Unit 3 Basics of Power Systems:

Layout & operation of Hydro, Thermal, Nuclear Stations - Solar & wind generating stations –Typical AC
Power Supply scheme – Elements of Transmission line – Types of Distribution systems: Primary & Secondary
distribution systems.

Power Generation Introduction

The energy is neither be created nor be destroyed but it can be converted from one from to another. The
generation of an electrical energy is nothing but the conversion of various other forms of energy into an
electrical energy. The various energy sources which are used to generate an electrical energy on the large scale
are stem obtaining by burning coal, oil, natural gas, water stored in dams, diesel oil, nuclear power and other
nonconventional energy sources. The electrical power is generated in bulk at the generation stations which are
also called power stations. Depending upon the source of energy used, these stations are called thermal power
stations, hydroelectric power station, diesel power station, nuclear power station etc.
This generated electrical energy is demanded by the consumers. Hence the generated electrical power is to be
supplied to the consumers. Generally the power stations are located too far away from the town and cities
where electrical energy is demanded. Hence there exists a large network of conductors between the power
stations and the consumers. This network is broadly classified into two parts.
1. Transmission 2. Distribution
The flow of electrical power from the generating station to the consumer is called an electrical power system
or electrical supply system. It consists of the following important components :
1. Generation station
2. Transmission network
3. Distribution network
All these important networks are connected with the help of conductors and various step up and step down
transformers. A typical transmission and distribution scheme is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Schematic representation of a typical transmission distribution scheme

A scheme shows a generating station which is located too far away from cities and towns. It is generating
an electrical power at 11 KV. It is required to increase this level for the transmission purpose. Hence a step up
transformer is used which steps up the voltage level to 220 KV. This level may be 132 KV, 220 KV or more as
per the requirement.
Then with the help of transmission lines and the towers, the power is transmitted at very long distances.
The power is then transmitted to the substations. A substation consists of a step down transformer of rating 33
KV to 6.6. KV or 3.3 KV. The transfer of power from receiving station to the substation is with the help of
conductors called feeders. This is called secondary transmission.
 From the substations, power is distributed to the local distribution centres with the help of distributors.
Sometimes for bulk loads like factories and industries, the distributors transfer power directly. For the light
loads, there are distribution centres consisting of distribution transformers which step down the voltage level to
230 V or 400 V. This is called primary distribution. In the crowded area like cities, overhead system of bar
conductor is not practicable. In such cases insulated conductors are used in the form of underground cables, to
give supply to the consumers. These cables are called service mains. This is called secondary distribution.

The various energy sources are classified into two main groups.
a) Non-conventional or renewable energy sources.
b) Conventional or non-renewable energy sources.
Non-Conventional or Renewable Energy Sources
These energy sources are available abundantly in nature and can be reused again.
The various non-conventional energy sources are as follows.
i) Solar energy ii) Wind energy
iii) Hydraulic energy iv) Tidal energy
v) Wave energy vi) Geothermal energy
vii) Ocean thermal energy viii) Biogas energy
ix) Biomass energy x) Fuel cells
Advantage of Non-conventional energy sources
The leading advantage of non-conventional energy sources are
1) They are abundantly available in nature.
2) They do not pollute the atmosphere.
3) They are available in large quantities.
4) They are well suited for decentralized use.
5) The plants using these sources have very less (theoretically no) maintenance cost.
Disadvantages of Non-conventional energy sources
The Disadvantage of non-conventional energy sources are
1) They are available at very low intensities are
2) These sources are available in nature during particular periods which is uncertain.
3) Less efficiency of the power plants.
4) High initial cost.
Conventional or Non-renewable Energy Sources
These are the energy sources which once used can not be recovered any more. They are depleting in
nature.
The various non-renewable energy sources are
i) Thermal energy from a) Coal coke b) Petroleum products like petrol, Diesel, Kerosene etc. c) Natural gas.
ii) Nuclear Energy.
Advantages of Conventional Energy Sources
Following are the advantages of conventional energy sources.
1) Their efficiency is more.
2) Their initial cost is comparatively less.
3) Their intensities are high.
Disadvantages of Conventional Energy Sources
The disadvantages of Conventional energy sources are
1) Their running and maintenance cost is high.
2) They are depleting in nature.
3) They cause pollution to atmosphere by different means.
Comparison between renewable and non-renewable energy sources
Electrical Equipment Used in Power Station
A power station generates an electrical energy by using one of the energy sources. A modern power station
contains number of electrical equipments. The important electrical equipments are,
1. Alternator : This is most important equipment. It is coupled to the turbine, whichever type of the station it
may be i.e. steam, gas, nuclear etc. The turbine acts as a prime mover of alternator. The alternator converts the
mechanical energy received from the turbine into an electrical energy.
Alternators are generally hydrogen cooled or air cooled. The necessary excitation to the alternators is
provided by the main and pilot exciters directly connected to the alternator shaft.
2. Transformer : This is another important electrical equipment which is used to raise or lower available
voltage levels as per the equipment. In a power station, different types of transformers are used, which are :
i) Main step up transformer which steps up the generated voltage for the further transmission.
ii) Station transformer which is used for the general service in the power station itself.
iii) Auxiliary transformers which supply to individual auxiliary unit.
3. Switchgear : This includes such a equipment which locates the fault on the power system and isolates the
faulty part from the system. It contains circuit breakers, relays, isolation switches, fuses and other controlling
devices.
Alternator gives its output to the busbar through the transformer and proper switchgear equipments.

Steam Power Station

A generating station which converts the heat energy of local combustion into an electrical energy is called
steam or thermal power station.
In this power station, the steam is produced in the boiler by using the heat of the cool combustion. The
steam is then expanded in steam turbine which drives the alternator which converts the mechanical energy of
the turbine into an electrical energy. The exhaust steam gets condensed in the condenser and fed back into the
boiler again, completing the cycle of the power station. This principle is called Rankine cycle.
The energy conversion involved in steam power station is shown in the Fig. 4.

