LECTURE NOTE

COURSE CODE: PHY 102

COURSE TITLE: GENERAL PHYSICS II

(Electricity, Magnetism and Modern Physics)

Course Outline

1. Electrostatics;
2. Capacitors and Capacitance; Dielectrics;
3. Current Electricity, Ohm’s Law, Resistance and Resistivity, Cells and arrangement of
Cells,
4. Electrical Energy and Power.
5. Magnetic Field due to current-carrying conductors,
6. Electromagnetic Induction,
7. Maxwell’s equations; electromagnetic oscillations and waves;
8. Applications.

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1.0 Electrostatics
Electrostatics is the branch of Physics which deals with the study of electric
charges at rest.
1.1 Electric charge
Electric charge is a physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force
when near other electrically charged matter. There exist two types of electric
charges, called positive and negative charges.
1.2 Properties of electric charge
(i) It is a fundamental physical quantity measured in coulomb (C)
(ii) It exists in two forms. It can either be a positive or negative charge
(iii) It is quantized. This means that any charge found in nature exist in discrete
form (ne), where n is a positive or a negative integer and e is a constant of
nature called the elementary charge.
(iv) Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
(v) Electrical charge is conserved i.e the net charge of an isolated system of
charges does not change no matter what interactions occur within the system.
1.3 Methods by which charges can be produced
(i) By friction
(ii) By induction
(iii) By contact
1.3.1 Charging by Friction
This occurs when one object is rubbed against another during which charge transfer
occurs. For example, if a hard rubber is rubbed with hair and brought near a piece of
paper, the paper is attracted by the rubber. This is because there is a spontaneous
transfer of electrons from the hair to the rubber. The rubber therefore acquires an
excess electron and become negatively charged, while the hair having lost some
electrons becomes positively charged.

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1.3.2 Charging by Induction:
Electric charges can be obtained on an object without touching it, by a process called
electrostatic induction.
Consider a negatively charged rubber rod brought near a neutral (uncharged)
conducting sphere that is insulated so that there is no conducting path to ground as
shown below. The repulsive force between the electrons in the rod and those in the
sphere causes a redistribution of charges on the sphere so that some electrons move
to the side of the sphere farthest away from the rod (fig. 1.3a). The region of the
sphere nearest the negatively charged rod has an excess of positive charge because
of the migration of electrons away from this location. If a grounded conducting wire
is then connected to the sphere, as in (fig. 1.3b), some of the electrons leave the
sphere and travel to the earth. If the wire to ground is then removed (fig 1.3c), the
conducting sphere is left with an excess of induced positive charge.
Finally, when the rubber rod is removed from the vicinity of the sphere (fig. 1.3d),
the induced positive charge remains on the ungrounded sphere and becomes
uniformly distributed over the surface of the sphere.

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1.3.3 Charging by Contact:
Consider the diagram below, a negatively charged rubber rod brought into contact
with a neutral conducting sphere that is insulated so that there is no conducting
path for charges to leave the sphere. As a result, some electrons on the rubber rod
are now able to move onto the sphere, as in fig 1.4a. When the rubber rod is
removed, the sphere is left with a negative charge (fig. 1.4b).

1.4 Coulomb’s Law

Law of universal gravitation states that the force of attraction between two masses
and is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance of separation between them.
Mathematically,

where G is the gravitational constant.

The magnitude of the force between the two point charges obeys a similar inverse
square relationship with distance as in gravitational force.
Coulomb’s law otherwise known as the inverse square law therefore, states that
the force of attraction or repulsion exerted on one charged body by another is
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square

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of the distance of separation between the two charge bodies. It can be expressed
mathematically as

where is the electrostatic constant given as

, ,

By illustration, the diagram below explain coulomb’s law

q1 q2
r
F21 F12

F21 F12
r

1.5 Similarities between Electrostatic and Gravitational Force

(i) The mathematical form of the Coulomb force is the same as that of the
gravitational force
(ii) They both obey an inverse square law.
(iii) They are both examples of a force field
1.6 Differences between Electrostatic and Gravitational Force
i. Electric forces can either be attractive or repulsive, but gravitational
forces are always attractive.
ii. Gravitational forces are considerably weaker than electrostatic forces.

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Example 1: The electron and proton of a hydrogen atom are separated by a distance
of about -11m. Find the magnitudes of the electric force and the gravitational
force that each particle exerts on the other.
Hint:
Particle Charge (C) Mass (kg)
Electron -19 -31

Proton -19 -27

Neutron 0 -27

Solution:
From Coulomb’s law,
( )( )( )
( )

Also from Newton’s universal law of gravity

( )( )( )
( )

Therefore,

This implies that the electrostatic force is about 39 times greater than the
gravitational force.
Example 2: Find the values of two equal charges which will repel each other with a
force of when situated apart in a vacuum. (Take ⁄ )
Solution:
Given that; ,

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From Coulomb’s law

( )

( )

( )

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2.0 THE SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
The principle of superposition states that the resultant force on any one charge is
equal to the vector sum of the forces exerted by the other individual charges that are
present. For example, if we have n point charges, which interact independently in
pairs, the force on any one of them, say 1 is given by the vector sum.
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗

Where ⃗ is the force acting on particle 1 due to the presence of particle 2 and so on
and so forth.
Example 1: Consider three point charges at the corners of a triangle, as shown
below. Where , , , , ,
. Find the resultant force on .
F31
F32
q2 370

q3

q1
Solution
Given that
.
Recall from Coulomb’s law that

( )

Therefore, the magnitude of the force exerted on by is

Also, the magnitude of the force exerted on by is

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 ( )( )( )

Vector Angle X-Component Y-Component

370
00

∑ ∑

The magnitude of the resultant force on the charge is therefore

√∑ ∑

√( ) ( )

The angle the vector makes with the X-axis is

| |
| |
( )

Example 2: The figure below shows the three charged particles held in place by
forces not shown. What electrostatic force owing to the other two charges acts on q 1.
Take q1=-1.2µC, q2=+3.7µC, q3=-2.3µC, r12=15cm, r13=10cm, k=9 x 109Nm2/C2 and
0.

