Vo to the phase of Vi.
 Figure :Simple block of phase loop
lock

A PLL is a feedback control system that synchronizes the phase

of a signal (in this case, the VSG's output) with a reference signal
(the grid's frequency).

Frequency Tracking:

It tracks the grid's frequency and adjusts the VSG's output

frequency accordingly, ensuring they remain in sync.

Synchronization Mechanism:

The PLL uses a phase detector, a loop filter, and a voltage-

controlled oscillator (VCO) to track the grid's frequency.

Stability:

By maintaining the correct frequency, the PLL helps prevent

oscillations and ensures stable power transfer between the VSG
and the grid.

Why is PLL important in VSG control?

Grid Synchronization:

PLL is essential for ensuring that the VSG's output frequency

matches the grid's, which is crucial for power transfer and
stability.

Accurate Frequency Control:

The PLL helps the VSG maintain its output frequency even when
the grid frequency fluctuates, supporting grid stability.

Complementary Control:

PLL often works in conjunction with other VSG control loops

(like power and voltage loops) to provide comprehensive control
and stabilization of the grid.

In the context of VSGs with alternating moment of inertia:

Enhanced Stability:

The alternating moment of inertia in the VSG, combined with the

PLL, can improve the damping of oscillations and enhance the
overall stability of the power system.

Adaptive Control:

The alternating inertia can be adjusted based on system

conditions, allowing the VSG to adapt its behavior to changing
grid conditions, which can further improve stability.

Reduced Oscillations:

By combining the PLL's synchronization capabilities with the

adaptive inertia, the VSG can effectively reduce oscillations and
improve the overall stability of the power system.

3.2.1 PHASE COMPARATOR

It compares the phases o two signals, and generators a voltage
according to the phase differences. It multiplies the reference
input and the voltage controlled oscillator output.

Function:

Phase comparators essentially act as frequency mixers or

multipliers, generating a signal that represents the phase
difference between the input signals.

Applications:
Phase-Locked Loops (PLLs): A core component in PLLs,
which are used to synchronize oscillators or other signals.

Power Systems: Used in protective relays to determine the

direction of power flow.

High Voltage Applications: Used to check phase coincidence in

medium and high voltage systems.

Digital Pulse Comparators: Used to compare digital pulse

streams.

Output:

The output signal from a phase comparator can be a slowly

varying component that provides information about the phase
difference or a series of output pulses whose width is
proportional to the phase difference.

In essence, a phase comparator is a versatile tool for measuring

and comparing the phase relationships between signals, finding
applications in diverse fields like electronics, power systems, and
communication.

3.2.2 LOOP FILTER

A loop filter in a Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) is a critical
component that determines the dynamic behavior and stability of
the PLL system. It processes the output of the phase detector and
shapes the control signal applied to the voltage-controlled
oscillator (VCO).

Purpose of the Loop Filter

Noise Reduction: It smooths out high-frequency noise and

spurious signals from the phase detector output, ensuring a clean
control signal for the VCO.

Stability: It helps maintain the stability of the PLL by

controlling the loop dynamics, such as damping and bandwidth.

Frequency Response: It defines the trade-off between the PLL's

lock time (speed of response) and its ability to reject noise.
3.2.3 VOLTAGE CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR
A voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) is a electronic oscillator
whose oscillation frequency is controlled by a voltage input. The
applied input voltage determines the instantaneous oscillation
frequency. Consequently, a VCO can be used frequency
modulation (FM) or phase modulation (PM) by applying a
modulating signal to the control input. A VCO is also an integral
part of a phase looped lock . VCOs are used in synthesizes to
generate a wave form whose pitch can be adjusted by a voltage
determined by a musical instruments or other input.

A voltage-to-frequency converter (VFC) is a special type of

VCO designed to be very linear in frequency control over a wide
range of input control voltages.

3.3 DC SUBGRID
DC subgrid system is a localized, direct current (DC) power grid
that can operate independently or in conjunction with a larger
AC grid. It typically involves a DC bus, DC sources (like solar
panels or batteries), and loads that can operate on DC. DC
subgrids offer benefits like simplified power conversion, reduced
energy losses, and the ability to integrate various renewable
energy sources.

Key aspects of DC subgrid systems:

DC Bus:

A central DC voltage line that serves as a distribution point for

power.

DC Sources:

Renewable energy sources like solar panels, batteries, or other

DC power supplies connected to the DC bus.

DC Loads:

Equipment and devices that operate directly on DC, such as LED

lighting, computers, and electric vehicles.
 Interconnection with AC Grid:

DC subgrids can be interconnected with the AC grid through

AC/DC converters or inverters, says a ResearchGate article.

Benefits:

DC subgrids can offer advantages such as reduced power losses,

simplified power conversion, and the ability to integrate
renewable energy sources more easily.