Fig.4 Energy conversion

Factors of Selection of Site
The following factors are to be considered for the selection of site for the steam power station, in order to
achieve the economical and successful operation of the plant.
1. Supply of fuel : The main fuel for the steam power plant is coal. Thus the power station should be located
near the coal mine so that the fuel supply is continuous and adequate. If the plant is located away from the coal
mine then sufficient transportation facility must be available.
2. Availability of Water : For the condenser, huge amount of water is required. Hence site must near be the
river so that abundant quantity of cooling water is available.
3. Transportation facilities : For transporting the equipments and the machinery required by a modern steam
power plant, he site selected must be easily accessible by rail and road.
4. Cost and type of land : The land must be available at a reasonable price to keep the initial cost low. There
must be provision for the extension of the plant. The type of the land must be such that it should be able to
withstand the weight of the heavy equipments to be installed.
5. Distance from load centers : To keep the cost of the transmission and transmission losses to minimum, the
site must be nearer to the load centers. For d.c. system, transmission loss plays an important role but a.c. power
can be transmitted at high voltage with reduced transmission cost. Thus this factor is more important for d.c.
supply system.
6. Distance from populated area : The continuous burning of coal at the power station produces smoke,
Fumes and ash, which pollutes the surrounding area. Such a pollution due to smoke is dangerous for the
people living around. Hence the site of the plant must be at a considerable distance from the populated area.
General Arrangement of Steam Power Plant
Though steam power plant simply involves the conversion of heat energy to the mechanical energy, it
requires many types of supporting arrangements. The Fig. 5 shows the schematic arrangement of steam power
station.
The coal is burnt in a place called grate in a boiler. The flue gases are evolved which heats the water in a
boiler. The water is converted to a steam by absorbing heat from the flue gases. This steam is called wet steam
as it contains suspended water particles. This steam is passed to the superheater where it is converted to
superheated steam from the wet steam. This superheated steam is then expanded in the turbine which rotates
the turbine. Thus the heat energy is converted to a mechanical energy. The turbine shaft is coupled to an
alternator which converts the mechanical energy into an electrical energy. This is then given to the busbar
through a transformer and proper switchgear arrangement.
After expanding in the turbine, the exhaust steam is passed through the condenser. In the condenser, the
steam is converted into liquid condensate. Using the condensate extraction pump, the condensate is taken to
economizer. The economiser again transfer the heat from flue gases to the condensate and then transfer the
heated water to the boiler. Thus the cycle is completed. The exhaust flue gases are released to the atmosphere
through the chimney.

Fig 5 Schematic arrangement of steam power station

Constituents of Steam Power Station
The various constituents of steam power station can be divided into the following stages for the ease of
understanding the working of the power plant.
1. Fuel and ash circuit 2. Steam generating circuit
3. Steam turbine 4. Alternator
5. Feed water circuit 6. Cooing water circuit
Fuel and Ash Circuit
In steam power plant, the coal is used as a fuel. The coal is stored in a coal storage plant where coal is
transferred from all the parts of the country by the rail or the road. The storage helps to supply the coal
continuously, in case of situations like strikes, failure of transportation system etc. Then the coal is transferred
to the coal handling plant where the coal is pulverized i.e. crushed into small pieces. The pulverization
increases the surface exposure of the coal and this helps for rapid combustion of coal without using large
quantity of air. Such a crushed coal is transferred to the boiler from the local handling plant.
As a result of combustion of the coal. large quantity of ash is produced in the boiler. For the proper
combustion of the coal, ash is removed to the ash handling plant. Then it is delivered to the ash storage plant,
from where it is disposed off.
Steam Generating Circuit
The main component of steam generating circuit is the boiler. But many other auxiliary equipments are
used so as to completely utilize the heat of flue gases.
1. Boiler : The boiler is a closed vessel where water is converted to the steam using the heat of the local
combustion. Hence the boiler is called steam generator. In the boilers, the grate is provided for the combustion
of coal. The steam produced in the boiler contains suspended water particles and hence called wet steam.
2. Superheater : It is an accessory attached to the boiler and located in the path of flue gases leaving the boiler
and flowing towards chimney. By using the heat of the flue gases, the superheater converts the wet steam into
superheated dry steam. There are two advantages of superheating that it increases the overall efficiency and it
avoids the corrosion of the turbine blades due to wet steam. The superheated steam is then passed to the
turbine through a main valve between the two. The two types of superheaters used are radiant type and
convection type.
3. Economizer : It is another accessory attached to the boiler and located in the path of flue gases. Thus it
utilizes the heat of flue gases which would otherwise wasted to the atmosphere. The water from the feed pump
is passed through the economizer to the boiler drum so that before entering the boiler, it is heated and hence
less efforts are required to convert it into steam. This increases the overall boiler efficiency, saves the fuel and
reduces the stress on the boiler.
4. Air preheater : This is also an accessory attached to the boiler and located in the path of flue gases. The air
is required for the local combustion. Air is drawn from the atmosphere by a forced draught fan and is supplied
to the air preheater. The air preheater extracts the heat from the flue gases and makes the air hot before
supplying to the boiler. This increases the temperature of the furnace and helps in the production of the steam.
This increases the thermal efficiency and the steam capacity per square meter of the boiler surface.
The two types of air preheaters used are recuperative type and the other is regenerative type.
Steam Turbines
The dry and superheated steam from the supeheater is supplied to the turbine. The hat energy of the steam
is converted to the mechanically energy as steam passes over the turbine blades. There are two types of steam
prime movers available, steam engine and steam turbine. The steam turbine is practically used because of the
following advantages,
i) High efficiency ii) Simple construction iii) Low maintenance
iv) High speed v) Less floor area vi) No flywheel required
vii) Less problems of vibrations
The steam turbines are classified into two types as impulse turbine and reaction turbine.
In the impulse turbine, the steams expands completely in the nozzle and pressure over the moving blades
remaining constant. While doing so, the steam attains very high velocity and impacts on moving blades giving
rise to an impulsive force on them. Thus the turbines starts rotating.
In the reaction turbine, steam is partially expanded in the stationary nozzle and remaining expansion takes
place on the moving blades. This causes reaction force on the moving blades and the turbine stats rotating.
The commercial turbines nowadays use series combination of impulse and reaction turbines, due to which
steam can be used more efficiently.
Alternator
 The alternator shaft is coupled to the turbine. When the turbine shaft rotates, the alternator shaft rotates
and converts the mechanical energy into an electrical energy. The electrical energy from the alternator is given
to the busbar through transformer, circuit breakers and isolators.
Feed Water Circuit
The condensate leaving the condenser is used as the feed water. Because it goes to the boiler, It is first
heated in a closed feed water heater. Then it is passed to economizer where it is further heated and then passed
to the boiler. This increases the overall efficiency of the plant.
The feed water source is generally river or a canal. It contains suspended and dissolved impurities. The
boilers needs clean and soft water for loner life and better efficiency. Hence the feed water is purified. It is
stored in the tanks and by the different actions like sedimentation, filtration etc., it is made soft and pure. Such
a pure feed water is used for the steam generation in the boiler.
Cooling Water Circuit
For improving the plant efficiency, the expanded steam coming out of the turbine, passes through the
condenser where it is condensed into water. The condenser is very important as it creases a very low pressure
at the exhaust of the turbine thus helps in the expansion of steam in the turbine at low pressure.
For condensation of steam, a flow of natural cold water is circulated through the condenser. This takes the
heat from the exhaust steam and gets heated. This hot water is discharged at a suitable location or is passed
through a cooling tower so that it is again converted to cold water. Then it is recirculated through the
condenser by a pump. The condensed steam can be used as a feed water to the boiler.
The two types of condensers used are jet condenser and surface condenser.
Advantages
1. The fuel used is a coal, which is cheap.
2. The initial cost is less compared to other power station.
3. It requires less floor space area compared to hydro-electric power station.
4. The fuel is easily available.
5. The fuel can be easily transported top the site hence site can be anywhere ad not always near the coal mines.
6. The cost of the generation is less than the diesel.
Disadvantages
1. Due to the smoke and fume, pollutes the surrounding atmosphere.
2. Running cost is higher than hydro-electric power palnt
Efficiency
For a steam power station, two efficiencies are defined which are thermal efficiency and the overall efficiency.
The thermal efficiency is the ratio of heat equivalent of the mechanical energy transmitted to the turbine
shaft to the heat of the combustion of coal.

