Guide to Essay Writing

2019/20
CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1

2.0 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COURSEWORK AND EXAMINATION ESSAYS 3

3.0 WHAT TUTORS ARE LOOKING FOR IN AN ESSAY 3

4.0 ACADEMIC INTEGRITY 4

5.0 THE ESSAY WRITING PROCESS 5

6.0 STAGES IN WRITING AN ESSAY 6

6.1 Managing your time 6
6.2 Understanding the question 7
6.3 Research 8
6.4 Planning 10
6.5 Writing 11
6.6 Drafts and editing 12
6.7 Learning from your essay 12

7.0 STYLE 13
7.1 Introduction 13
7.2 Words and sentences 13
7.3 Useful words and phrases 13
7.4 Use of paragraphs 13
7.5 Tense 14
7.6 Use of figures and tables 14
7.7 Font type and size 14
7.8 Word Count 15

8.0 ESSAYS IN EXAMS 15

8.1 Example of an exam question with plan and possible answer 18

REFERENCES 20

Appendix 1: Examination marking scheme for discursive essays Error! Bookmark

not defined.
Appendix 2.1 Generic Assessment Criteria for Coursework (BSc/FdSc Level 4) 22
Appendix 2.2 Generic Assessment Criteria for Coursework (BSc/FdSc Level 5) 23
Appendix 2.3 Generic Assessment Criteria for Coursework (BSc Level 6) 24
Appendix 3: Academic instruction words and their meanings 25
Appendix 4: Editing final drafts 27
Appendix 5: Useful key words and phrases 28
1.0 Introduction
Effective written communication skills will be of great importance to you both at
University and in your career. The purpose of this document is to help you to
develop these skills by acting as a handy reference during your course.

Effective written communication depends on adapting your writing to the

circumstances, to the nature of the message and, above all, to the requirements of
the reader. For this reason, you will need to use many different forms of
communication in your career. You may need to write business or technical reports,
essays, business letters, memos, instruction manuals and so on. This guide
concentrates on only one of these, essay writing. However, the principles set out
here apply to many other types of communication. Further guidance on report writing
may be found in the Harper Adams Report Writing Guide.

Using this guide…………….

This guide has been divided into sections to examine all the elements of essay
writing. It will consider:

Essays for coursework and examinations: essential differences

What tutors are looking for in an essay?

The essay writing process: research, planning, style of writing, proof reading

Writing essays for examinations with exemplars

What is an essay?

An essay is a written response to a given problem or question. It calls upon you to

organise information to support a structured argument and to communicate the
argument clearly and concisely.

How does an essay differ from a report?

“Essays are an intellectual exploration of a topic involving looking at different

arguments and evidence and developing the writer’s perspective.” (Plymouth
University, 2011, p1)

“A report is a statement of an investigation or of any matter on which definitive

information is required.” (Oxford English Dictionary, 2008)

To compare reports and essays, look at Table 1 which outlines the main differences
between the two styles of presentation.

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Table 1. Differences between Essays and Reports

Report Essay

Formal structure Structure can be left to the discretion of

the writer but normally has in paragraphs,
an introduction, main text and conclusion

Defined sections with headings, Does not contain subheadings (Some

including, as required: Methodology, essays will contain subheading- consider
Results/findings, Discussion/evaluation your tutors advice and industrial/
(See Section 2: Layout) publication standards when deciding this).
Different points are written as paragraphs
Commences with a Summary or Commences with an Introduction; there is
Abstract before the Introduction no Abstract or Summary

Systematically defines and analyses a Discusses, explains, analyses, interprets

subject or problem or evaluates a topic

Used to communicate the results or Used to develop points or arguments in

findings of a project/piece of research, depth via a sequence of paragraphs
scientific research or business reporting (discursive writing)

Different sections may require different Same writing style is generally

styles of writing throughout, depending maintained throughout and should
on their purpose, but represent a contain a narrative and argument
continual ‘argument’

May include tables, figures and Often though not exclusively, no

illustrations illustrative material accompanies prose

Information may be recorded in bullet Written as a narrative in continuous

points in sections where relevant to do prose, synthesized together in
so; should be linked by prose paragraphs

Contain a conclusion and may make Very unusual to make recommendations

recommendations for future actions although conclusions will be drawn

A Guide to Report Writing is available separately

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2.0 Difference between Coursework and Examination Essays

Although they follow a similar structure, there are differences between what is
expected of an essay for a piece of coursework and what is expected in the time-
limited situation of an examination. These differences are illustrated in Table 2
below.

Table 2. Differences between Coursework and Examination Essays

Coursework Examinations

Structure Introduction, main body and conclusion in both essays.

Set in advance by module Either seen or unseen questions.

Questions leader. Deadline given. Seen- You will plan these prior to the
exam. You have the opportunity to read
around the topic.
Unseen- You have to think quickly and
choose wisely. Answer questions using
knowledge gained during revision.

Length Word or page limited defined Generally shorter. Depending on marks

by the assessment brief. More allocated and question set.
detailed with time to read
around the topic.

Referencing Extremely important to cite in May not be as important (check with

essay and complete module tutors). Examination marking
Reference section at end. scheme (Appendix 1) suggests use of
independent study is associated with
higher marks.

Accuracy Extremely important. Marks University Marking Policy means all

deducted for poor spelling, students are treated more
grammar and punctuation sympathetically during stresses of
(check the marking guidance examination conditions. But for the
on the assessment brief). Also highest marks spelling, grammar and
see Appendix 2.1, 2.2 & 2.3. punctuation are important.

3.0 What tutors are looking for in an essay

One of the best ways to understand what is required in an essay is to look at the
marking criteria on the assessment brief and generic marking schemes (See
Appendix 1, 2.1, 2.2 & 2.3).

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The O.E.D. (2008) defines the word discursive as ‘moving from subject to subject’;
translating this into an essay means that the narrative which is the ‘written account
of connected events’ should flow seamlessly from one paragraph to another. This
means that the essay should be coherent and well-constructed so that one
paragraph containing an explanation or argument leads logically into the next. One
of the key skills that should be demonstrated is that of critical analysis so that
points are not merely described but are also analysed.

In addition to the mark scheme, Figure 1 summarises some pointers to a good

essay.

Figure 1. Pointers to good essay writing

4.0 Academic Integrity

The work you produce for assessment should always meet integrity standards. This
means work you produce should;
• Be in your own words (with the exception of quotations)
• Be paraphrased effectively to communicate ideas and principles of others,
but in such a way that the original words are not used verbatim
• Acknowledge, in the form of citations, when you are drawing on the work of
others
• Include accurate information when citing in text (see Harper Adams Guide to
Referencing)
• Include a reference list providing full details of cited sources (see Harper
Adams Guide to Referencing)
• Have not been previously submitted for another assessment

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5.0 The essay writing process
This section goes through the whole essay writing process – from the initial stage of
understanding an essay title, through researching, to the organisation of an essay
and the final stage of proofreading.

Figure 2 shows that the writing process is not linear and is much more complex than
just a beginning with an analysis of the question and ending with a consideration of
your tutor's comments. It involves frequent revisiting of earlier stages, checking and
reflecting: much depends on a constant referring back to the question.