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 q3

 q2
F12
q1
F13

Solution:
Given that, q1=-1.2µC, q2=+3.7µC, q3=-2.3µC, r12=15cm, r13=10cm, k=9 x 109Nm2/C2
and 0

Recall from coulombs law that the magnitude of the force exerted on by is
( )( )( )

Similarly,
The magnitude of the force exerted on q1 by q3 is

( )( )( )

Vector Angle X-Component Y-Component

12=1.77N 00 12Cos 00= N 12Sin 00=0N
13=2.48N 580 13Cos580 =1.3142N 13Sin 580=-2.1032N
∑ x=3.08N ∑ y=-2.1032N

The magnitude of the resultant force on the charge q1 is therefore

F1  Fx2  Fy2

F1  (3.08) 2  (2.1032) 2
F1  9.4864  4.4235
F1  13.9099
F1  3.73N

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The angle the vector force makes with the x-axis is

Fy 2.1032
tan     0.6829
Fx 3.08
  tan 1 0.6829  34.330

Exercise
1. Each of two small spheres is charged positively, the combined charge being
If each sphere is repelled from the other by a force of 1.0N when
the sphere are 2.0m apart, calculate the charge on each sphere.
Ans: or vice versa.
2. Three charges were positioned as shown in the figure below. If Q 1 = Q2 =8µc
and d= 0.5m, determine q if the charge at p is zero.

Q2 Q1

Ans. q = -11µc

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3.0 ELECTRIC FIELD
An electric field is a region of space in which an electric charge will experience an
electric force.

3.1 ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH OR ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY

Suppose we place a test charge q0 at a point in an electric field, the test charge
experiences a force F. Therefore, the electric field strength (intensity) E, can be
defined as the force per unit charge. Mathematically the magnitude of the field is
given by
( )
( )
( )
It is measured in Newton per coulomb ( ). The direction of the electric field
intensity at a point in space is the same as the direction of the force a positive test
charge would experience if it were placed at that point.

We must however note the following;

i. Since force is a vector quantity, the electric field is also a vector
quantity.
ii. The dimensions of E are .
iii. The magnitude of must be small enough to affect the distribution of
the charges that are responsible for .
iv. is numerically equal to the force acting on unit charge placed at a
point.

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3.2 Calculation of Electric Field
Consider the following charge distributions;
(a)Electric field due to a point charge:
We have defined electric field at a point due to a test charge as the ratio of the force
on it to the charge. i.e

In addition the electric field at a point may also be computed from coulomb’s law, if
the magnitudes and position of all charges contributing to the field are known. For
example, if we want to find the electric field intensity at a point distance from a
point charge (fig 2.1),

q0 E
r P
Q

We will assume that a test charge q0 is placed at a point P.So that the force on the
charge by coulomb’s law is

( )

( )

( ) ( )

( )

But the electric field at P is

( )

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 ( ) ( )

(b) Electric Field due to Several Point Charges:

E3
Q1
Ep

E2
P Q2

E1
Q3

Suppose we have several point charges as shown above, then we can evaluate ‘E’ by
using the principle of superposition and vectorial addition. For example, if a number
of point charges , , and are at distances , , and from a given point , as
in fig. 2.2. The resultant field is the vector sum of the contributions due to each
charge considered independently. i.e
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

More generally, ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Example 1: Find the electric force on a proton placed in an electric field of
that is directed along the positive x axis.
Solution
⁄ ,

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Example 2: Consider the diagram below, let . Find the electric
field at point P.

E1
E

P


E2

q1  q2

Solution
Given that,
Then, the magnitude of and are
6
kq1 2 (7  10 C )
E1   (9  10 9
Nm 2
/ C )
r12 (0.4m) 2
63,000
E1   3.94 10 5 N / C
0.16
kq (5 10 6 C )
E2  22  (9 10 9 Nm 2 / C 2 )
r2 (0.5m) 2
45000
E2   1.80 10 5 N / C
0.25

VECTOR ANGLE X-COMPONENT Y-COMPONENT

∑ ∑

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The magnitude of the resultant electric field E at point P is
E  E x2  E y2

E  (1.08 105 ) 2  (2.49 105 ) 2

E  2.72 105 N / C
To get the direction of E field

Ey 2.49  105
tan     2.3056
Ex 1.08  105
  tan 1 2.3056  66.550

Therefore, E has a magnitude of and makes an angle of with e

positive x axis.

(c) Continuous Charge Distribution

To calculate the electric field due to a continuous charge distribution (e.g. a
uniformly charged ring, a uniformly charged disk, the axis of a rod etc). The
continuous charged distribution is divided into infinitesimal charge disk contained
in a volume element or area element , or length element . Thus, the electric
field at point P due to each charge element is given by Coulomb’s law.

( )

Note
(i) Volume charge density,

(ii) Surface charge density,

(iii) Linear charge density,

Using the superposition principle, the total electric field is the vector sum
(integral) of all these infinitesimal contributions.

∫ ( )

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where is the distance from to point .
Example: Show that the electric field due to a uniformly charged ring can be given
as:

⁄
( )
Solution

dQ

 dEx
dE
dEy

Consider a uniformly charged ring with linear charge density as shown

above, from Coulomb’s law

( )

( )
Putting equation (2) in (1), we have:

( )

The components of are

From symmetry, the resultant field E must be along the axis of the ring. Thus, the
axial component of dE is:

∫ ( )

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Substituting equation (3) in (4), we have

∫ ( )

From the diagram,

( )
⁄
( )
Put equation ( ) in ( )

∫
⁄
( )

∫
⁄
( )

∫
⁄
( )

Then,

∫
⁄
( )

( )
⁄
( )

( )

Substitute for equation ( ) in ( ), we have

⁄
( )

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 ⁄
( )

⁄
( )

EXERCISE
1. Calculate the electric field at one corner off a square on a side if the
other three corners are occupied by charges each of magnitude 18.2 x 10 -4C.
Ans: | | .
2. A positive charge is at the origin, and a second positive charge
is on the -axis at .
Find ( ) The net electric field at a point on the -axis at
( ) The electric field at a point on the axis at due to the
charges
Ans: ( )
( )
( ) Calculate the angle the resultant field in ( ) above makes with the
-axis.
( ) Sketch the directions of , and in 3( ) on a Cartesian plane.
3. Two point charges, apart, as shown in
the figure below. Determine the electric field intensity at point A and at point
B, using the information provided in the figure. Ans. (i)
⁄ ( ) ⁄ .