The overall efficiency is the ratio of heat equivalent of electrical output from alternator to the heat of coal
combustion. The overall efficiency pf steam power station is very low about 20 to 25%.

The overall efficiency depends on number of factors and hence can be expressed as,

Where,
ηelectrical = Electrical efficiency of an alternator which is practically high, above 90%.
ηboiler = Boiler efficiency considering the effect of economizer and air preheater, which is about 85%

Hydro-electric Power Station

A power generation station which uses the potential or kinetic energy of water for the generation of an
electrical energy is called hydro-electric power station.
Water has a kinetic energy when it is in motion. While the water stored at high level has a potential
energy. The difference in level of water between the two points is called head. Such a water head is practically
created by constructing reservoirs across river or lake. Generally a dam is constructed at high altitudes, which
can be used as a continuous source of the water for the hydro-electric power stations. The water from the dam
is taken through pipes and canals to the water turbine, which is at lower level. The turbine obtains the energy
from the falling water and changes it into a mechanical energy. This mechanical energy of the turbine is then
used to drive the alternator, which converts the mechanical energy into an electrical energy. The energy
conversion involved in hydro-electric power generation is shown in the Fig. 6.

Fig. 6 Energy conversion

Factors for Selection of Site
The water reservoir like dam can not be constructed anywhere. There are number of factors of affecting
the choice of site for the hydroelectric power station.
1. Availability of water : As the basic requirement of hydro-electric plant is the water, the availability of huge
quantity of water is the main consideration. The plant must be constructed where sufficient quantity of water is
available at a good head. The previous rainfall records are studied and the maximum and minimum quantity of
water available during the year estimated. Considering the losses such as evaporation, the water necessary for
the plant is calculated. Then by comparing both the estimations, the choice of the site is done.
2. Storage of water : The rainfall is not consistent every year. Hence the available water should be stored.
This makes necessary to construct dams. The storage helps in equalizing the flow of water throughout the year.
So site should be provide sufficient facilities for erecting dam and the storage of water.
3. Head of water : For getting sufficient head, the dam or reservoir should be constructed at a height in a hilly
area. The availability of the head directly affects the cost and economy of the power generation. So site should
be selected in proper geographical area, which can give sufficient water head.
4. Cost and type of land : The initial cost of the project includes the cost of the land. Hence land must be
available at a reasonable price. Similarly the type of the land must be such that it should able to withstand the
weight of the heavy equipments to be installed.
5. Transportation facilities : For transporting the equipments and the machinery, the site selected must be
easily accessible by rail and road.
6. Distance from load centers : The load center is connected to the site by the transmission lines. Hence to
keep the cost of the transmission lines minimum and the losses occurring in the line minimum, the distance of
the site from the load centers must be less. Otherwise the overall cost increases considerably.
All these factors affect the selection of site for the hydro-electric power station.
General Arrangement of Hydro-electric Plant
Though hydro-electric power station simply involves the conversion of hydraulic energy to the mechanical
energy, it requires many types of supporting arrangements. The Fig. 7 shows the schematic arrangement of
hydro-electric power station which uses water supply from an artificially constructed dam.

Fig. 7 Schematic arrangement of hydro-electric power plant

 The dam is constructed across the river and water from catchment area is collected behind the wall of the
dam, in high mountains. A pressure channel is taken from such a water reservoir which takes water to a surge
tank. The surge tank is a controlling room which controls the flow of water i.e. adjusts the discharge of water
according to the need of the turbine and load on it. Trash rack does not allow floating and other impurities to
pass to the turbine. The pressure channels plays a very important role. It relieves the pressure on the penstocks
when the turbine valves are open or closed suddenly. The water is then taken to a valve house from where the
penstocks start. The valve house contains main sluice valve and the automatic isolating valves. These valves
also regulate the flow of water to the power house and isolates the supply of water if there is any emergency
such as bursting of a penstock. Through the penstocks, the water is taken to the power house which consists of
turbine and the alternator. The penstock are nothing but the steel pipes which are arranged in the form of open
or closed conduits, supported by the anchor blocks.
When the water from the penstock is hammered through a nozzle, on the turbine blades, the turbine starts
rotating. At this stage the hydraulic energy is converted to a mechanical energy. The turbine drives the
alternator which is coupled to the shaft of the turbine. The alternator converts the mechanical energy into an
electrical energy. This electrical energy is then transmitted to the load centers. The water collected from the
turbine is called tail race. This tail race is then taken off to the river.
Constituents of Hydro-electric Power Station
Let us discuss the constituent and their functions in the operation of the hydroelectric power station.
Dam
The water reservoir in the form of a dam is the main part of the power station. It stores the water, provides
the continuous supply of water and maintains the necessary water head. The dams are built up of stones and
concrete. The design and type of the dam us selected according to the topography of the site and economical
aspects.
Spillways
There are certain times when the river flow exceeds the storage capacity of the dam, due to the heavy
rainfall. The spillways are provided to discharge this surplus water and maintain safe water level in the dam.
Surge Tank
This is an important projecting device in a hydro-electric power plant. It is built just before the valve
house. It protects the penstocks from bursting due to sudden pressure changes.
If the load on the turbine is thrown off suddenly then by the governing action, the turbine input gates get
suddenly closed. Thus there is sudden stopping of water at the lower end of the penstock. This time the excess
water at the lower end of the penstock, rushes back to the surge tank. The surge tank water level increases.
Thus the penstock is protected from bursting due to high pressure. The surge tank absorbs this high pressure
swing by increasing its water level.
On the other hand, when the load on the turbine suddenly increases, the additional water required is drawn
from the surge tank. This satisfies the increased water demand instantly.
Thus the surge tank controls the pressure changes created due to rapid changes in the water flow in
penstock and hence protects the penstock from water hammer effects which might burst the penstock.
Penstocks
The penstocks are made up of steel or concrete and arranged in the form of conduits, supported by the
anchor blocks. The penstocks are used to carry water to the turbine. For the low head (less than 30 m) power
stations, the concrete penstocks are used. The steel penstocks are suitable for any head.