Question

Drafting Preparation

Reflection on Researching
comments from tutor

Submitting Making notes

Reviewing Thinking

Writing Planning

Figure 1: Visual representation of the essay writing process

(Source: Openlearn, not dated).

Figure 2. The multiple stages involved in essay writing

Essays are an opportunity for you to deepen your understanding of a subject and
show your ability to research a topic, weigh up arguments and organise your
thoughts. These thoughts then need to be expressed in a logical coherent manner.
They need to arrive at a conclusion which follows naturally from the evidence and/or
arguments you put forward. Most essays have a word limit so you will need to be
selective in the material you choose to include. You must think through the topic and
spend sufficient time considering your essay structure in order to achieve a good
grade.

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6.0 Stages in writing an essay
The first place to start is to plan your time up to submission or end time in an
examination.

6.1 Managing your time

Coursework essays: work back from your submission date listing set deadlines in a
diary/planner for each stage in the writing process.
For example: you have been given an assignment brief for this essay question:
“Discuss the extent to which a so-called Hard Brexit will benefit the UK dairy industry
by 2025”

A suggested time plan for this essay is shown below in Figure 3.

(Source: Gabbitas, 2011)

Figure 3. Suggested time plan for an essay

Examination essays: make sure you are familiar with the rubric (information on the
front of the exam paper) which states:

• how many questions you will need to answer

• total time for exam

It is your responsibility to ensure that you have a rough idea on how long you are
going to spend on each essay or other sections of the paper prior to the actual
examination. Planning your time is therefore essential in addition to practising exam
papers. In addition, make sure you are familiar with the examination marking scheme
for discursive essays (Appendix 1). See Section 7 for further details.

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6.2 Understanding the question

This is the MOST important stage of the essay writing process. Remember, failing to
answer the question is the most likely cause of poor marks. The essay question must be
“taken apart” word for word to ensure you are clear on what the tutor is asking for.

There are four main steps in order to understand your essay question fully; start your
journey below.

Step 1 – identify the academic instruction word(s)

Examples include: discuss, explain, evaluate, analyse.

See Appendix 2 for a list of academic instruction words and their meanings.

Step 2 – identify the topic and focus

Step 3 – rewrite the question in your own words

Step 4 - move from the question to the library: developing a plan of action

Before going to the library and/or accessing the internet you MUST have produced a plan
of action with specific tasks to keep research focused.

Select your search terms carefully when searching databases and the internet. For
guidance refer to https://www.harper-adams.ac.uk/university-life/library/study-
skills/page.cfm?id=7. The assessment brief and essay title will provide a number of key
terms to act as a starting point when searching literature.

Example Question:
Explain what is meant by ‘soil quality’ and outline the threats to soil quality in the UK.
Using examples identify the government policies in place for protecting soil as a valuable
resource and describe some methods used to protect soil quality.

Step 1 - identify the academic instruction word(s)

Explain what is meant by ‘soil quality’ and outline the threats to soil quality in the UK.
Using examples identify the government policies in place for protecting soil as a valuable
resource and describe some methods used to protect soil quality.
Step 2 – identify the topic, focus and knowledge in each part of the question
• Explain soil quality
(topic: soil quality)

• Outline the threats to soil quality in the UK

(topic: threats to soil quality / focus: in the UK)

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• Identify UK government policies in place for protecting soil – using examples
(topic: policies in place for protecting soil / focus: UK government policies)
• Describe methods to protect soil quality
(topic: soil quality / focus: methods to protect)

Step 3 - rewrite the question in your own words

Provide an answer that offers a detailed and exact explanation of the principles of soil
quality.

Cover the main threats to soil quality in the UK making sure the basic structure is
presented.

Find and list only the UK government policies in place for protecting soil using specific
examples.

Give the main features of several methods used to protect soil quality.

Step 4 - move from the question to the library: developing a plan of action

Select useful search terms for the specific question:

soil quality; soil protection; soil management; / policies; legislation; / soil erosion;
pollution; / United Kingdom; UK; England; Wales etc.

1. Read widely (skimming) about soil quality (look for references regarding width and
depth of threats, policies and protection).
2. Look for references for your topic area of soil quality with regards to threats and
protection. Remember to use creditable academic sources
3. Find and record examples of government policies put in place to protect soil and
methods used to protect soil quality.

6.3 Research

Guidelines
When you have read the question and taken it apart, check the guidelines given in the
brief:
• How long should the essay be?
• What is the deadline?
• What other requirements are there (presentation, referencing, bibliography, etc.)
• Have you been issued with any marking criteria?

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Key terms/ definitions
What are the key words you are going to be using which will need defining?

Selecting materials
Keep the question in mind as you start to select materials. Start with basic reading:
• lecture notes
• handouts
• relevant chapters in core texts
• journals in reading list
• grey literature (literature not controlled by commercial publishing ie special interest
groups, local authorities, professional associations, organisational bodies such as
DEFRA)

More detailed texts

When you are familiar with the basics, go on to more detailed texts
• wider sources in module reading list
• references in handouts
• references in core texts/ journals.

Ensure that these are credible texts – generally, peer reviewed rather than popular
articles in journals and recognised academic sources rather than unverified internet
pages. Also consider the currency of the source, is the information still in date/ relevant?

Be selective
Keep the question in mind, and check that the material you read and note down is
relevant to it.

Useful Tips

(1) Write your notes on a separate piece of paper or index card for each reference.
This allows you to sort them out into a logical order later on to match the
structure of the report.

(2) For each reference, write down full details of author, title, chapter, date, etc.
This can save lots of time when you come to write your reference list, as you
will not have to go back to the original documents.

(3) Consider the use of audio to text software and/ or note apps on phones/ tablets
to record information. A list of helpful free apps is available from learner support.

(4) Alternatively, use the electronic record system in WORD (‘references’ tab).

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6.4 Planning
The next stage is to effectively plan your essay so that it has a coherent and logical
structure. Five suggested methods of organising your material include: mind maps, grid
of pros and cons, index cards, post-it notes and linear notes.

• Mind maps
Useful for visual learners Paragraph 1 -
threats
Paragraph 2 –
government
Definition
Intro policies for
Main Body protecting soil

Paragraph
Soil Quality 3-5 Methods
to protect
Conclusion soil quality

A dedicated software package called ‘MindGenius’ can be used on campus computers

for mind-mapping.

• Grid of pros and cons

Assign pluses and minuses to aspects of the essay question.

• Post-it notes
Use post-it notes of different colours and shapes with your key words or ideas on.
Move the post-it notes around on a wall or large piece of paper to organise.

• Index cards
Write a separate card for each key word.
Add: Important phrases, quotations and cross-references to your notes
Arrange: Arrange cards in various sequences until you find the one that works best
Number: Number the cards once happy with the order.

• Linear notes
Intro: Soil quality is ...... (definition)
Main Body: Threats to soil quality in the UK are........
UK government policies for protecting soil
Example 1, 2, 3 etc
Methods to protect soil quality
A, B, C etc

Conclusion: To conclude…

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The information in Figure 4 can help you to formalise your essay structure:

(Source: BIZED, 2010).