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E2

E1

E2
E1

q1 q2

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4.0 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
The electric potential difference between two points in an electric field can be
defined as the work done per unit charge against electrical forces when a charge is
transported from one point to the other. It is measured in Volt ( ) or Joules per
Coulomb ( ). Electric potential difference is a scalar quantity.

q0 E

Consider the diagram above, suppose a test charge is moved from point to
point along an arbitrary path inside an electric field . The electric field exerts a
force on the charge as shown in fig 3.1. To move the test charge from to
at constant velocity, an external force of must act on the charge.
Therefore, the elemental work done is given as:
( )
But
( )
Substituting equation ( ) in ( ) yields
( )
Then total work done in moving the test charge from to is:

( ) ∫ ( )

From the definition of electric potential difference, it follows that:

( )
( )

Putting equation ( ) in ( ) yields

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 ∫ ( )

Example 1: If the electric potential difference between points and is equal to

. Find the work done by an external agent in carrying a charge
from to at a constant speed.
Solution
Given that, ,
Recall that,
( )

( ) ( )

4.1 Change in Potential Energy

We can also define the change in potential energy as equal to the negative of the
work done on the particle by the electric field. Note however that the work done by
the electric field ( ) is equal to the negative of the work done by the
external agent ( ) .
( ) ( )
Since ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Substituting equation ( ) in ( ) yields

But

( ) ( )

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 ( )

Hence, we can then define potential difference as the potential energy per unit
charge.
Example: Find the potential difference required to give a helium nucleus
( ) of kinetic energy.
Solution:
Given that,

From law of conservation of energy, Potential energy (ΔU) = Kinetic energy

ΔU = 7.68 x 10-15J

4.2 Electric Potential due to a Single Point Charge

The electric potential energy in moving a test charge from point to point is
given as:

[ ] ( )

where is the point charge

is the distance of Q to point B
is the distance of Q to point A
Note: Q is the point charge which creates the electric field while q0 is the test charge
which is being moved.

Example: Consider a point A which is 85cm north of a point charge -45x10-3C and a
point B which is 60cm west of the charge. Determine VB – VA.
Solution:

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 Q  45 103 C
Recall that,

[ ]

[ ]

= -1.98 x 108 volts

4.3 Electric Potential due to Several Point Charges
The electric potential (v) at a point p due to several point charges is given by:

∑ ∑ ( )

Where is the value of the th charge and is the distance of this charge from
point .
Example: Four point charges Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4 are placed at the four corners of a
square 3cm on a side. Find the electric potential at the centre of the square. Each
charge has a magnitude of 2.1µc.
Solution
Q4 Q3
r4 r3

r1 r2

Q1 Q2

[ ] ( )

But

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Therefore, [ ] ( )

From the diagram,

( ) ( )
Since

[ ]

EXERCISE
1. Two point charges Q1 = 10µc and Q2 = -2µc are arranged along the x-axis at x
= 0 and x =4m respectively. Find the positions along the x-axis where v = 0.
2. Find the change in electrical potential energy of an electron as it moves from
a distance r1=1.0cm to r2=3.0cm from a point charge of 0.5µc. Ans.

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5.0 CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRIC
Capacitance is the ability of a capacitor to hold or store an electric charge. The more
charge stored for a given voltage, the higher the capacitance, the symbol for
capacitance is C, and it is measured in Farad (F).
5.1 CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a device used in a variety of electric circuits for storing charges. It
consists of an insulator (also called dielectric) between two conductors.

The two conductors are totally isolated from objects in their surroundings and they
carry equal and positive charges +Q and –Q.
If the electrical potential difference between the two conductors is V, it is found that
the charge in a capacitor is proportional to the potential difference between the
conductors, i.e.

where is constant of proportionality called capacitance of the capacitor,

, V is the potential difference between the
conductors
5.2 Determination of Capacitance
(A) PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR

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The figure above shows a parallel plate capacitor with plates of area A separated by
distance d. By Gauss law, the electric flux EA between the capacitor plates is given
as:

( )

( )

( )
Substituting equation ( ) in ( ), we have

( )

( )

Equation ( ) becomes

( )

( )

Equation 6 is the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor where:

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Example 1: A capacitor is desired. What should the area of the plate be if they
are to be separated by air gap?
Solution
Given that, ,
Recall that

Example 2: A parallel-plate capacitor has an area of 2cm2 and a plate separation of

1mm. Find the capacitance.
Solution:
Given that, A = 2cm2 = 2 x 10-4m2
d = 1mm = 1 x 10-3m
From eqn 6,

( )( ⁄ )

(b) Cylindrical Capacitor

A cylindrical capacitor consists of an inner conductor that is a cylinder of radius
and coaxial outer conductor of radius b as shown below in fig 4.3 below. The length
L is as much greater than their separation ( )

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The capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor is given as:

( )
( )

Where is Capacitance, is Length of the capacitor, is radius of the outer

conductor, is radius of the inner conductor

The coaxial cable used from the aerial to a television set can be thought of as a
cylindrical capacitor.