Fig. 8 Protecting devices of penstock

There are certain protective devices attached to the penstocks. These devices are shown in the Fig.8.
The automatic butterfly valve completely shuts off the water flow if the penstock bursts.
The air valve maintains the air pressure inside the penstock equal to the outside atmospheric pressure.
The anchor block supports the penstock and holds it in the proper position.
The surge tank also protects the penstock from sudden pressure changes.
Water Turbines
The main two types of water turbines are,
i) Impulse and ii) Reaction
In an impulse turbine, the entire pressure of water is converted into a kinetic energy in a nozzle. Then the
water jet is forced on the turbine which a large velocity which drives the wheel. The pelton wheel is an
example of impulse turbine which is shown in the Fig.9.

Fig. 9 Impulse turbine

It contains elliptical buckets mounted on the periphery of a wheel. The force of water jet on the buckets,
drives the wheel and the turbine. There is a needle or spare at the tip of the nozzle. The governor controls the
needle which controls the force of the jet, according to the load demand. The impulse turbines are used for the
high head power stations.
In the reaction turbines, the water enters the runner, partly with pressure and partly with velocity head.
There are two type of reaction turbines.
i) Francis and ii) Kalpan
The Fig. 10 shows the basic principle of reaction turbine. The reaction turbine consists of an outer ring of
stationary guided blades and an inner ring of rotating blades. The guided blades control the flow of water to
the turbine. Water flows radially inwards and changes to a downward direction when it passes through the
rotating blades. While passing over the rotating blades, the pressure and velocity of water are decreased. This
causes reaction force to exist which drives the turbine. For large variation of head, Kalpan is used as its
efficiency does not vary with change in load. For fairly constant head, a Francis or propeller turbine is used.
The reaction turbines are used for the low head power stations.

Fig. 10 Reaction turbine

Nuclear Power Station

A generating station which converts the nuclear energy into an electrical energy is called nuclear power
station.
In such a power station, heavy radioactive elements like uranium (U235), Thorium (Th232), are subjected to
the nuclear fission. The fission is breaking of nucleus of heavy atom into the parts by bombarding neutrons.
This is carried out in a special nuclear reactor. During the nuclear fission, huge amount of energy is released.
The heat energy that released is used in rising the steam at high pressure and temperature. The steam
turbines are operated using the high temperature steam. The turbines converts the heat energy into a
mechanical energy. The turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into an electrical
energy.
The energy conversion involved in the nuclear power station is shown in the Fig.11.

Fig. 11 Energy conversion

Conversion of Nuclear Energy

According to Einstein's hypothesis, the relation between the energy released by the nuclear reaction of the
mass given by,
E = mc2
where E = Energy released in jouls
m = Actual mass converted into energy in kg
c = Velocity of light = 3 x 108 m/s
There are three types of nuclear reaction, radioactive decay, fission and fusion. Out of this, only fission is
used to produce the energy.
The fission reaction is achieved by bombarding an electrically neutral neutron, on the positively charged
nucleus of radioactive element. This results in the sustained reaction to release two or three neurons for eacj
one absorbed in fission.
The immediate products of fission reaction such as xenon (Xe140) and strontim (Sr94) are fission fragments
and are the decay products. The complete fission of 1 gm of U235 nucleus produces 0.948 MW energy per day.
Factors selection of site
The following factors are to be considered for the selection of site for the nuclear power station.
1. Availability of water : Water is a secondary working fluid and used as a coolant for the cooling purpose, in
the nuclear power station..
2. Disposal of waste : The immediate products of fission reaction are the waste products which are radioactive
in nature. These can cause problems to the health of the people and hence must be disposal quickly. Such a
waste is either burried in deep pits or disposal off in the sea.
3. Distance from populated area : The radioactive elements are hazardous to the health of the people around.
There is always danger of presence of radioactivity in the atmosphere near the plant. Hence as a safety
measure the site itself must selected to far away from the populated area.
4. Transportation facilities : For transporting the equipments and the machinery required, there must be
adequate transportation facilities. The site must accessible by a rail or road so that it is easy for the movement
of the workers, working in the plant.
5. Nearness to the load centres : Though the site should be away from the populated area near the river or
sea, it should not be too large distance, due to which transmission cost may increase tremendously.
6. Cost and type of land : The land price must be reasonable and the bearing capacity of the land should be
good enough to withstand the forces due to heavy equipments of the plant.
General Arrangement of Nuclear Power Plant

Fig.12 Schematic arrangement of nuclear power station

The Fig. 12 shows the schematic arrangement of a nuclear power plant.
The entire arrangement can be divided into following stages.
1.Nuclear reactor 2. Heat exchange (Steam generator)
3. Steam turbine 4. Alternator 5. Cooling water circuit.
Nuclear Reactor
This represents that part of a nuclear power plant where U fuel is subjected to a controlled fission chain
reaction, during which tremendously energy is generated.
The Fig. 13 shows the various components of a nuclear reactor and a heat exchanger.
The following are the components of the nuclear reactor.