Figure 4. Suggested model for an essay plan

6.5 Writing

Introduction
The ‘introductory’ paragraph(s) are one of the most difficult aspects of writing an essay.
If you are clear at the outset exactly what the question is asking, what you want to cover
and the importance of the topic you will assure the reader that you have thoroughly
planned your essay. Make sure you include the:

• interpretation of the question (what is it getting at?)

• structure of your answer, the map the reader is going to follow.

Main Body
Go back to your plan and check what main ideas and points you need to cover and the
order you are going to put them in – remember this can be changed later. Select an
idea/point for a paragraph and start writing ensuring you:

• have a clear topic sentence which picks up on an issue already highlighted in your
introduction
• develop the topic of the paragraph through analysis, criticism and discussion
• make reference to evidence and examples that illustrate and support the points you
have made
• complete the paragraph by connecting it to the next.

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Conclusion

Your conclusion should show that the essay has achieved something and this can be
done by returning directly to the essay question. Use phrases like 'In conclusion..' or 'To
conclude..' to restate your argument or discussion, using one sentence to sum up each
paragraph in the essay. Your conclusion will:

• Usually be one paragraph of 5-6 lines

• Sum up main points in essay
• Refer back to question and provide an answer or say why you are unable to reach a
definite decision
• Not include new material
• Make sure this is a logical summing up of what has been discussed and analysed.

6.6 Drafts and editing

 When you have completed your first draft, read your essay aloud to yourself or use
Natural Readers (http://www.naturalreaders.com/index.htm) to make sure spelling
and punctuation are as accurate as possible. Assignments are expected to be more
accurate than essays written under examination conditions. You may need to
improve or change sections.
• Asking a friend to read your work for constructive criticism is also worthwhile. Even
experienced writers draft and re-draft their work.
• Finding your own style or ‘voice’ is important and needs practice. Try to make your
writing style ‘flow’ so the reader enjoys your skilful writing.
• Use the checklist in Appendix 3 to help you edit your final draft.

6.7 Learning from your essay

As you plan, research and write your essay it is helpful to ask yourself several questions
about your progress and record the answers on paper or electronically
(blog/diary/learning log) to support you with future writing tasks i.e.

• Did the task take longer/less time than estimated?

• Was the task more difficult to complete than you first thought?
• Which stages of writing your essay were challenging and why?
• If you were asked to complete the same task again would you do anything different?
• Were there any tasks that you completed with ease?
• How did you find the researching process? What search mechanisms worked well?
• In what ways were you able to use the marking criteria to support your work?

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7.0 STYLE

7.1 Introduction

Do not be frightened by the use of the word “style”. Style simply means the way you
use words and sentences in your writing. The style of effective essays is direct, simple
and straightforward. This is easy to say but more difficult to achieve: as George
Bernard Shaw once wrote: “I am sorry to have written such a long letter but I did not
have time to write a short one” (Shaw, not dated). Some rules to help you follow.

7.2 Words and sentences

George Orwell wrote some helpful rules for scientists who write. In summary he wrote:

“Never use a long word where a short one will do.

If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out” (Orwell, 1999).

Some examples of word savings are shown in Table 3

Table 3 Superfluous Words and alternatives

Superfluous words Better English

on account of the fact that as
in order to to
at the present time now (NOT nowadays!)
on the occasion of when
with the result that so that
in the college environment in college
it is apparent therefore thus
forward planning planning
(Source: Gabbitas, 2010).

7.3 Useful words and phrases

It is important to use a variety of words and phrases throughout your essay to keep the
reader interested in your writing. A list of common words and phrases used to introduce
paragraphs, ideas and references can be found in Appendix 4.

7.4 Use of paragraphs

In order to maintain and make obvious a clear structure, be aware of the nature of the
paragraph as the basic structuring unit in the essay. Basically, every paragraph should
represent and flesh out a heading or sub-heading in the outline. The paragraph is the
building block of the essay. Therefore:

• A paragraph should be at least a third to half a page in length, but not too long or
the reader will get lost.

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• It should have what is known as a topic sentence, near the beginning, that
announces the theme of the paragraph. The paragraph should not deviate from this
theme or introduce any new themes

• The first sentence should somehow be linked to, or contrast with, the last sentence
of the previous paragraph.

• The first paragraph should announce clearly the theme of the essay. In the first
paragraph also you should define your version of the title and make it clear. If the
marker knows from the beginning what you are going to do, s/he can bear it in mind
and be aware that you are sticking to the point and developing it, because s/he will
know what the point is.

The main thing is to make each paragraph a solid unit that develops a clearly
announced sub-theme of the essay. This way the intended outline that is behind it will
be obvious (not too obvious: do not write subheadings before every paragraph) and the
marker will not have that terrible lost feeling.

7.5 Tense

Essays are normally written in the past or present tense and impersonally.

e.g. It is recommended that.. NOT I recommend that..

e.g. The experiment showed a wide variation.. NOT My results show a wide variation..

7.6 Use of figures and tables

Although more common in reports than essays, tables, diagrams and photographs
could be inserted into spaces which you leave in the text. Whenever you use a table,
diagram or image in your essay you must:

• cite the source e.g. (Source: Smith, 1989)

• use your own caption (title), not the original one (captions go ABOVE a table
and BELOW a figure)

Refer to the HAU Guide to Referencing (2017/18) and HAU Report Writing Guide
(2017/18) for further information. Seek advice from your tutor as to whether figures or
tables may benefit particular types of essay writing.

7.7 Font type and size

You should always follow the guidelines in your assignment brief or those issued by
your tutor. However, where no specific guidance on font type and size is issued it is
recommended that Arial 12 is used.

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7.8 Word Count

Table 4 Words included in the word count of an Essay

Count in Do not include

• Introduction (text only) • Reference list

• Main body (text only) • Appendices
• Conclusion (text only) • Data in tables*
• Text displayed in tables and in • Results in tables*
other formats such as Speech
• Any figures (graphs, charts,
Bubbles, Word Clouds, Snips
diagrams)*
etc*
• Headings and Subheadings
• In text citations
(Introduction, Conclusion etc.)*
• Captions (titles) for tables and
figures*
*These items are not always
appropriate in an essay. Check
assessment brief or with tutor for
NB. Final year projects
the required style.
may have different
expectations – check
the HRP/PRP guide

8.0 Essays in exams

In examinations, answers are often required to be written in ESSAY format. HAU has a
percentage marking scheme for discursive essays which is a guide to how the marks
are allocated – see Appendix 1.

Before you start to write an essay, always construct a plan.

This can take the form of:

a) headings, sub-headings etc.

b) mind mapping

TIMING

Work out how long you have got to do each essay. Assuming equal weighting for each
question, if you have two hours to do three essays that is 40 minutes per essay. You
should spend 10 minutes planning, 5 minutes reviewing and checking at the end and
25 minutes writing. If you have done a good plan, 25 minutes will be ample to write a

15
coherent logical essay which includes the main points in the right order, explained and
exemplified.