Example 3: A coaxial cable of length consists of a wire of diameter and an

outer shell of diameter . Find the capacitance of the cable.
Solution:

Recall that for cylindrical capacitor

( ) ( )

EXERCISE
1. A parallel plate capacitor has circular plate of 10cm radius and 2mm
separation.
(i) Calculate the capacitance
(ii) What charge will appear on the plates if a potential difference of 200V
is applied? Ans. ( ). C=1.39 x 10-10F, ( ) q = 2.78 x 10-8C
2. The space between the conductors of a long coaxial cable used to transmit TV
signals has an inner diameter and an outer diameter
. What is the capacitance per unit length of this cable? Ans:
⁄ .

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6.0 ELECTRIC CURRENT
6.1 Flow of Electric Charge
The electric current is defined as the net rate of charge flow, or the net charge flow
per unit time. Thus, if a net charge flows through a conductor in time , the
electric current (I) is given by

The unit of current is coulomb per second (C/s) which is called the ampere (A).
When charges flow through a surface, they can be positive, negative or both. It is
conventional to give the current the same direction as the flow of positive
charge. It is common to refer to a moving charge (whether it is positive or negative)
as a mobile charge carrier.
Example 1
The amount of charge that passes through the filament of a certain light bulb in is
. Find (a) the current in the lightbulb and (b) the number of electrons
that pass through the filament in .
Solution

(a)

(b) ⁄
(
( )
( )

6.2 Current and Drift Speed

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The Figure above shows a schematic representation of the zigzag motion of a charge
carrier in a conductor. The sharp edges are due to collisions with atoms in the
conductor.

The figure above shows a section of a uniform conductor of cross-sectional area A.

The charge carriers move with a speed , and the distance they travel in the time
is given by . The number of mobile charge carriers in the section of
length is given by
( )
where is the number of mobile carriers per unit volume. We can write as
( ) ( )

( )

The speed of the charge carriers, is an average speed called the Drift Speed.

6.3 Current density

Current density is the current per unit area of cross section. It is defined as
a vector whose magnitude is the electric current per cross-sectional area at a given
point in space. The unit of current density is amperes per square metre i.e ⁄ .
Thus,

Example 2: A wire of 1mm carries a current of 20A. What is the current density in
the wire?

Page | 31
Solution:

( ) ( )

Example 3: electrons per cm participate in conducting electric current in a

wire. What is the average speed of the electrons when there is a current of in the
wire? Take the charge on an electron as .
Solution: , ….. (*)

( )

( ) ( )

6.4 Potential Difference

The word ‘Potential’ means the electric state of a body. Therefore, potential
difference is the difference between two points or bodies as regards their electric
state. The unit of potential or potential difference is Volt.

6.5 Electromotive Force (e.m.f)

Electromotive force is the force which creates the pressure that causes current to
flow through a conductor and is defined as equal to the potential difference between
the terminals of the cell in an open circuit i.e. when no current is drawn from the
cell. The unit of e.m.f is volt.

Page | 32
6.6 Resistance
Resistance is the property of a conductor due to which it resists the flow of the
current. A good conductor will have low resistance and a poor conductor will have
high resistance. The unit of resistance is Ohm (Ω).

6.7 Ohm’s Law

The Ohm’s law states that the current flowing through a conductor is always
proportional to the potential difference between its ends, provided the physical
conditions (temperature etc) of the conductor are constant. Thus,

where is a constant known as the electrical resistance of the conductor.

6.8 Resistivity
Law of resistance states that, if the temperature of a conductor remains constant, its
resistance is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its area
of cross-section. Thus,

The constant ρ depends on the nature or material of the conductor and is called
resistivity. We have, ⁄ . The unit of resistivity is . If and ,

. Therefore, the specific resistance of a material is the resistance of a material of

unit length and unit area of cross-section.

6.9 Conductance
Conductance of a conductor is a measure of the ease with which the current will
flow through a substance and is reciprocal of the resistance. The conductance is
denoted by .

Page | 33
 ⁄

The unit of conductance is mho.

Example 4: The resistance of a copper wire of 5 meters is 0.5 ohm. If the diameter
of the wire is 0.045cm, determine its specific resistance.
Solution: , ,
( )

Recall, ⁄

6.10 Effect of temperature on resistance

Resistance of all substances is affected by the temperature. In the case of insulators,
the resistance usually decreases with an increase in temperature. However, in the
case of conductors the resistance increases with the increase in temperature.
The resistance of a conductor varies linearly with temperature according to the
approximate expression:
[ ( )]
where is the resistance at a reference temperature , is the temperature in
and is the temperature coefficient of resistance.

Example 5: The resistance of a field coil measures 55ohm at 25 and 65ohm at

75 . Find the temperature coefficient of the conductor at .
Solution:
[ ( )]
[ ( )] ( )
[ ( )] ( )
Dividing equation ( ) by equation ( )

Page | 34
 [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]

Exercise: A copper wire has a resistance of at and at . What is

the resistance at ?
6.11 Electric Energy and Power
Electrical Power is the rate at which energy is transformed. It can also be defined as
the product of potential difference and current and the S.I. unit is watt. i.e.
( )
Using Ohm’s law , equation ( ) can be expressed in the following ways

The total energy used by any appliance is simply its power consumption multiplied
by the time it is on. NEPA usually specify energy with a much larger unit, the
kilowatt-hour.
( )( )
Example 6: The wiring in a house must be thick enough so it does not become so
hot as to start a fire. What diameter must a copper wire be if it is to carry a
maximum current of and produce no more than of heat per meter of
length? Take the resistivity of copper to be .
Solution:

( )

Page | 35
 ⁄
[ ]

⁄
( )( ) ( )( )
[ ]
( )( )

Example 7: The resistivity of seawater is about . The charge carriers are

chiefly and ions, and of each there are about . If we fill a
plastic tube 2 meters long with sea water and connect a battery to the
electrodes at each end, what is the resulting average drift speed of the ions, in cm/s?
Solution: The current in a conductor of cross-sectional area is related to the
drift speed of the charge carriers by:

From Ohm’s law , also

( )( )

( )( )( )( )

6.12 Series and Parallel Connections of Resistors

Fig (a)
Fig (b)

Page | 36
Resistors may be combined in an electric circuit, either in series [as in Fig (a)] or in
parallel [Fig (b)].
For series connection, the following should be noted:
(i) Current (I) is the same in each of the resistors.
(ii) The potential difference (v) across each resistor is different.
(iii) The total p.d. is equal to the sum of the p.d.’s across each of the resistors i.e.
( )
where is the equivalent resistance of the series circuit, i.e.