Fig. 13 Nuclear reactor and heat exchanger

1. Fuel : The commonly used fuel is uranium containing 0.7 % U235 or enriched uranium containing 1.5 - 2.5
U235. The fuel is used in the form of rods or plates which are surrounded by the moderators. The fuel rods are
arranged in cluster and the entire assembly is called core. The minimum amount of the fuel required to
maintain the chain reaction is called the critical mass.
2. Moderators : The main function of the moderators is to reduce the energy of neutrons evolved during
fission. By slowing down the high energy neutron, the possibility of escape of neutrons is reduced while
possibility of absorption of neutrons by fuel to cause further fission is increased. This also educes the amount
of fuel required for the chain reaction. The commonly used moderators are graphite, beryllium and heavy
water. Some other functions of moderators include prevention of corrosion of fuel element, retain the
radioactivity and to provide structural support.
3. Reflector : The reflector is placed around the core to reflect back some of the neutrons which may leak out
from the surface of the core, without taking part in the fission. A blancket of reflector can reduce the critical
mass required.
4. Control rods : The cadmium rods are used as control rods which are strong neutron absorber. Thus control
rods can regulate the supply of neutrons for chain reaction. If the number of neutrons are not controlled, there
is a possibility of explosion due to large amount of energy released. By pushing or pulling out of these rods,
the rate of chain reaction and hence the heat produced can be controlled. The control rods are operated
automatically as per the next requirement. The other material used for the control rods is boron or hafinium.
5. Coolant : The main purpose of the coolant is to transfer heat generated in the reactor core and use it for the
system generation. he coolant in the reactor keeps the temperature of fuel below safe level by continuous
removable of the energy from the core. The liquid metals like sodium or potassium are used as coolants.
6. Radiation shield : The radiation of a radioactive substances are harmful to the human life. Hence radiation
shield is used to prevent the escape of these radiations to the atmosphere. Generally 50 to 60 cm thick steel
plate and few meters of the concrete outside are used as the radiation shield.
Heat exchanger
It is a device which is used to exchange the heat from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. The
coolant carries the heat in the reactor to the exchanger where it is exchanged to the water, to convert water to
steam. Thus the heat exchanger is nothing but a steam generator. Once the heat exchanged, the coolant is fed
back to the reactor, using the coolant recirculating pump.
Steam turbine
The steam generated from the water in the secondary circuit is taken to the steam turbine through a main
valve, where it is expanded. Due to this, turbine starts rotating and thus the heat energy is converted to a
mechanical energy.
Alternator
The shaft of an alternator is coupled to the turbine shaft. Thus when the turbine rotates, the alternator starts
rotating. The alternator converts mechanical energy into an electrical energy. The energy output of an
alternator is given to the bus bars through transformer, circuit breakers and isolators.
Cooling Water Circuit
The expanded steam from the turbine is the exhausted steam which is taken to the condenser. In the
condenser, the steam is condensed into water. For the condensation of steam , a flow of natural cold water is
circulated through the condenser. This water takes heat from the exhaust steam. This hot water is passed
through cooling tower, where it is again converted to cold water. The it is recirculated through the condenser
by pump. The condensed steam is then recirculated through the secondary circuit of exchanger, using the feed
water pump.
Advantages
1. The amount of fuel required is very small
2. Three is saving in the transportation cost of fuel as fuel required is less.
3. It requires less space compared to any other type of the power plant.
4. The running cost per unit energy generated is lower than the thermal power plant.
5. It is very much economical.
6. There is a lake of environmental problems which are associated with the thermal power plant.
7. Large deposits of nuclear fuels are available so such plants can ensure continued supply of the fuel.
8. It ensures reliability of the operation.
Disadvantages
1. The fuel is very expensive.
2. The fuel is difficult to recover.
3. The capital cost is very high compared to other types.
4. The waste products are radioactive and can cause pollution.
5. The waste disposal problem is severe.
6. The maintenance charges are very high.
7. It is not suitable for the varying load conditions, as the reactor can not respond instantly to the load
fluctuations.
8. The fuel may be misused in weapons.

Solar Power Plant

The surface of the earth receives from sun about kW of solar energy. The amount of solar energy reaching the
earth is not easily convertible. There are two obvious obstacles in harnessing solar energy. First it is not
constantly available on earth and secondly the energy is diffused. Therefor it requires a large capital
investment for conversion apparatus.
Flat Plate Solar Collector
Fig. 14 shows a flat plate collector which consists of following components.

Fig. 14 Flat plate solar collector

i) An absorber plate : It intercepts and absorbs solar radiations.
ii) Transparent covers : These are one or more sheets of solar radiation transmitting materials and are placed
above the absorber plate. They allow solar energy to reach absorber plate while reducing convection,
conduction and re-radiation heat losses.
iii) Insulation : Is is placed beneath absorber plate. It minimizes and protects absorbing surface from heat
losses.
Solar Power Plant
Fig. 15 represents a schematic diagram of solar power plant.

Fig. 15 solar power plant

The basic components of solar power plant are also exactly identical to thermal power plant except boiler
is replaced by a flat plate solar collector.
The energy from solar radiation is collected and utilized to generate a steam to run steam turbines. For
obtaining reasonably high efficiency, concentration type of collectors are used when steam is used as working
fluid. The cost of concentrating collector is more than flat plate collector. Therefor, new working fluid whose
saturation temperature is lower than that of water at considerably high pressures are normally used in this type
of power plant. But the thermal efficiency of the plant will be low due to low temperature range.
This is more suitable in rural areas for house lighting and water pumping for irrigation purpose.

Advantages
Solar energy has following advantages.
1) Solar radiation does not disturb ecological balance.
2) It is available freely in nature.
3) It is non-depleting source.
4) It is easily available all over the wind.
Disadvantages
Following are disadvantages of solar energy.
1) Collections and conversion of solar energy into useful forms must be carried out over a large area which
requires a large capital investment for comversion.
2) Such power plants require direct light and are not operative when the sun is even partly covered with
clouds.
3) Reflecting surface undergo deterioration with passage of time.
4) These power plants are uneconomical.
Wind Power Plant
Wind flow is created as an effect of solar energy which creates low and high pressure regions on the earth due
to heating. This wind is used to run a wind mill which in turn drives a generator to produce electricity.
Fig. 16 shows a schematic arrangement of a horizontal axis wind-electric generating power plant. The various
parts of this power plant are :
1) Wind rotor
2) Gear box
3) Electrical generator
4) Supporting structure
 Fig. 16 Horizontal axis wind mill
1) Wind rotor : These blades (rotors) are attached on the hub which is connected to shaft. These blades have
specific design.
2) Gear box : The shaft of the hub acts as input to the gear box. R.P.M. of the shaft is increased in the ratio up
to 1 : 100 in the gear box, to produce electricity.
3) Electrical generator : The shaft is further connected to generator shaft. When shaft rotates, the generation
shaft inturn rotates producing electrical energy in generator. Thus mechanical energy is converted into
electrical energy.
4) Supporting structure : The supporting structure is designed to withstand the wind load. Its type and height
is related to the cost and transmission system interconnected. Horizontal axis wind turbines are mounted on
towers so as to be above the level of turbulence and other ground related effects.