Your essay should consist of three identifiable parts:

• Introduction
• Main Body
• Conclusion

Introduction (Usually ONE paragraph)

Your introduction should:

• demonstrate that you have understood the question by defining the academic
instruction word in the question e.g. Analyse, Explain, Describe, Examine …..
• define the main concept / jargon or unusual words
• explain where the essay is going and how it is going to get there (the process
the essay will follow)
• introduce the topic.

Main body

This will consist of as many paragraphs as necessary – usually determined by the

number of words in the essay. A 1000 word essay would have approximately 5
paragraphs in the main body.
One point = one paragraph
In each paragraph:
• ensure that everything written is relevant – do not ‘waffle’
• avoid simple narration, i.e. stating information without offering reasons,
examples, explanations or conclusions, etc.
• try to analyse points raised in each paragraph
• demonstrate careful consideration of the point by adopting a tone of balance and
moderation – avoid a ‘soap box’ approach.

Structure of the paragraph:

A well-structured paragraph has three identifiable parts:

• the Topic Sentence: the sentence that tells us what the paragraph is about
• the Controlling Idea : the general theme of the paragraph
• Expansion: all the supporting evidence and examples, analysis

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Additionally, points should be illustrated wherever possible with examples and
information should be cited for the tops marks.

Conclusion (Usually ONE paragraph)

Your conclusion should:

• sum up the main points of the essay

• refer back to the question and provide an answer (NB. Some essays may not
reach a definite conclusion on one side or the other – you may have to ‘sit on the
fence’)
• avoid introducing new material. Do not use the conclusion to introduce new/extra
information
• have a logical development and summing up of what has already been
discussed and analysed.

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8.1 Example of an exam question with plan and possible answer

Example question:
‘'Discuss the extent to which effective communication is essential for business
success’

Plan

Types of Communication/
How Effective?

Internal External

• Praise • Telephone manner

• Weekly (?) meetings Oral • Reception area
• Social chat • Marketing opportunities
• Social/sports clubs

• Emails • Website
• Memos • Emails
Written
• Letters • Advertising
• Notice boards • Special offers
• Clear policies for • Feedback
everything questionnaires
• Suggestion box

• Information systems • Information storage

• Induction • PR work (raffle prizes)
• Good recruitment Other • Customer delivery
• Promotion chances • Warranties/guarantees
• Training courses
• Computer literacy
• Rewards

Impact on business success

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Possible answer
'Discuss the extent to which effective communication is essential for business success’

Effective communication is essential for the success of Introduction (usually one paragraph)
any business. However, there are many methods of
communication which can impact on business success. • Responds to the title
Communication can be internal and external to the
organisation (Smith, 2016). The extent to which these • Introduces key themes
methods impact equally on the success of a business
has been previously questioned (Jones et al., 2014). • Explains where the essay is going
This essay will discuss how effective communication is and how it is going to get there (the
essential for business. First oral communication will be process the essay will follow)
explored, followed by written communication and finally
any other points considered essential for good
communication in any business. This essay will also
consider how these methods of communication impact
on business success.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Main Body (one point per paragraph)

• Set the scene i.e. you have
Oral communication in a business will be internal and separated your points into those
external (Smith, 2016). In the business possible ways to that occur internal and external to
communicate effectively would be by managers/team the business
leaders giving praise to make employees feel valued in
the business. Workers will feel a sense of involvement
and belonging if managers conduct weekly meetings, • Next you should tackle each of the
provide minutes and allow social interaction, possibly points mentioned above in the plan
encouraging sports or social clubs. This will reinforce a to help answer the question
positive ethos in the working environment and could successfully.
help to increase staff motivation and even productivity if
appropriate for the business. External communication is • Remember to prepare your reader
also very important to the success of a business for what is to come in the next
(Walker, 2002). paragraph i.e. the second
paragraph finishes with introducing
Important external communication is essential and external communication and then
telephoning forms a significant proportion of this in most start the next paragraph with an
businesses (Mars, 2017). A good telephone manner is example of external communication.
one way a company can make sure customers feel
valued by the business. Training can be given and an
enquiry sheet completed by the telephonist to ensure • Continue in this way covering all the
that enquiries are promptly dealt with. …………….. main points ensuring you stay within
……………………………… the word limit.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Having considered oral and written communication both Conclusion (usually one paragraph)
internally and external to the business it can be seen
that effective communication is essential for the • Finish with a conclusion that
success of any business. Even very small points can be restates the question and
critical for marketing or customer satisfaction and these summarises what you have found
will impact significantly on business success and out
outcomes. Everything works towards ensuring that the
business runs smoothly and is viable. • Make sure it does not include any
new material at this point

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Gabbitas, S. 2011. A guide to essay writing. Newport: Harper Adams University.

Gauntlett. l998. Essay-writing: The essential guide [Online]. Institute of Communication

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[Accessed 29 September 2011].

HAU. 2017. Citing and referencing. [Online]. Bamford Library, HAU. Available from:
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from:
http://www.learningdevelopment.plymouth.ac.uk/LDstudyguides/pdf/6Writingessays.pdf
[Accessed 22 July 2013].

Openlearn. Not dated. Essay and report writing skills: A different perspective. [Online].
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http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=398972&section=4.5
[Accessed 29 September 2011].

Orwell, G. 1999. Politics and the English language. [Online]. www.orwell.ru. Available
from: http://www.orwell.ru/library/essays/politics/english/e_polit [Accessed 29
September 2011].

Shaw, G.B. Not dated. George Bernard Shaw > Quotes > Quotable Quote. [Online].
Goodreads Inc. Available from: http://www.goodreads.com/quotes/show/21224
[Accessed 29 September 2011].

Soanes, C and Stevenson, A. ed. 2008. Concise Oxford English Dictionary. 11th ed.
OUP: Oxford.

The University of Manchester. 2005. Academic phrasebank. [Online]. Available from:

http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/ [Accessed 29 September 2011]