For parallel connection, the following should be noted:

(i) Current (I) supplied by the cell is partitioned into through each of the
three resistors
(ii) The p.d. across each of the resistor is the same.
(iii) The total current is equal to the sum of the currents across each of the
resistors i.e.

[ ] [ ]

Where is the equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit, i.e.

Example 8: Find the current delivered by the battery in the circuit shown below:

Solution:

Page | 37
 and are in parallel

and are in series

and are in parallel

and are in series

and are in series

( )

Exercise 1: Find the equivalent resistance which can be obtained by combining

three resistors in all possible ways.
Exercise 2: For the circuit shown below
. Calculate (a) the equivalent resistance, and (b) the current
and power delivered by the battery.

Page | 38
7.0 MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
7.1 Magnetism defined
The word magnetism is derived from magnesia, a district in Asia Minor where
magnetic iron ore was first discovered. The magnetic iron ore also known as
magnetite or lodestone, have the property of attracting small pieces of iron and
point in N-S direction when freely suspended. Lodestone is an iron oxide with
configuration Fe3O4.
7.1.1 Angle of declination and Angle of dip
The angle of declination is the angle between the earth’s geographical N-S axis and
the magnetic N-S axis. This varies from place to place on the earth’s surface and it
also varies with time. The angle of dip is the angle which the earth’s magnetic N-S
axis makes with the horizontal.
7.2 Magnetic Field
The field is defined as a region of space under the influence of some physical agency
such as gravitation, magnetism, and electricity. However, the magnet is a material
that has the ability to attract or repel such materials called magnetic substances. The
ability of the magnet to attract is called magnetism.“Magnetic field is the region or
space around a magnet in which the influence of the magnet can be felt or detected”.
7.2.1 Experimental demonstration of the magnetic field
This concept explains that the magnetic field of the magnet is an area around a
magnet in which it can attract or repel objects or which a magnetic force can be
detected or felt. These fields are imaginary lines or cannot be seen, its presence can
be demonstrated and mapped out using a magnetic compass which its needle when
placed near the magnet will swing around and settle in a definite direction showing
that a sort of force is present. However, magnetic field is therefore an example of a
force field and the force is a vector field, that is, such a field has both magnitude and
direction. “Magnetic lines of force are imaginary lines along which a free north pole

Page | 39
would tend to move if placed in the field’. Figure 1.0a features the magnetic field
lines of a bar magnet.

Fig. 7.2: A feature of a bar magnet showing the magnetic field lines
7.3 MAGNETIC FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE
A charge moving in a magnetic field of a magnet experiences a magnetic force. This
force is due to the motion of the charge. Examples of moving charges are:
(i) Electric current in a wire
(ii) Electrons rotating about the nuclei of a (Bohr) atom
(iii) Beam of electrons in a cathode ray tube.
Figure 7.3 shows some examples of moving charges and the magnetic fields they
create. The direction of the field is given by pointing the thumb of the right hand
along the "current" (i.e. the direction of negative charge movement) and then the
fingers curl around the direction of the field.

Fig.7.3: Showing examples of moving charges and the magnetic fields created.

Page | 40
Let us consider now the magnetic force ⃗ on a charge particle moving with a
velocity ⃗⃗⃗⃗in the presence of a magnetic field.
⃗

⃗⃗

⃗⃗

From the diagram, the magnetic force ⃗ is mutually perpendicular to the magnetic
field ⃗⃗and the charge particle velocity ⃗⃗ . Thus, by definition of cross product, we
have
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ (1)
However, the force experienced by the particle charge moving in the magnetic field
is given by
⃗ | | (2)
where is the charge moving with velocity in a field of magnetic induction and
is the angle between the magnetic induction and the direction of the motion of
the particle moving with the velocity .
From equation (2), we see that ⃗ is zero, when ⃗⃗ is parallel or antiparallel to ⃗⃗
(i.e.θ = 00 or 1800) and maximum when ⃗⃗ is perpendicular to ⃗⃗ (θ = 900).

7.3.1 Properties of the magnetic force on a charge Moving in a Magnetic Field

(i) The magnitude of the magnetic force exerted on the particle charge is
proportional to the charge and to the speed of the particle.
(ii) When a charge particle moves parallel to the magnetic field vector, the
magnetic force acting on the particle is zero.

Page | 41
(iii) When the particle velocity vector makes an angle θ ≠ 0 with the magnetic
field, the magnetic force acts in a direction perpendicular both to ⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗
(iv) The magnetic force exerted on a positive charge is in the direction opposite
the direction of the magnetic force exerted on a negative charge moving in the
same direction.
(v) The magnitude of the magnetic force exerted on the moving particle is
proportional to , where θ is the angle the particle velocity vector makes
with the direction of ⃗⃗
Application Problems
1. A charge of enters a magnetic field of flux density
, with a velocity of at an angle of 300 with the
field. Calculate the force on the charge.
Solution
⃗ , , , θ = 300,

⃗ | | (*)
⃗ ( )( )( )

Newton
2. Find the magnetic force experienced by an electron projected into a magnetic
field of flux density 10tesla with a velocity of 5.0 x 10 7m/s and in a direction
(i) 900
(ii) 600
(iii) Parallel to the field
(Assume charge on an electron = 1.6 x 10-19C
Solution
Given : ⃗ , , ,

Page | 42
(i) When θ = 900,
| |
( )( )( )
Newton
(ii) When θ = 600,
( )( )( )

(iii) When V and B are parallel, θ =00

| |

7.4 Motion of a Charge Particle in a Uniform Magnetic Field

A positively charged particle is moving in a uniform magnetic field with the initial
velocity vector of the particle perpendicular to the field, the particle moves in a
circular path in a plane perpendicular to B. The magnetic force acting on the
charge is always directed toward the centre of the circle. As the particle changes the
direction of its velocity in response to the magnetic force, , the magnetic force
remains perpendicular to the velocity.
However, the particle moves in a circle because the magnetic force is
perpendicular to and and has a constant magnitude . The figure below
shows the illustration for the motion of a charged particle in the uniform magnetic
field, the rotation is counterclockwise for a positive (+ve) charge in a magnetic field
directed into the page. If were negative (-ve), the rotation would be clockwise.