Advantages
Wind energy offers following advantages.
1) It is available at free of cost.
2) It is available in many off-shore, on-shore, remote areas helpful in supplying electrical power to remote
areas.
3) It is cost effective and reliable.
4) It supplies energy in rural areas.
5) It does not cause pollution during energy generation.
6) It is economically competitive.
Disadvantages
Following are the disadvantages of wind energy.
1) It has low energy density
2) It is favourable in geographical locations away from cities.
3) The supply is variable, unsteady, irregular, intermittent and sometimes dangerous.
4) Wind turbine design, manufacturer and installation have proved to be complex due to widely varying
atmospheric conditions in which they have to operate.
5) It has high capital cost per kWh.
6) It requires energy storage batteries which indirectly and substantially contribute to environmental pollution.
7) Wind farms can be located only in vast open areas which are away from load centres.

Diagram of Typical AC Electrical Power Supply System

Block diagram of a typical ac electrical power supply system is shown is Fig. 1.3. Electrical power is
generated by 3-phase alternators operating in parallel at the generating stations. The generation voltage is
usually 11 kV. It may be 3.3, 6.6 or even 33 kV in certain cases. For economy reasons this voltage is stepped
up from 11 kV to 220 kV at the generating stations by means of 3-phase transformers.
The primary (or high voltage) transmission lines transmit electrical power from the generating stations to
primary transmission substations. At these primary substations the voltage is stepped down to 33 kV (or 66
kV) by means of step-down transformers. From the primary substations electrical power is transmitted through
secondary (or sub) transmission lines at 33 kV to various secondary transmission substations.
At the secondary substations the voltage is further stepped down to 11 kV (or 6.6 or 3.3 kV, as per needs) by
means of 3-phase transformers and the power is supplied to distribution substations through primary (or high
voltage) distribution lines at 11 kV. The distribution substations are located at suitable places in the area in
which power is to be supplied. At these substations the voltage is stepped down to 415 V. The secondary (or
low voltage) distribution lines, called the distributors, are laid along the roads and service connections to the
consumers are tapped off from the distributors.
Most of the domestic, commercial and small scale industrial consumers are supplied power at low voltage (at
415 volts for 3-phase loads and 240 volts for single phase loads). However, large commercial organisations,
public buildings and industries having load in excess of 100 kW prefer to have bulk power supply at 11 kV (or
even at 33 kV in case of large industries). This is accomplished by taking 11 kV line directly from secondary
transmission substations right up to the premises of such consumers and connecting it to an 11 kV/415 V. step-
down transformer.

Electric Supply System:

The conveyance of electric power from a power station to consumers’ premises is known as Electric
Supply System.
An electric supply system consists of three principal components viz., the power station, the transmission
lines and the distribution system. Electric power is produced at the power stations which are located at
favorable places, generally quite away from the consumers. It is then transmitted over large distances to load
centres with the help of conductors known as transmission lines. Finally, it is distributed to a large number of
small and big consumers through a distribution network.
The electric supply system can be broadly classified into
(i) d.c. or a c. system
(ii) overhead or underground system.
Nowadays, 3-phase, 3-wire a.c. system is universally adopted for generation and transmission of electric
power as an economical proposition. However, distribution of electric power is done by 3-phase, 4-wire a.c.
system. The underground system is more expensive than the overhead system. Therefore, in our country,
overhead system is *mostly adopted for transmission and distribution of electric power.
A.C. Power Supply Scheme:
The large network of conductors between the power station and the consumers can be broadly divided into two
parts viz., transmission system and distribution system. Each part can be further sub-divided into two primary
transmission and secondary transmission and primary distribution and secondary distribution. Fig. 7.1. shows
the layout of a typical a.c. power supply scheme by a single line diagram. It may be noted that it is not
necessary that all power schemes include all the stages shown in the figure. For example, in a certain power
scheme, there may be no secondary transmission and in another case, the scheme may be so small that there is
only distribution and no transmission.

1.Generating station: In Fig 7.1, G.S. represents the generating station where electric power is produced by 3-
phase alternators operating in parallel. The usual generation voltage is 11 kV. For economy in the transmission
of electric power, the generation voltage (i.e., 11 kV) is stepped upto 132 kV (or more) at the generating
station with the help of 3-phase transformers. The transmission of electric power at high voltages has several
advantages including the saving of conductor material and high transmission efficiency. It may appear
advisable to use the highest possible voltage for transmission of electric power to save conductor material and
have other advantages. But there is a limit to which this voltage can be increased. It is because increase in
transmission voltage introduces insulation problems as well as the cost of switchgear and transformer
equipment is increased. Therefore, the choice of proper transmission voltage is essentially a question of
economics. Generally the primary transmission is carried at 66 kV, 132 kV, 220 kV or 400 kV.
2.Primary transmission: The electric power at 132 kV is transmitted by 3-phase, 3-wire overhead system to
the outskirts of the city. This forms the primary transmission.
3.Secondary transmission: The primary transmission line terminates at the receiving station (RS) which
usually lies at the outskirts of the city. At the receiving station, the voltage is re duced to 33kV by step-
down transformers. From this station, electric power is transmitted at 33kV by 3-phase, 3-wire over¬head
system to various sub-stations (SS) located at the strategic points in the city. This forms the secondary

transmission. Fig. 7.2

4.Primary distribution: The secondary transmission line terminates at the sub-station (SS) where voltage is
reduced from 33 kV to 11kV, 3-phase, 3-wire. The 11 kV lines run along the important road sides of the city.
This forms the primary distribution. It may be noted that big con-sumers (having demand more than 50 kW)are
generally supplied power at 11 kV for further handling with their own sub-stations.
5.Secondary distribution: The electric power from primary distribution line (11 kV) is delivered to
distribution sub-stations (DS). These sub-stations are located near the consumers localities and step down the
voltage to 400 V, 3-phase, 4-wire for secondary distribution. The voltage between any two phases is 400 V and
between any phase and neutral is 230 V The single-phase residential lighting load is connected between any
one phase and neutral, whereas 3-phase, 400 V motor load is connected across 3-phase lines directly.
It may be worthwhile to mention here that secondary distribution system consists of feeders, distributors and
service mains. Fig. 7.2 shows the elements of low voltage distribution system. Feeders (SC or SA) radiating
from the distribution sub-station (DS) Electric Supply power to the distributors (AB, BC, CD and AD). No
consumer is given direct connection from the feeders. Instead, the consumers are connected to the distributors
through their service mains.
Note. A practical power system has large number of auxiliary equipments (e.g., fuses, circuit breakers, voltage
control devices etc.). However, such equipments are not shown in Fig. 7.1.
5. Service mains : These are the small cables between the distributors and the actual consumers premises.
The interconnection of feeders, distributors and service mains is shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3
There is no tapping on feeders. PQ, QR, RS and PS are the distributors which are supplied by the feeders.
No consumer is directly connected to the feeder. The service mains are used to supply the consumers from the
distributors. Tappings are taken from the distributors.