20
 Appendix 1. Examination marking scheme for discursive essays

Learning has been demonstrated to be exceptional in terms of the level and scope of the learning outcomes 1.
100 • Answer based on an exceptional understanding of relevant knowledge.
- • Comprehensive evidence of extensive study and original thought - beyond that which was explicitly taught or signposted by lecturers 2.
90 • Highly critical, detailed and insightful argument that shows a deep understanding of the complexity and limitations of ideas presented.
• Exceptional presentation and structuring of ideas, beyond what is normally expected in the context of the task and level of study.
Learning has been demonstrated to meet the learning outcomes with an outstanding level of understanding, demonstrating both breadth and
depth.
89 • Answer based on an outstanding understanding of relevant knowledge.
- • Excellent evidence of study and original thought - beyond that which was taught or signposted by lecturers.
80 • Highly critical, detailed and insightful argument that shows an excellent understanding of the complexity and limitations of ideas
presented.
• Excellent presentation and structuring of ideas within the context of the time constrained situation.
Learning has been demonstrated to meet the learning outcomes, with an excellent level of understanding
79 • Answer based on an excellent understanding of relevant knowledge, drawing upon the major concepts, theories or points.
- • Evidence of some study and/or original thought beyond that provided by the taught material.
70 • Critical argument based on analysis, evaluation and the effective application of information.
• Very good presentation and structuring of ideas within the context of the time constrained situation.
All of the learning outcomes are clearly achieved, showing a very good understanding.
• A logical and articulate answer based on very good understanding and knowledge in the discipline, drawing upon the major concepts,
69
theories or points.
-
• Evidence of learning reflects very good engagement with taught material.
60
• Strong argument based on a sound grasp of the subject and an ability to combine, compare or contrast key ideas.
• Good presentation of ideas within the context of the time constrained situation.
The learning outcomes are largely achieved; there may be some limitations or limited areas of concern, but most of the key requirements
have been achieved.
• A satisfactory answer based on good understanding and knowledge in the discipline, drawing upon the major concepts, theories or
59
points. The argument may be limited in scope or depth, or may contain some errors or flaws.
-
• Evidence of learning reflects good engagement with taught material.
50
• Arguments made show a satisfactory grasp of the subject for the level of assessment.
• Adequate presentation of ideas within the context of the time constrained situation (ideas are largely coherent, although there could be
some minor issues with structure, sequence or clarity).
The learning outcomes are sufficiently achieved; there may be some specific areas of concern.
• Answers show an adequate understanding and knowledge in the discipline but with limited evidence and explanation provided in the
answer given.
49
• Evidence of learning reflects engagement with some of the taught material.
-
• Arguments are lacking in deeper engagement, but with a sufficient demonstration of knowledge and skill to underpin the achievement of
40
learning outcomes.
• Weak presentation of ideas within the context of the task and level of study (ideas lack coherence, and there are major issues with
structure, sequence or clarity).
The learning outcomes are not achieved; there are multiple concerns around knowledge, skills and understanding demonstrated.
• Answers are very brief and/or show little understanding or knowledge in the discipline. There are multiple or significant omissions
39 including a failure to answer the question posed i.e. irrelevant information is offered.
- • Evidence of incomplete engagement with taught material.
30 • Arguments are incomplete or limited in scope and detail, and do not demonstrate knowledge and skills to underpin the achievement of
learning outcomes.
• Poorly presented, and difficult to follow.
The learning outcomes are not achieved; there are substantial areas of concern around knowledge, skills and understanding demonstrated.
• Answers are very brief or show very little understanding or knowledge in the discipline. There are multiple and significant omissions
29
including a failure to answer the question posed i.e. irrelevant information is offered.
-
• Evidence of weak engagement with the taught material
20
• Arguments are very limited in scope and detail, and are below the expectations of the level.
• Poorly presented in the context of the task requirements, and difficult to follow.
The learning outcomes are not achieved; there are substantial areas of concern relating to fundamental knowledge, skills and understanding.
• Answers show minimal understanding or knowledge in the discipline and there are numerous substantial omissions, misunderstandings
19 and errors, and irrelevant information is offered.
- • Evidence of minimal evidence of engagement with the taught material: The answers provided may have been offered without any
10 engagement with the course.
• Arguments are very limited and even incoherent, they are below the expectations of the level.
• Poorly presented in the context of the task requirements, and difficult to understand.
The learning outcomes are not achieved; significant work would be needed to reach the required standard.
• Answers show no understanding or knowledge in the discipline. Answers may be only partially complete.
9
• No evidence of engagement with the taught material; the answers provided may have been offered without any engagement with the
-
course.
0
• Arguments are well below the expectations of the level.
• Poorly presented in the context of the task requirements, and difficult to understand.

1
As defined on the module descriptor.
2
This may be demonstrated through citations, but also through broader evidence of having engaged with other sources, topics, themes, theories not
covered by the course or reading lists, and/or current trend or events.

21
 Appendix 2.1 Generic Assessment Criteria for Coursework (BSc/FdSc Level 4)

Presentation, style and Content, knowledge and Analysis, evaluation Referencing and use
communication skills understanding and application of literature
Assessment criteria to be
Final
Context contextualised by module
Class leader

Weighting
Assigned by tutor
Mark range

Exceptional presentation that conforms Work based on an excellent Exceptional argument based on a Exceptional use of reliable,
to guidelines and displays creativity, understanding of selected appropriate highly critical and perceptive analysis appropriate sources, selected
flair and imagination in both structure knowledge in the subject area, and evaluation of complex knowledge, independently. Limitations of
90-100 and style, using a variety of tools obtained from specific published theories and concepts in the subject sources partly assessed.
appropriate to the media, audience and literature at the forefront of the area. Excellent application of practical, References complete and comply
discipline. Of publishable quality with discipline through wider reading, and professional and/or problem solving with the Guide to Referencing. No
moderate editing experience skills. errors

Excellent presentation that conforms to

Work based on a full and complete
guidelines and provides a persuasive Excellent argument based on a critical Excellent use of reliable, appropriate
understanding of selected appropriate
argument using a logical and coherent and perceptive analysis and evaluation sources, many selected
knowledge in the subject area.
80-89 structure that displays a mature,
Evidence of specific knowledge from
of knowledge, theories and concepts in independently. References complete
articulate and imaginative style, using the subject area. Very good practical, and comply with the Guide to
published literature obtained through
appropriate tools for the media, professional and problem solving skills. Referencing. No errors.
wider reading, and experience
audience and discipline

Very good presentation that conforms Work based on a comprehensive Strong use of reliable, appropriate
Strong argument based on robust
to guidelines and provides a reasoned understanding of selected appropriate sources with some selected
analysis and evaluation of knowledge,
argument using a logical and concise knowledge in the subject area. No independently. References complete
70-79 structure that displays a lucid and omissions. Clear evidence of
theories and concept in the subject
and comply with the Guide to
area. Very good practical, professional
articulate style, using appropriate tools knowledge derived from outside the Referencing, with minor omissions
or problem solving skills.
for the media, audience and discipline. teaching programme. or errors.

Good presentation that conforms to Very good use of reliable,

Sound argument based on good
guidelines and provides a clear Work based on a good understanding appropriate sources, with a few
analysis, evaluation and application of
argument using a logical structure that of appropriate knowledge in the subject selected independently. References
knowledge, theories and concept in the
60-69 displays a fluent style, using area. No significant omissions. Some
subject area. Good evidence of
complete and largely comply with
appropriate tools that are correctly evidence of knowledge derived from the Guide to Referencing, with minor
practical, professional and problem
applied for the media, audience and outside the teaching programme. omissions or recurring
solving skills
No final award classification at level 4

discipline. presentational errors.

Presentation conforms to guidelines Good use of relevant sources, but

Work partly descriptive, but logical
with few errors. Accuracy and clarity of Work based on a good understanding most not selected independently.
argument based on analysis and
expression could be improved by minor of appropriate knowledge in the subject References mostly complete and
evaluation of knowledge, basic
50-59 changes to structure and/or style. area. No significant omissions. Limited
theories and concepts in the subject
partly comply with the Guide to
Appropriate tools that are correctly to knowledge derived from the teaching Referencing, but significant
area. Evidence of developing practical,
applied for the media, audience or programme omissions or recurring
professional and problem solving skills.
discipline. presentational errors.