Page | 43
The net force experienced by the charge particle, by Newton second law is

∑ ( )

Because the motion of the charge particle is a uniform circular motion, we replace

the acceleration with centripetal acceleration .

( )

This expression leads to the following equation for the radius of the circular path

( )

The indication of the equation (3) is that the radius of the path is proportional to the
linear momentum ‘ ’ of the particle and inversely proportional to the product of
the charge on the particle and the magnetic field. The angular speed of the particle is

( )

The period of the motion (the time interval the particle requires to complete one
revolution) is equal to the circumference of the circle divided by the speed of the
particle.

( )

The angular speed is often referred to as the cyclotron frequency because the
charge particle circulates at this angular frequency or angular speed in the type of
accelerator called cyclotron.
Application Example
(1) A proton is moving in a circular orbit of radius 14.0cm in a uniform 0.35tesla
magnetic field perpendicular to the velocity of the proton. Find the speed of
the proton. (take the mass of proton =1.67 x 10-27kg)

Page | 44
Solution:

Since the proton moves in a circular orbit, therefore equation (3) becomes,

( )( )

Hence, the angular speed is

( )

Exercise
An electron with a rest mass of 9.11 x 10 -31kg moves in a circular orbit of radius 1.4
x 10 -7 m in a uniform magnetic field of 3.5 x 10 -1 tesla, perpendicular to the speed of
light with which electron moves. Find the cyclotron frequency of the moving
electron.

Page | 45
8.0 THE BIOT – SAVART LAW
8.1 The Biot-Savart Law is based on the following observations for the magnetic
field ⃗⃗ at a point associated with a length element ̂ of a wire carrying a
steady current . See figure 8.1.

⃗⃗ ( )
̂

Fig 8.1: Descriptive components for the Biot- Savart Experiment

8.1.1 Observations from the Biot- Savart Experiment

1. The vector ⃗⃗ is perpendicular both to ̂ (which points in the direction of the

current) and to the unit vector ̂ directed from ⃗toward .

2. The magnitude of ⃗⃗ is inversely proportional to , where is the distance from
⃗ to .

3. The magnitude of ⃗⃗ is proportional to the current I and to the magnitude of the

length element ⃗.
4. The magnitude of ⃗⃗ is proportional to , where is the angle between ̂ and
.
These observations are summarized in the mathematical expression known as Biot-
savart Law.
⃗ ̂
⃗⃗ ( )

where is a constant called Permeability of free space.

Page | 46
Note: the magnetic field ⃗⃗ defined in equation (1) is the field created at some point
by the current in only a small length ⃗ of the conductor.
Therefore, the total magnetic field ⃗⃗created at some point by a current I of the finite
size is given by integrating equation(1) , thus;
⃗ ̂
⃗⃗ ∫ ( )

The magnitude of the magnetic field is given as

∫ ( )

Although the Biot – Savart law was discussed for a current-carrying wire, it is also
valid for a current consisting of charge flowing through space such as the electron
beam in a television picture tube.

8.1.2 Magnetic Field of a Straight Current Carrying Conductor

Fig 1: A section of a Straight Current Carrying Conductor

Applying the Biot-Savart law, we find the magnitude of the field ⃗⃗

( )
( )
∫

From diagram, ( )

Page | 47
 ( )
∫ ( )

( ) ( )
√ ( ) ⁄

Substituting ( ) into ( ), we have

∫
( )( )

∫
( )
Recall

∫
( ) ⁄

∫ ( )
( )
Using special integrals:

∫
( ) ( )
Equation ( ) therefore becomes

[ ]
( ) ⁄

( )
( ) ⁄

( )
( ) ⁄

When the length of the conductor is very great in comparison to its distance
from point P, we consider it infinitely long. That is, when is much largerthan ,
( )

Page | 48
In a physical situation, we have axial symmetry about the y- axis. Thus, at all points
in a circle of radius , around the conductor, the magnitude of B is

( )

Equation ( ) defines the magnitude of the magnetic field of flux density B near a
long, straight current carrying conductor.
Application Problem
A long straight conductor carries a 1.0A current. At what distance from the axis of
the conductor does the resulting magnetic field have magnitude
?(About that of the earth’s magnetic field in Pittsburgh).
Solution

( )

The distance from the axis of the conductor is equal to the radius. Therefore,
equation (1) becomes:

( )

Note: For a semi-infinite straight wire, the magnetic field at P (see figure 1) due to
either the lower half of the upper half of the infinite wire is half the value in
equation (10).

( ) ( )

Page | 49
9.0 AMPERE’S LAW
Ampere’s law states that “the line integral (of the vector of magnetic field) ⃗⃗
around any closed path equals times the net current through the area
enclosed by the path”.Thus,

∮ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ( )

The circle on the integral sign indicates that this integral is always computed for a
closed path, one whose beginning and end points are the same.
9.1 Right Hand Rule for Ampere’s law
The right hand rule for Ampere’s Law is used to determine the signs for currents
encircled by an amperian loop. The situation is illustrated in the figure below.

The rule states that: when you curl your right hand around the amperian loop, with
the fingers pointing in the direction of integration, a current through the loop in the
general direction of your outstretched thumb is assigned a plus sign, and a current
generally in the opposite direction is assigned a minus sign.