Elements of Transmission line

The electric power generated in the generating station is transmitted with the help of transmission line which
are normally overhead. The parameters associated with these transmission lines are inductance, capacitance,
resistance and conductance. The performance of the transmission line is dependent on all these parameters.
These parameters are uniformly distributed along the length of transmission line. The efficiency and voltage
regulation whether it is good or poor is determined from these constants. For good electric design of
transmission line, a sound knowledge about all these parameters is essential.
Conductance between conductors or between conductors and the ground accounts for the leakage current
at the insulators of overhead lines and through the insulation of cables. The leakage at insulators of over head
lines is negligible, the conductance of an overhead line is assumed to be zero.
Transmission lines are the circuits with the distributed constants such as resistance, inductance, conductance
and capacitance distributed along the length of transmission line. These constant concentrated at any point.
Their values are normally expressed as per kilometer length of line.
Consider the distributed circuit shown in the Fig. 17. The analysis of this circuit can be made by lumping
the parameters which is shown in the Fig. 18.

Fig. 17

Fig. 18
 The analysis of circuit becomes easier by lumping the parameters as the same current is passing through each
element of resistance and inductance. Similarly the circuits shown in the Fig. 19(a) and (b) are seen to be
equivalent as the same voltage is applied across each conductance and capacitance.

Fig. 19
But if the elements are distributed as shown in the Fig. 20. then the elements can not be lumped as the
same current is not flowing through series element and the voltage across different element changes from one
section to other.
Consider the equivalent circuit of a 2-wire transmission line having resistance, inductance, capacitance and
conductance associated with it as shown in the Fig. 20.

Fig. 20
The line is divided into large number of small sections of unit length. The upper and lower part of each
section carries same current. Hence we have the equivalent circuit as shown in the Fig. 5.
Here R1T = R1 +R1', R2T = R2 + R2'
Similarly L1T = L1 +L1' , L2T = L2 + L2' etc

Fig. 21
The resistance per unit length of the line is say R where R1T = R2T = R3T = R4T ... = R, ohm/metre. We have
L1T = L1T = L1T = ... = L, henry/metre
G1 = G2 = ... G, mho/metre
C1 = C2 = .... C, farad/metre
In case of 2 wire transmission system the line parameters are expressed on loop basis while in case of 3
phase transmission system the parameters are represented on per conductor basis.
The physical length of the transmission line does not indicate that the line is short or long but it is based
on comparison with the wavelength (λ) of the source.
he resistance of a transmission line is an important parameter as it is the main cause of power loss in a
transmission line. It is defined as the opposition offered by the transmission line conductors to the flow of
current. The resistance of the line is uniformly distributed along its whole length. But the performance of the
line can be conveniently analaysed by considering the distributed resistance as lumped one as shown in the
Fig. 1.
The effective resistance of a conductor is given by

Where the power loss in conductor is in watts and current flowing through the conductor in amperes.
When the distribution of current in a conductor is uniform then the effective resistance is equal to d.c.
resistance of the conductor. This direct resistance is given by,
 where ρ = resistivity of conductor (Ω-m)
l = length of conductor (m)
a = cross-sectional area of conductor (m2)
An alternative flux is produced by the alternating current when flowing through a conductor. This flux links
with the conductor. The conductor possesses inductance due to flux linkage. The flux linkages per ampere is
called the inductance.

Thus inductance is given by

L = ψ/I
where ψ = Flux linkage in weber-turns
I = Current in amperes.
The inductance of a transmission line is also a distributed parameter over the length of line.
When any two conductors are separated by an insulating material it will form a capacitor. In case of overhead
transmission line air acts as an insulating medium between two conductors. So there will be capacitance
between two conductors which is defined as charge per unit potential difference

Capacitance, C = q/v farad

Unlike resistance and inductance, the capacitance of transmission line is also uniformly distributed along
the whole length of the line. It may be treated as a uniform series of capacitors connected between the
conductors as shown in the Fig. 1 and Fig. 2.