Presentation largely conform to

guidelines, but has moderate errors. Work mainly descriptive, but superficial Some use of relevant sources, but
Accuracy and clarity of expression Work based on a superficial argument based on limited analysis not sourced independently.
understanding of appropriate and evaluation of knowledge, basic References mostly complete and
moderately compromised by poor
40-49 structure and/or style. Tools largely
knowledge in the subject area. Limited theories and concepts in the subject partly comply with the Guide to
to knowledge derived from the teaching area. Limited evidence of developing Referencing, but significant
appropriate but may be inconsistently programme practical, professional and problem omissions or recurring
applied for the media, audience or solving skills. presentational errors.
discipline.

Presentation doesn’t conform to Work descriptive, with little, irrelevant

Little use of relevant sources, but
guidelines. Accuracy and clarity of or illogical argument, based on limited
Work based on an incomplete indiscriminately selected or largely
expression severely compromised by understanding of knowledge in the
30-39 poor structure and/or style. Tools
understanding of knowledge in the
subject area. Limited evidence of
unreliable or irrelevant. Limited
subject area. attempt at referencing. References
inappropriate and/or incorrectly applied application of developing practical,
incomplete and confused.
for the media, audience or discipline professional and problem solving skills.

Presentation doesn’t conform to Work descriptive with no argument Minimal evidence of reading.
guidelines. Illogical structure and/or Work based on a limited understanding based basic understanding of Sources used are largely unreliable,
20-29 immature and incoherent style. Tools of knowledge in the subject area, with knowledge in the subject area. Limited inappropriate or irrelevant to the
inappropriate and/or incorrectly applied significant errors or omissions evidence of application of practical, task. References are mainly
for the media, audience or discipline. professional or problem solving skills. incomplete and confused.

Work suggests some basic

Limited grasp of communication skills.
Work suggests limited awareness of understanding of knowledge in the
No structure and immature and Very limited evidence of wider
knowledge in the subject area, but subject area, but largely wrong,
10-19 incoherent style. Tools inappropriate
largely wrong, contradictory or contradictory or unsupported. No
reading. No meaningful attempt at
and incorrectly applied for the media, referencing.
unsupported. evidence of application of practical,
audience or discipline.
professional or problem solving skills

No evidence of knowledge and

No evidence of academic conventions
No evidence of knowledge and understanding in the subject area, or No evidence of reading. No attempt
0-9 or the communication skills required at
understanding in the subject area. application of practical, professional or at referencing.
level 4
problem solving skills

22
 Appendix 2.2 Generic Assessment Criteria for Coursework (BSc/FdSc Level 5)

Presentation, style and Content, knowledge and Analysis, evaluation Referencing and use
communication skills understanding and application of literature
Assessment criteria to be
Final
Context contextualised by module
Class leader

Weighting
Assigned by tutor
Mark range

Exceptional presentation that conforms Work based on an excellent Exceptional argument based on a Exceptional use of a variety of
to guidelines and displays creativity, understanding of selected appropriate highly critical and perceptive analysis reliable, appropriate sources,
flair and imagination in both structure knowledge in the subject area, and evaluation of complex knowledge, including peer reviewed journals,
90-100 and style, using a variety of tools obtained from specific published theories and concepts in the subject selected independently. Limitations
appropriate to the media, audience and literature at the forefront of the area. Excellent application of practical, of sources assessed. References
discipline. Of publishable quality with discipline through wider reading, and professional and/or problem solving complete and comply with the Guide
moderate editing experience skills. to Referencing. No errors.

Excellent use of a variety of reliable,

Excellent presentation that conforms to
Work based on a full and complete appropriate sources, including peer
guidelines and provides a persuasive Excellent argument based on a critical
understanding of selected appropriate reviewed journals, most selected
D argument using a logical and coherent
knowledge in the subject area.
and perceptive analysis and evaluation
independently. Limitations of
80-89 structure that displays a mature,
Evidence of specific knowledge from
of knowledge, theories and concepts in
sources partly assessed.
articulate and imaginative style, using the subject area. Very good practical,
published literature obtained through References complete and comply
appropriate tools for the media, professional and problem solving skills.
wider reading, and experience with the Guide to Referencing. No
audience and discipline
errors.

Very good presentation that conforms Work based on a comprehensive Very good use of reliable,
Strong argument based on robust
to guidelines and provides a reasoned understanding of selected appropriate appropriate sources, including peer
analysis and evaluation of knowledge,
argument using a logical and concise knowledge in the subject area. No reviewed journals, many selected
70-79 structure that displays a lucid and omissions. Clear evidence of
theories and concept in the subject
independently. References are
area. Very good practical, professional
articulate style, using appropriate tools knowledge derived from outside the complete and comply with the Guide
or problem solving skills.
for the media, audience and discipline. teaching programme. to Referencing with no errors.

Good presentation that conforms to

Sound argument based on good Very good use of reliable,
guidelines and provides a clear Work based on a good understanding
analysis, evaluation and application of appropriate sources, with some
argument using a logical structure that of appropriate knowledge in the subject
knowledge, theories and concept in the selected independently. References
60-69 displays a fluent style, using area. No significant omissions. Some
subject area. Good evidence of are complete and mainly comply
appropriate tools that are correctly evidence of knowledge derived from
practical, professional and problem with the Guide to Referencing, with
M applied for the media, audience and outside the teaching programme.
solving skills minor omissions or errors.
discipline.

Presentation conforms to guidelines

Work partly descriptive, but logical Good use of relevant sources, with a
with few errors. Accuracy and clarity of Work based on a good understanding
argument based on analysis and few selected independently.
expression could be improved by minor of appropriate knowledge in the subject
evaluation of knowledge, basic References are complete and
50-59 changes to structure and/or style. area. No significant omissions. Limited
theories and concepts in the subject largely comply the Guide to
Appropriate tools that are correctly to knowledge derived from the teaching
area. Evidence of developing practical, Referencing with minor omissions or
applied for the media, audience or programme
professional and problem solving skills. recurring presentational errors.
discipline.

Presentation largely conform to

guidelines, but has moderate errors. Work mainly descriptive, but superficial Some use of relevant sources, but
P Accuracy and clarity of expression Work based on a superficial argument based on limited analysis not sources independently.
understanding of appropriate and evaluation of knowledge, basic References mostly complete and
moderately compromised by poor
40-49 structure and/or style. Tools largely
knowledge in the subject area. Limited theories and concepts in the subject mainly comply with the Guide to
to knowledge derived from the teaching area. Limited evidence of developing Referencing, but significant
appropriate but may be inconsistently programme practical, professional and problem omissions or recurring
applied for the media, audience or solving skills. presentational errors.
discipline.

Presentation doesn’t conform to Work descriptive, with little, irrelevant Little use of relevant sources, but
guidelines. Accuracy and clarity of or illogical argument, based on limited indiscriminately selected or largely
Work based on an incomplete
expression severely compromised by understanding of knowledge in the unreliable or irrelevant. Key
30-39 poor structure and/or style. Tools
understanding of knowledge in the
subject area. Limited evidence of reference information is largely
subject area.
inappropriate and/or incorrectly applied application of developing practical, present and understandable, but
for the media, audience or discipline professional and problem solving skills. has significant presentation errors.