The ampere’s equation for the figure above can then be written as

Page | 50
 ∮ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ( ) ( )

9.2 Applications of Ampere’s Law

(1) The Magnetic Field outside a long straight Conductor

⃗⃗

above shows a long straight wire that carries current directly out of page.
The magnetic field lines are circles centered on the conductor. If we integrate
counterclockwise, so that ⃗ has the direction as shown in the figure, we can write
the L.H.S of Ampere’s Law as

∮ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ∮ ( )

( ⃗⃗ ⃗ )

∮ ∮ ∮ ( ) ( )

Note that ∮ above is the summation of all the line segment lengths around the
circular loop, that is, it simply gives the circumference of the loop.

( )

( )

Equation (5) is the same as equation ( ).

Page | 51
 ⃗⃗

If we integrate in clockwise manner such that ⃗⃗ and ⃗ are anti parallel, the L.H.S of
Ampere’s Law becomes

∮ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ∮ ∮ ∮

∮ ( )

( )

( )

We obtain the same result with negative value which shows that the direction of the
current is reversed
(2) Magnetic Field inside a long, straight wire with current

⃗⃗

Page | 52
The figure above shows the cross-section of a long straight wire of radius that
carries a uniformly distributed current directly out of the page. Because the
current is uniformly distributed over a cross section of the wire, the magnetic field
produced by the current must be cylindrically symmetrical.
Thus, to find the magnetic field at points inside the wire, we can use an Amperian
loop of radius as shown in the figure, where . The symmetry shows that is
tangent to the loop. Therefore from ampere’s law, the LHS of the law yields

∮ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ∮ ( ) ( )

to find the RHS of the ampere's law,

The current density is the current per unit area, that is

( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

Recall Ampere's law

∮ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ( )

Substituting equation ( ) and equation ( ) into equation ( ), we have

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

Equation (6) shows that the magnitude of th magnetic field is proportional to .

Example Problem

Page | 53
Figure (a) shows the cross section of a long conducting cylinder with inner radius
and outer radius . The cylinder carries a current out of the
page, and the magnitude of the current density in the cross section is given by
, with and in meters. What is the magnetic field ⃗⃗ at
a point that is from the central axis of the cylinder.

Discussion
(1) The point at which we want to evaluate ⃗⃗ is inside the material of the
conducting cylinder.
(2) The current distribution has cylindrical symmetry. (i.e) it is the same all
around the cross section for any given radius.
(3) The symmetry allows us to use ampere’s law to find ⃗⃗at the point.

Calculations
We integrate the current density magnitude from the cylinder’s inner radius a to the
loop radius

∫ ∫ ( )

∫ [ ] ( )

[ ] ( )

Page | 54
 ( )

( ) ( )

∮ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ( )

( ) ( )
( )
We note that is negative because the current is directed out of the page which
does not conform to the arbitrarily chosen direction of amperian loop by right hand
rule.

( ) ( ) ( )

( )

( ⁄ )( ⁄ )
[( ) ( ) ]
( )

Thus, the magnetic field ⃗⃗ at a point from the central axis has the magnitude

Page | 55
10.0 INDUCTION AND INDUCTANCE
10.1 Magnetic flux
The magnetic flux is defined as the strength of magnetic field represented by lines of
force. It is usually represented by the symbol ɸ.

Considering an element of area on an arbitrary shaped surface, if the magnitude

of the magnetic field at this element is , the magnetic flux through the element is
⃗⃗ ⃗ ( )
where ⃗ is a vector that is perpendicular to the surface and has a magnitude equal
to the area . Hence, the total magnetic flux ɸ through the surface is

∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ( )

Equation ( ) defines the magnetic flux through a plane lying in a magnetic field for
which an arbitrary shaped surface is considered. See figure 1 below.

⃗ ⃗⃗

Figure 1

Equation ( ) is a special case, suppose that the loop lies is an arbitrary shaped
surface (see figure 1) and that the magnetic field ⃗⃗ makes an angle with area
element perpendicular to the place. Therefore, the dot product in equation ( )
becomes:

B ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ( )

However, If the magnetic flux through a place lying in a magnetic field is to be

determined, therefore we consider the following cases: -

Page | 56
Case 1
If the magnetic field is parallel to the plane see figure 2 below, therefore
and the flux is zero i.e. from equation (3)
B

⃗⃗
⃗

The flux through the plane is zero when magnetic field is parallel to the plane
surface.

Case 2
If the magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane, i.e see figure 3 below
therefore, the flux in maximum valued i.e. from equation 2.
B

B ( )

In equation 4, the magnetic flux is maximum.

⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

The flux through the plane is maximum when the magnetic field is perpendicular to
the plane.

Page | 57
10.2 Faraday’s law of induction
Faraday’s law of induction states that “the electromotive force (e.m.f) induced in
a coil of wire is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linking the
coil”.

Thus, we interpreted the statement of the law to the relations

( )

( )

However, if the circuit is a coil consisting of loops all of the same area and if is
the flux through one loop an e.m.f is induced in every loop; thus; the total induced
e.m.f in the coil is given by the expression.

( )

Recall that:
B

Suppose that a conducting loop enclosing an area lies in a uniform magnetic field
, the magnetic flux through the loop is equal to B encloses an area
in the presence of a uniform magnetic field . The angle between and the normal
to the loop is . Thus, the induced emf can be expressed as
( )
( )

10.2.1 Application of Faraday’s Law

A practical application of the Faraday’s law is the production of sound in an electric
guitar. The coil in this case called the pickup coil is placed near the vibrating guitar
string which is made of a metal that can be magnetized. A permanent magnet inside

Page | 58
the coil magnetizes the Profurn of the string nearest the coil. When the string
vibrates at some frequency, its magnetized segment produces a changing magnetic
flux through the coil. The changing flux induces as emf in the coil that is fed to an
amplifier. The output of the amplifier is sent to the loudspeakers, which produces
the sound waves we hear.
Quiz
“Explain a practical application of the Faraday’s Law in the production of sound in
an electric guitar”.