Applications of DC subgrid systems:

Microgrids:

DC subgrids can be used in isolated or remote areas to provide

power to homes, businesses, or communities.

Ships:

DC grids are becoming increasingly popular in ships, offering

advantages in terms of efficiency and integration of renewable
energy sources.

Data Centers:

DC power can be used to power data centers, according to

dcgrid.io reducing energy consumption and simplifying power
distribution.

DC subgrids can be used to power EV charging stations,

according to dcgrid.io enabling faster and more efficient charging.

3.4 SUMMARY
The system as shown in Fig. 3.1 has been modelled in Matlab
Simulink to study the performance of the VSG. Also two
more configurations of the system are considered
i.e VSG in parallel with an SG and VSG as an interface
between SG and Grid. In all the cases the performance
characteristic of the VSG has been studied. The performance of
the VSG with fixed moment of inertia and with alternating
inertia has been focused. And it has been confirmed in Chapter
4 that the VSG with alternating inertia has the capacity to
maintain stability in the mentioned .
 CHAPTER 4
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
APPLICATIONS

4.1ADVANTAGES OF PROJECT :
1.Enhanced Grid Stability:
The VSG emulates the behavior of traditional synchronous
generators by providing inertia to the grid. In a traditional
power system, the inertia of synchronous generators helps
dampen frequency fluctuations. With the VSG, even if there's
no physical inertia, the system can simulate this effect which
stabilizes the frequency during disturbances like load changes
or generation loss.
The alternating moment of inertia approach can allow the system to
dynamically adjust its inertia response based on real-time grid conditions,
making it more responsive and adaptable compared to traditional methods.
2. Improved Frequency Regulation:
VSGs can actively contribute to frequency regulation by mimicking the
inertial response of synchronous generators. This is particularly important in
systems with high penetration of renewable energy sources, which are often
intermittent and don't inherently provide inertia.
The alternating moment of inertia could allow for more fine-tuned control
over how much inertia is provided during different operating conditions,
potentially reducing the risk of overcompensating or undercompensating for
frequency deviations.
3. Support for Renewable Energy Integration:
As renewable energy sources (such as wind and solar) are largely inverter-
based, they don't provide natural inertia to the grid. By incorporating VSGs,
the power system can be made more resilient to the variability of these
energy sources, enhancing the grid's ability to handle rapid changes in
generation and demand.
The alternating moment of inertia could make the VSG even more effective
by allowing it to quickly adjust its behavior based on how much renewable
generation is active at any given time.
4. Dynamic Response to Grid Disturbances:
The use of an alternating moment of inertia means the VSG can respond
more flexibly to disturbances like sudden changes in load, generation losses,
or system faults. By adjusting the moment of inertia dynamically, the VSG
could provide a more appropriate level of inertial response for different grid
scenarios, helping to stabilize the system more effectively.
This approach could lead to more efficient damping of frequency
oscillations and reduced system stress after disturbances.
5. Reduced Wear on Traditional Generators:
By providing virtual inertia, VSGs can reduce the need for conventional
synchronous generators to react to every small fluctuation, potentially
leading to less wear and tear on traditional machines, which could result in
cost savings and longer lifespans for these assets.
6. Better Load and Generation Balancing:
VSGs can provide active power support to balance load and generation in
the system. The alternating inertia could further enhance their ability to
handle variations in generation and demand more effectively, improving
overall system reliability.

7. Potential for Scalable Implementation:

Virtual Synchronous Generators can be deployed in a variety of systems,
from small distributed energy resources (DERs) to larger, grid-scale
systems. The flexibility and scalability of VSGs with alternating inertia
could help make them an attractive option for both small-scale and large-
scale grid stabilization projects.

8. Reduced Risk of Blackouts:

By improving system stability, VSGs can play a key role in reducing the
risk of cascading failures and blackouts, especially in systems with large
renewable energy penetrations, where traditional inertia may be insufficient.
4.2 DISADVANTAGES OF PROJECT :
1. Complexity in Control Design :
The implementation of VSGs with alternating moment of inertia introduces
complexity in the control design. The system needs to continuously adjust
the moment of inertia, which requires advanced control algorithms and
precise synchronization with grid dynamics. This complexity can lead to
increased risks of malfunction or instability if not carefully managed.
2. Increased Computational Demand
Dynamic adjustments of the moment of inertia require real-time
computational resources to calculate and control the variations. This can
increase the computational burden on system controllers and hardware,
leading to potential delays or limitations in response times, especially if the
computational power is not sufficient.
3. Inertia Tuning Issues
The alternating moment of inertia needs to be finely tuned for different
operating conditions. Poor tuning could result in suboptimal performance,
such as excessive damping or inadequate stabilization, potentially degrading
the overall system stability.