Presentation doesn’t conform to Work descriptive with no argument Minimal evidence of reading.
guidelines. Illogical structure and/or Work based on a limited understanding based basic understanding of Sources used are largely
20-29 immature and incoherent style. Tools of knowledge in the subject area, with knowledge in the subject area. Limited inappropriate or irrelevant to the
inappropriate and/or incorrectly applied significant errors or omissions evidence of application of practical, task. References are mainly
for the media, audience or discipline. professional or problem solving skills. incomplete and confused.

Fail
Work suggests some basic
Limited grasp of communication skills.
Work suggests limited awareness of understanding of knowledge in the
No structure and immature and Very limited evidence of wider
knowledge in the subject area, but subject area, but largely wrong,
10-19 incoherent style. Tools inappropriate
largely wrong, contradictory or contradictory or unsupported. No
reading. No meaningful attempt at
and incorrectly applied for the media, referencing.
unsupported. evidence of application of practical,
audience or discipline.
professional or problem solving skills

No evidence of knowledge and

No evidence of academic conventions
No evidence of knowledge and understanding in the subject area, or No evidence of reading. No attempt
0-9 or the communication skills required at
understanding in the subject area. application of practical, professional or at referencing.
level 5
problem solving skills

23
 Appendix 2.3 Generic Assessment Criteria for Coursework (BSc Level 6)

Presentation, style and Content, knowledge and Analysis, evaluation Referencing and use
communication skills understanding and application of literature
Assessment criteria to be
Final
Context contextualised by module
Class leader

Weighting
Assigned by tutor
Mark range
Outstanding presentation that Outstanding argument at the Outstanding use of variety of
Work based on an outstanding
conforms to guidelines and displays boundaries of existing knowledge reliable, appropriate sources,
understanding of a wide knowledge
originality, creativity, flair and based on a highly critical and including peer reviewed articles at
base from within and outside the
imagination in both the structure and perceptive analysis and evaluation of the forefront of the discipline,
90-100 style of expression, using a variety of
subject area, obtained from specific
complex knowledge, theories and selected independently. Limitations
published literature at the forefront of
tools appropriate to the media, concepts in the subject area. of sources assessed. References
the discipline through wider reading
audience and discipline. Of publishable Exceptional practical, professional or complete and comply with the Guide
and experience
quality with minor editing problem solving skills. to Referencing. No errors.
Exceptional use of a variety of
Exceptional presentation that conforms Exceptional argument based on a
Work based on an exceptional reliable, appropriate sources,
to guidelines and displays creativity, highly critical and perceptive analysis
understanding of a wide knowledge including leading peer reviewed
1st flair and imagination in both structure
base from within the subject area,
and evaluation of complex knowledge,
article, mainly selected
80-89 and style, using a variety of tools
obtained from published literature at
theories and concepts in the subject
independently. Limitations of
appropriate to the media, audience and area. Excellent application of practical,
the forefront of the discipline through sources assessed. References
discipline. Of publishable quality with professional and/or problem solving
wider reading, and experience complete and comply with the Guide
moderate editing skills.
to Referencing. No errors.
Excellent use of a variety of reliable,
Excellent presentation that conforms to
Work based on a full and complete appropriate sources, including peer
guidelines and provides a persuasive Excellent argument based on a critical
understanding of selected appropriate reviewed journals, most selected
argument using a logical and coherent and perceptive analysis and evaluation
knowledge in the subject area. independently. Limitations of
70-79 structure that displays a mature,
Evidence of specific knowledge from
of knowledge, theories and concepts in
different sources assessed.
articulate and imaginative style, using the subject area. Very good practical,
published literature obtained through References complete and comply
appropriate tools for the media, professional and problem solving skills.
wider reading, and experience with the Guide to Referencing. No
audience and discipline
errors.

Very good presentation that conforms Very good use of reliable,

Work based on a comprehensive
to guidelines and provides a reasoned Strong argument based on robust appropriate sources, including peer
understanding of appropriate
argument using a logical and concise analysis and evaluation of knowledge, reviewed journals, with many
knowledge of the subject area. No
2:1 60-69 structure that displays a lucid and
omissions. Clear evidence of
theories and concept in the subject selected independently. References
articulate style, using appropriate tools area. Very good practical, professional complete and largely comply the
knowledge derived from outside the
for the medium, audience and or problem solving skills. Guide to Referencing with minor
teaching programme.
discipline. omissions or errors.

Good presentation that conforms to

Sound argument based on good Good use of relevant sources, with
guidelines and provides a clear Work based on a good understanding
analysis, evaluation and application of some selected independently.
argument using a logical structure that of appropriate knowledge in the subject
knowledge, theories and concept in the References are complete and
2:2 50-59 displays a fluent style, using area. No significant omissions. Some
subject area. Good evidence of mainly comply with the Guide to
appropriate tools that are correctly evidence of knowledge derived from
practical, professional and problem Referencing, with minor omissions
applied for the media, audience and outside the teaching programme.
solving skills or errors.
discipline.

Presentation conforms to guidelines

Work partly descriptive, but logical Some use of relevant sources, with
with few errors. Accuracy and clarity of Work based on a good understanding
argument based on analysis and a few selected independently.
3rd expression could be improved by minor of appropriate knowledge in the subject
evaluation of knowledge, basic References are complete and
40-49 changes to structure and/or style. area. No significant omissions. Limited
theories and concepts in the subject partially comply with the Guide to
Appropriate tools that are correctly to knowledge derived from the teaching
area. Evidence of developing practical, Referencing, with minor omissions
applied for the media, audience or programme.
professional and problem solving skills. or recurring presentational errors.
discipline.

Presentation largely conform to

Work mainly descriptive, but superficial Little use of relevant sources, but
guidelines, but has moderate errors.
Work based on a superficial argument based on limited analysis indiscriminately selected or largely
Accuracy and clarity of expression
understanding of appropriate and evaluation of knowledge, basic unreliable or irrelevant. References
moderately compromised by poor
30-39 structure and/or style. Tools largely
knowledge in the subject area. Limited theories and concepts in the subject mostly complete and mainly comply
to knowledge derived from the teaching area. Limited evidence of developing with the Guide to Referencing, but
appropriate but may be inconsistently
programme. practical, professional and problem significant omissions and recurring
applied for the media, audience or
solving skills. presentational errors.
discipline.

Presentation doesn’t conform to Work descriptive, with little, irrelevant Little use of relevant sources, but
guidelines. Accuracy and clarity of or illogical argument, based on indiscriminately selected or largely
Work based on an incomplete
expression severely compromised by superficial knowledge in the subject unreliable or irrelevant. Key
20-29 poor structure and/or style. Tools
understanding of knowledge in the
area. Limited evidence of application of reference information is largely
subject area.
inappropriate and/or incorrectly applied developing practical, professional and present and understandable but has
for the media, audience or discipline. problem solving skills. significant presentation errors

Fail
Work descriptive, with little, irrelevant
Presentation doesn’t conform to Minimal evidence of reading.
or illogical argument, based on
guidelines. Illogical structure and/or Work based on a limited understanding Sources used are largely
superficial knowledge in the subject
10-19 immature and incoherent style. Tools of knowledge in the subject area, with
area. Limited evidence of application of
inappropriate or irrelevant to the
inappropriate and incorrectly applied significant errors or omissions task. References are mainly
developing practical, professional and
for the media, audience or discipline. incomplete and confused.
problem solving skills.