Example Problem
A coil consists of of wire having a total resistance of . Each turn is a
square of side , and a uniform magnetic field directed perpendicular to the
plane of the coils is turned on. If the field changes linearly from 0 to in 0.8s,
( ) What is the magnitude of the induced emf in the coil while the field is changing?
( ) What is the magnitude of the induced current in the coil while the field is
changing?
Solution:
The magnetic flux through the coil at t = 0 is zero because B = 0 at the time.

| |

| |

( ( ) ( )
)
| |

The magnetic flux through the coil at t = 0.85 in

(Since the uniform field in directed bar (perpendicular to the plane of the coil).

Page | 59
EXERCISES

A loop of wire enclosing an area A is placed in a region where the magnetic field is
perpendicular to the plane of the loop. The magnetic of B varies in the time
according to the expression B = Bmaxe-at where a is some constant. That is, at t = 0,
the field is max, and for t >0, the field decreases exponentially. Obtain the e.m.f
induced in the loop.

Solution

( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( )

( )

Therefore,

( )

The expression of equation (5) indicates that the induced emf decays exponentially
with time. Note that the maximum e.m.f occurs at , where .

Page | 60
 Department of Mathematical and Physical Sciences

Course Title: Electricity, Magnetism and Modern Physics

Course Code: PHY 102
Session: 2013/14 Time Allowed: 2hrs

Instruction: Answer Four (4) Questions in All - two from Section A and two from section B.

Section A
1. (a) Explain with the aid of a diagram how you can produce a negatively charged
sphere by method of induction.
(b) Each of two small spheres is charged positively, the combined charge being
If each sphere is repelled from the other by a force of 1.0N when
the spheres are 2.0m apart, calculate the charge on each sphere.
(c) Three charges were positioned as shown in the figure below. If
and , determine if the electric field at is zero.

2. (a) Distinguish between the terms: electric field and electric field intensity.
(b) A positive charge is at the origin, and a second positive charge
is on the axis at . Find
(i) the net electric field at a point P on the axis at .
(ii) the electric field at a point Q on the axis at due to the charges.

3 (a) State the formulation of the following identities of charges:

(i) Volume Charge density (ii) Surface Charge density (iii) Linear Charge density
(b) Explain with appropriate equations, the electric potential difference
(c) Two point charges Q1 = 10µc and Q2 = 2µc are arranged along the x-axis at
x = 0 and x=4m respectively. Find the position along the x-axis where v = 0.

Page | 61
Section B
Instruction: answer any two questions

4 (a) What is Magnetic flux?

(b) An electron with a rest mass of 9.11 x 10 -31kg moves in a circular orbit of radius
in a uniform magnetic field of 3.5 x 10 -1 Weber/meter square,
perpendicular to the speed with which electron moves. Find the cyclotron frequency of
the moving electron.
(c) Discuss your answer in 4b above.

5. (a) State the Biot-Savart Law.

(b) Using the Biot-Savart Law, show that the magnitude of the magnetic field of a
straight current-carrying conductor is given as

6. (a) Explain the practical application of Faraday’s Law in the production of sound
in an electric guitar.
(b) A coil consists of 300 turns of wire having a total resistance of . Each turn is
a square of side , and a uniform magnetic field directed perpendicular to the
plane of the coil is turned on. If the field changes linearly from to in
,
(i) What is the magnitude of the induced emf in the coil while the field is
changing?
(ii) What is the magnitude of the induced current in the coil while the
field is changing?
(c) The plane of a rectangular coil of dimensions by is perpendicular to the
direction of a magnetic field . If the coil has and a total resistance of
, at what rate must the magnitude of the change in order to induce a current
of in the windings of the coil?

Page | 62
 PHY 102 NOTE STUDY GUIDE/TUTORIAL

Definitions and Statements

(1) What is an electric charge?
(2) State five (5) properties of an electric charge.
(3) State the Coulomb’s law.
(4) State the similarities and differences between electrostatic force and gravitational force.
(5) State the superposition principle.
(6) Distinguish between the terms: electric field and electric field intensity.
(7) What is electric potential difference?
(8) Define the following terms
a. Capacitance
b. Resistance
c. Potential difference
d. Electromotive force
e. Specific resistance
f. Conductance of a conductor
g. Current density.

Sample answering strategy and marking guide

Question 3:
The Coulomb’s Law states that the attractive or repulsive force between two charges
and is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges and
inversely proportional to the square of their distance apart. ( )

Mathematically,
( )
where,

( )

Question 8(g)
Current density is the current per unit area of cross-section ( )
Mathematically, ( )
The unit is Ampere per square meter ( )( )

Page | 63
PART 2

1. A coaxial cable of length 2m consists of a wire of diameter 1mm. If the capacitance of

the cable is 101.2pF, obtain the diameter of the outer shell.
2. Five point charges are placed at the edges of a regular sided pentagon shown below. A
side of the pentagon is 4cm. If the magnitude of each point charge is 2.2 , find the
electric potential at the centre of the pentagon.

Clue: each triangle in the polygon is an isosceles triangle.

3. Prove that the electric potential difference between a point A and point B in an electric
field is
∫
4. (a) Three charges are arranged as shown below.

Determine the electrostatic force between charges

(i) and
(ii) and
(iii) and
Take
(b) Three charges were positioned as shown in the figure below. If
and , determine if the charge at is zero.

Page | 64

d
5.
⃗⃗

(a) State the Biot-Savart Law.

(b) By applying the Biot-Savart Law, show that the magnitude of the magnetic field
of a straight current carrying conductor above is

6. (a) Distinguish between the terms: electric field and electric field intensity.
(b) A positive charge is at the origin, and a second positive charge
is on the axis at . Find
(iii) the net electric field at a point P on the axis at .
(iv) the electric field at a point Q on the axis at due to the charges.
(v) the angle the resultant electric field in (ii) makes with the -axis.

Page | 65