4. Potential Negative Impact on System Efficiency

Adjusting the virtual inertia dynamically can consume additional energy,
which may decrease the overall efficiency of the system. Since VSGs are
trying to mimic physical inertia, they might need to draw power from the
grid or other energy storage systems, especially when responding to
frequency fluctuations, leading to potential losses in energy efficiency.
5. Limited Performance in Large-Scale Systems
For large-scale power grids with significant renewable energy integration,
VSGs with alternating moment of inertia may struggle to maintain effective
stabilization across the entire network. The power system might face
challenges due to the sheer scale of synchronization requirements and the
variability in renewable generation (e.g., wind and solar).
6. Cost and Maintenance Overhead
The infrastructure for controlling VSGs with alternating inertia may require
more advanced hardware and software components. This increases the
upfront cost of installation, maintenance, and system upgrades.
Additionally, since the technology is relatively new, there could be a higher
level of uncertainty or risk associated with long-term reliability and
maintenance.
7. Interaction with Other Stability Mechanisms :
The interaction between VSGs and traditional stability mechanisms (such as
primary and secondary control) could be complex. Improper coordination
could lead to negative interference, where the dynamic responses of
different components are not well-synchronized, potentially leading to
suboptimal system performance.
8. Inertia Saturation in Extreme Cases :
If the power system experiences large disturbances, the VSG with
alternating moment of inertia might not be able to provide enough synthetic
inertia to stabilize the grid. This could especially be a problem in systems
with a high share of inverter-based generation, where traditional mechanical
inertia is low, and the virtual inertia provided by VSGs has limitations in
extremely large or rapid disturbances.
4.3 APPLICATIONS OF PROJECT :
1. Grid Frequency Regulation :
Dynamic Frequency Control: VSGs can simulate the inertia characteristics
of conventional synchronous generators, which are crucial for maintaining
grid frequency stability during sudden disturbances (e.g., load changes or
generation outages). By using AMoI, the virtual inertia can dynamically
adjust, improving the response to frequency deviations.
Response to Disturbances: When the frequency drops due to an imbalance
between generation and load, the VSG with AMoI can provide active power
support by emulating the kinetic energy response of traditional generators.
This helps to mitigate frequency excursions.
2. Improving Transient Stability :
Enhanced Damping of Oscillations: VSGs with alternating inertia can
provide damping to the low-frequency oscillations in the power system.
These oscillations can arise from changes in load or generation, particularly
in systems with high renewable penetration. The alternating moment of
inertia can adjust to the system's needs, providing a more flexible response
compared to static inertia.
Oscillation Suppression: By providing synthetic damping, VSGs can
suppress inter-area oscillations or electromechanical oscillations that can
destabilize the grid, thus improving the overall transient stability of the
power system.
3. Integration of Renewable Energy Sources :
Support for Variable Renewable Energy (VRE): The integration of
renewable sources like solar and wind is often challenged by their
variability and intermittent nature. VSGs can enhance the grid’s ability to
handle these fluctuations by providing virtual inertia, which smooths out the
rapid changes in power output from renewable sources.
Wind and Solar Power Stabilization: VSGs can be particularly beneficial in
wind and solar power plants, where energy generation can be variable. By
adjusting their inertia characteristics, VSGs can help mitigate the impacts of
sudden generation changes or fluctuations in renewable generation.
4. Load-Frequency Control (LFC) :
Dynamic Load Balancing: In systems with high penetration of renewable
energy, where conventional synchronous generators might not be able to
respond rapidly enough to load fluctuations, VSGs can act as a
supplementary dynamic resource to control the load-frequency balance in
real time.
Frequency Restoration: VSGs with alternating inertia can also assist in
frequency restoration after a disturbance by gradually adjusting the power
output, mimicking the role of traditional generators in stabilizing the grid
frequency.
Resilient Operation: These systems can maintain stable operation even
during faults or transitions, helping microgrids function autonomously
without the need for conventional generators

5. Voltage Stability Enhancement :

Support for Reactive Power Management: In addition to active power
control, VSGs can provide reactive power support, helping to maintain
voltage levels within the grid. The alternating inertia feature can optimize
the reactive power compensation to prevent voltage instability, especially in
systems with high renewable energy penetration.
Voltage Control during Transients: During transient events, the dynamic
control of reactive power from VSGs can provide voltage support and help
the grid maintain voltage stability.

6. Virtual Synchronous Machines (VSM) in Microgrids :

Islanding Capability: In microgrids or isolated grids, VSGs with alternating
inertia can simulate the behavior of a traditional synchronous machine,
allowing the system to operate independently when disconnected from the
ma .

7. Dynamic Stability for HVDC and FACTS Devices :

Stabilizing HVDC Links: VSGs can provide additional stability to High-
Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) links, which are increasingly used to
connect distant parts of the power grid. By injecting synthetic inertia, VSGs
can support
 CHAPTER 5

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