Work suggests some basic

Limited grasp of communication skills.
Work suggests limited awareness of understanding of knowledge in the
No structure and immature and Very limited evidence of wider
knowledge in the subject area, but subject area, but largely wrong,
0-9 incoherent style. Tools inappropriate
largely wrong, contradictory or contradictory or unsupported. No
reading. No meaningful attempt at
and incorrectly applied for the media, referencing.
unsupported. evidence of application of practical,
audience or discipline.
professional or problem solving skills

24
Appendix 3: Academic instruction words and their meanings

Analyse Examine in very close detail. Break down an argument or

information into component parts and identify ways in which
these parts are related.

Analyse the Show judgement over the relevant importance of different

extent to arguments or events. Arguments for and against needed.
which…

Assess Make some kind of judgement on the relative importance of a

particular aspect, discussing the influence of other factors or
events that influence the topic.

Compare Show how two or more things are similar. Indicate the relevance
or consequences of these similarities.

Contrast Set two or more items or arguments in opposition so as to draw

out differences. Indicate whether the differences are significant. If
appropriate, give reasons why one item or argument may be
preferable.

Critically Weigh arguments for and against something, assessing the

evaluate strength of evidence on both sides

Define Give the exact meaning of. Where relevant, show that you
understand why the definition may be problematic.

Describe Give the main characteristics or features of something, or outline

the main events
.
Discuss Write about the most important aspects of; give arguments for
and against; consider the implications of.

Distinguish Bring out the differences between two items.

Evaluate Assess the worth, importance or usefulness of something, using

evidence. There will probably be cases to be made for and
against.

25
Examine Put the subject ‘under the microscope’ looking at it in detail. If
appropriate, ‘critically evaluate’ it as well.

Explain Make clear why something happens, or why something is the

way it is.

Illustrate Make something clear and explicit, give examples or evidence.

Interpret Give the meaning and relevance of data or other material

presented.

Justify Give evidence which supports an argument or idea; show why a

decision or conclusions were made, considering objections that
others might make.

Narrate Concentrate on saying what happened, telling it as a story.

Outline Give only the main points, showing the main structure.

Relate Show similarities and connections between two or more things.

State Give the main features, in very clear English.

Summarise Draw out the main points only, omitting details or examples.

To what extent Consider how far something is true, or contributes to a final

outcome. Consider also ways in which the proposition is not true
.
Trace Follow the order of different stages in an event or process.

26
Appendix 4: Editing final drafts

Content and argument Style

The text answers the central The text is formal (full words
question(s) posed by the title over contractions)
Sufficient words have been It is free of slang and
given to the most important colloquialisms
points
All the information included is Technical vocabulary is used
relevant to the set question correctly
The main line of argument is The words used are my own
clear
The text is not repetitive
Research material The text can be read aloud
easily
There are sufficient examples Text is written in the third
and evidence to prove or person
illustrate my points with
citations
My own ideas and opinions are General
clear to the reader
Structure and grouping Introduction is suitable
The text is in the appropriate Conclusion is suitable
structure or format
Ideas are suitably linked into Spelling, grammar and
paragraphs punctuation are correct
Each paragraph is well Citations & references are
structured correct
Ideas are presented in a logical I have taken account of earlier
order feedback I received
It is clear how each paragraph I have observed the word/ page
links to the others limit
I have compared this work
against the marking criteria
Clarity
There is nothing the reader will
find confusing
The language is clear and
straightforward
Sentences are of reasonable
length and uncomplicated
It is clear which sentence in my
introduction summarises my
viewpoint / argument

(Source: Adapted from Cottrell, 2008)

27
Appendix 5: Useful key words and phrases

Establishing the importance of the topic:

• X is a common…
• X is an important…
• Recent development in…
• In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in…
• Recent developments in the field of x…
• Recently, researchers have shown an increased interest in…

Highlighting a problem or controversy in the field of study:

• However, these rapid changes are having a serious effect…
• However, a major problem with this is…
• To date there has been little agreement on what…
• More recently, literature has emerged that offers contradictory findings about…
• There is increasing concern that…
• Concerns have been raised by several relevant bodies…
• The issue of x has been a controversial and much disputed subject within the field of…
• The issue has grown in importance in light of recent…

Highlighting a knowledge gap in the field of study (for research):

• So far, however, there has been little discussion about…
• However, far too little attention has been paid to…
• Most studies in x have only been carried out in a small number of areas…
• The research to date has tended to focus on x rather than y…

Focus and aim:

• This paper will focus on…
• This paper will examine…
• This paper will give an account of…
• This paper seeks to address the following questions…
• This essay critically examines…
• This essay critically discusses…
• The purpose of this paper is to review recent research into the…
• This paper will review the research conducted on…
• This chapter reviews the literature concerning the usefulness of …
• The aim of this paper is to determine…
• The aim of this study was to evaluate and validate…

Referring to literature:
General descriptions of the relevant literature:
• A considerable amount of literature has been published on x. These studies…
• In recent years, there has been an increasing amount of literature on…
• A large and growing body of literature has investigated…

28
General reference to previous research:
• Many have argued that…
• Numerous studies have attempted to explain…
• Recent evidence suggests that…
• Previous studies have reported that…
• A number of studies have found that…

Reference to single investigations:

• Smith (2016) found that…..
• Smith et al. (2017) stated that…
• Smith (2016) showed that…
• Smith et al. (2017) investigated the…
• Smith (2016) studied the effects of…
• Smith et al. (2017) carried out a number of investigations into the…
• In 2017, Smith et al. published a paper in which they described… (if Smith is one of several
authors)
• A recent study by Smith (2016) involved…
• A small scale study by Smith (2016) reaches different conclusions…
• To determine the effects of x, Smith (2016) compared…
• Smith (2016) identified…
• Smith et al. (2017) listed three reasons why…
• Smith (2016) provided in-depth analysis of work…
• Smith et al. (2017) discussed the challenges and strategies for…
• Smith (2016) questioned whether…

Reference other writers’ ideas:

• According to Smith (2016)…
• Smith (2016) argues that…
• Smith et al. (2017) maintains that…
• This view is supported by Smith (2016) who writes…
• As Smith et al. (2017) reminds us…

Ways of introducing quotations:

• Smith (2016) concluded…
• As Smith et al. (2017) stated…….

Being critical!
• One major criticism of Smith’s (2016) work is that…
• Many writers have challenged Smith’s (2016) claim on the grounds that…

Introducing other people’s criticisms:

• However, Smith (2016) pointed out that…
• Smith et al. (2017) argued that…

(Source: Adapted from: The University of Manchester, 2005)

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