The charge on the conductors at any point increases with increase and decrease of the instantaneous value
of the voltage between conductors at that point. Due to this a current known as charging current flows through
the conductors even though the line is open circuited. The voltage drop, efficiency and power factor of line
depends on the value of capacitance.
Types of Distribution systems: Primary & Secondary distribution systems.
Electric Power Distribution System states that part of power system which distributes electric power for local
use is known as distribution system.The electrical energy produced at the generating station is conveyed to the
consumers through a network of transmission and distribution systems. It is often difficult to draw a line
between the transmission and distribution systems of a large power system. It is impossible to distinguish the
two merely by their voltage because what was considered as a high voltage a few years ago is now considered
as a low voltage. In general, Electric Power Distribution System is that part of power system which distributes
power to the consumers for utilization.The transmission and distribution systems are similar to man’s
circulatory system. The transmission system may be compared with arteries in the human body and
distribution system with capillaries. They serve the same purpose of supplying the ultimate consumer in the
city with the life-giving blood of civilization electricity. In this chapter, we shall confine our attention to the
general introduction to Electric Power Distribution System.
In general, the distribution system is the electrical system between the sub-station fed by the transmission
system and the consumers meters. It generally consists of feeders, distributors and the service mains. Fig. 12.1
shows the single line diagram of a typical low tension Electric Power Distribution System.
 1. Feeders: A feeder is a conductor which connects the sub-station (or localised generating station) to the
area where power is to be distributed. Generally, no tappings are taken from the feeder so that current
in it remains the same throughout. The main consideration in the design of a feeder is the current
carrying capacity.
2. Distributor: A distributor is a conductor from which tappings are taken for supply to the consumers. In
Fig. 12.1, AB, BC, CD and DA are the distributors. The current through a distributor is not constant
because tappings are taken at various places along its length. While designing a distributor, voltage
drop along its length is the main consideration since the statutory limit of voltage variations is ± 6% of
rated value at the consumers terminals.
3. Service mains: A service mains is generally a small cable which connects the distributor to the
consumers terminals.
Classification of Distribution Systems:
A distribution system may be classified according to ;
Nature of current: According to nature of current, distribution system may be classified as (a) d.c. distribution
system (b) a.c. distribution system. Now-a-days, a.c. system is universally adopted for distribution of electric
power as it is simpler and more economical than direct current method.
Type of construction: According to type of construction, distribution system may be classified as (a) overhead
system (b) underground system. The overhead system is generally employed for distribution as it is 5 to 10
times cheaper than the equivalent underground system. In general, the underground system is used at places
where overhead construction is impracticable or prohibited by the local laws.
Scheme of connection: According to scheme of connection, the Electric Power Distribution System may be
classified as (a) radial system (b) ring main system (c) inter-connected system.
AC Distribution System:
Now-a-days electrical energy is generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of alternating current. One
important reason for the widespread use of alternating current in preference to direct current is the fact that
alternating voltage can be conveniently changed in magnitude by means of a transformer. Transformer has
made it possible to transmit a.c. power at high voltage and utilise it at a safe potential. High transmission and
AC Distribution System voltages have greatly reduced the current in the conductors and the resulting line
losses.
There is no definite line between transmission and distribution according to voltage or bulk capacity. However,
in general, the AC Distribution System is the electrical system between the step-down substation fed by the
transmission system and`the consumers’ meters. The AC Distribution System is classified into
1. Primary distribution system and
2. Secondary distribution system.
1.Primary distribution system: It is that part of AC Distribution System which operates at voltages somewhat
higher than general utilisation and handles large blocks of electrical energy than the average low-voltage
consumer uses. The voltage used for primary distribution depends upon the amount of power to be conveyed
and the distance of the substation required to be fed. The most commonly used primary distribution voltages
are 11 kV, 6.6 kV and 3.3 kV. Due to economic considerations, primary distribution is carried out by 3-phase,
3-wire system.
Fig. 12.2 shows a typical primary distribution system. Electric power from the generating station is transmitted
at high voltage to the substation located in or near the city. At this substation, voltage is stepped down to 11
kV with the help of step-down transformer. Power is supplied to various substations for distribution or to big
consumers at this voltage. This forms the high voltage distribution or primary distribution.
2.Secondary distribution system: It is that part of AC Distribution System which includes the range of voltages
at which the ultimate consumer utilises the electrical energy delivered to him. The secondary distribution
employs 400/230 V, 3-phase, 4-wire system.

The substations are situated near the consumers localities and contain step-down transformers. At each
distribution substation, the voltage is stepped down to 400 V and power is delivered by 3-phase,4-wire a.c.
system. The voltage between any two phases is 400 V and between any phase and neutral is 230 V. The single
phase domestic loads are connected between any one phase and the neutral, whereas 3-phase 400 V motor
loads are connected across 3- phase lines directly.
DC Distribution System
It is a common knowledge that electric power is almost exclusively generated, transmitted and distributed as
a.c. However, for certain applications, d.c. supply is absolutely necessary. For instance, d.c. supply is required
for the operation of variable speed machinery (i.e., d.c. motors), for electrochemical work and for congested
areas where storage battery reserves are necessary. For this purpose, a.c. power is converted into d.c. power at
the substation by using converting machinery e.g., mercury arc rectifiers, rotary converters and motor-
generator sets. The DC Distribution System from the substation may be obtained in the form of
em from the substation may be obtained in the form of
1. Two Wire DC Distribution System
2. Three Wire DC Distribution System
(i) Two Wire DC Distribution System: As the name implies, this system of distribution consists of two wires.
One is the outgoing or positive wire and the other is the return or negative wire. The loads such as lamps,
motors etc. are connected in parallel between the two wires as shown in Fig. 12.4. This system is never used
for transmission purposes due to low efficiency but may be employed for distribution of d.c. power.

(II)Three Wire DC Distribution System: It consists of two outers and a middle or neutral wire which is earthed
at the substation. The voltage between the outers is twice the voltage between either outer and neutral wire as
shown in Fig. 12.5. The principal advantage of this system is that it makes available two voltages at the
consumer terminals viz., V between any outer and the neutral and 2V between the outers. Loads requiring high
voltage (e.g., motors) are connected across the outers, whereas lamps and heating circuits requiring less
voltage are connected between either outer and the neutral. The methods of obtaining 3-wire system are
discussed in the following

Distribution System Connection

All Distribution System Connection of electrical energy is done by constant voltage system. In practice, the
following distribution circuits are generally used.
1.Radial System: In this system, separate feeders radiate from a single substation and feed the distributors at
one end only. Fig. 12.8 (i) shows a single line diagram of a radial system for d.c. distribution where a feeder
OC supplies a distributor AB at point A. Obviously, the distributor is, fed at one end only i.e., point A is this
case. Fig. 12.8 (ii) shows a single line diagram of radial system for a.c. distribution. The radial system is
employed only when power is generated at low voltage and the substation is located at the centre of the load.
This is the simplest Distribution System Connection circuit and has the lowest initial cost. However, it suffers
from the following drawbacks :
 The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily loaded.
 The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and single distributor. Therefore, any fault on the
feeder or distributor cuts off supply to the consumers who are on the side of the fault away from the
substation.
 The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be subjected to serious voltage fluctuations
when the load on the distributor changes.
Due to these limitations, this system is used for short distances only
2.Ring main system: In this system, the primaries of distribution transformers form a loop. The loop circuit
starts from the substation bus-bars, makes a loop through the area to be served, and returns to the substation.
Fig. 12.9 shows the single line diagram of ring main system for a.c. Distribution System Connection where
substation supplies to the closed feeder LMNOPQRS. The distributors are tapped from different points M, O
and Q of the feeder through distribution transformers.

The ring main system has the following advantages :

 There are less voltage fluctuations at consumer’s terminals.
 The system is very reliable as each distributor is fed via two feeders. In the event of fault on any
section of the feeder, the continuity of supply is maintained. For example, suppose that fault occurs at
any point F of section SLM of the feeder. Then section SLM of the feeder can be isolated for repairs
and at the same time continuity of supply is maintained to all the consumers via the feeder SRQPONM.
3.Interconnected system: When the feeder ring is energised by two or more than two generating stations or
substations, it is called inter-connected system. Fig. 12.10 shows the single line diagram of interconnected
system where the closed feeder ring ABCD is supplied by two substations S1 and S2 at points D and C
respectively. Distributors are connected to points O, P, Q and R of the feeder ring through distribution
transformers. The interconnected system has the following advantages :

 It increases the service reliability.

 Any area fed from one generating station during peak load hours can be fed from the other generating
station. This reduces reserve power capacity and increases efficiency of the system.