1.0 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MATHEMATICAL LOGIC.

1.1 Definition.

Logic can be described as the art of reasoning. From day to day,

human being applies the art of reasoning in taking major
decisions affecting his /her life. This is in fact why human beings
are different from animals. All government actions, decrees,
laws,and pronouncements are formulated as a result of certain
reasoning. We shall consider only a part of logic which enables us
to reduce reasoning to an algebra which have fixed and simple
rules.

Consider the following statements:

A man born and bred in Uyo claims he is a native of Lagos State

of Nigeria. Therefore, Uyo is in Lagos State of Nigeria.

The arguments presented in the above two statements are valid ,

but the conclusion is not correct. The fact that the man was born
and bred in Uyo does not make him a native of Uyo. His parents
might have migrated to Uyo and lived there a long time ago. So
the conclusion is based on the wrong premise that a man born
and bred in a town is a native of that town. Certainly, this is
generally not the case. A valid argument in which the conclusion
is absurd reveals falsehood in one or other of the premises on
which the conclusion is based.

Let us consider another argument:

1) Lagos is the largest city in Nigeria.

2) The Federal Government of Nigeria is based in its
largest city.
3) Therefore, Lagos is the capital city of Nigeria.
 The statements (1) and (2) are usually described as
premises or hypothesis, and (3) is the conclusion.

In this case conclusion follows from the argument and conclusion

is different from the question of whether an argument is valid. We
shall be concerned especially with valid reasoning, that is,
correctly drawing a conclusion from the given premises.

Proposition: A proposition is a statement which is either true or

false, but not both. The truthfulness or falsity of statement is
called its truth value. We assign either the truth value T when
the proposition is true and the truth value F when it is false. Some
statements are composite, that is, composed of sub statements
and various connectives. We shall use the letters a,b,c,d,
…,p,q,r,s,… to denote propositions and call them propositional
variables.

Example 1: The following statements are propositions.

a) All triangles are congruent.

b) All men are mad.
b) 50 is greater than 120.
c) All scientists are mathematicians.
d) Maritime Academy of Nigeria is located at Eket.
e) University of Ibadan is situated at Oron.

Example 2: The following statements are not propositions.

a) What a beautiful lady she is!

b) Two lovely kids of John!
c) It is sensational!
d) Where are you going?
e) Do you know her?
Example 3: “Roses are red and violets are blue”, is a composite
statement with

Sub statements “Roses are red” and “violets are

blue”.

Example 4: “Peter is sick or old”, is a composite statement with

sub statements

“Peter is sick and “Peter is old”.

The mathematical (logical) equivalence of these conjunctions are

called connectives.

1.2 Connectives and Combinations of Propositions.

Suppose p and q are two given propositions. It is possible to form

another proposition by joining the two propositions. If we consider
the equivalent statements of ‘p and q’, they are joined by the
grammatical conjunctions such as ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘if…then’, ’if and
only if’, etc.

Example:

Let p be the proposition ‘she is good in chemistry’ and q be

the proposition ‘she is good in physics’.

p and q means she is good in chemistry and physics.

p or q means she is good either in chemistry or physics.

If p then q means if she is good in chemistry then she is also

good in physics.

p if and only if q means if she is good in chemistry then she is

good in physics

and if she is good in physics then she is good in chemistry.

Let p and q be two propositions. We can combine the values into
a single table know as Truth Table as shown below:

P Q

T T

T F

F T

F F

a) Conjunction, p q
When simple propositions are combined, they form
compound propositions and they may also be true or false
but not both. The conjunction of the two statements p and q
is denoted by p q.
The truth value of the composite statement p q satisfies the
following property:
If p is true and q is true , then p q is true ; otherwise p q is
false.
That is,
p q is true when p is true , q is true.
p q is false when:
(i) p is true , q is false
(ii) p is false , q is true
(iii) p is false , q is false

In other words, the conjunction of two statements is true

only if each component is true.
We can represent this on a truth table as shown below:

P q p q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

Let us consider the following example: let p=’he is good in

mathematics ‘ and q=’he is good in physics’ .

‘p and q’ in words, means ‘he is good in mathematics and in

physics’ .

Now suppose ‘p and q’ is true. Clearly, this can only happen if he

is good in mathematics, that is , p is true and good in physics,
that is q is true.

Therefore, ‘p and q’ is true when p is true, q is true. Suppose ‘p

and q’ is false. Clearly this can happen if he is not good in any one
of the subjects.

Therefore, ‘p and q’ is false when:

(i) p is true , q is false ,

(ii) p is false , q is true ,
(iii) p is false , q is false.

b) Disjunction, p q
Given two propositions p, q it is possible to form a new
proposition by joining them with the word ‘or’ instead of
‘and’.
 For example, let p=’he is good in mathematics’ and ‘q=’he
is good in physics’. Therefore, p or q=’he is good in
mathematics or in physics’.
Therefore, given two propositions p, q, we define the
disjunction of p and q to be the proposition , either p or q or
both.
The disjunction of statements p and q is denoted by p q .
Example: Let p be “she studied English at the University.”
and let q be “she lived in England”.
The truth value of the compound statement p q satisfies
the following property:
If p is true or q is true or both p and q are true , then p q is
true; otherwise, p q is false. That is, the proposition p q is
false iff the propositions p, q are both false. In other
words ,the disjunction of two statements is false only if each
component is false.
We can represent this on a truth table as shown below.

p q p q

T
T T

T F T

F T T

F
F F

From this general rule it follows that if at least one of p, q is

true, then p q is true.
 Example: Consider the following four statements:
(1) Paris is in France or 3+3=7
(2) Paris is in England or 3+3=6
(3) Paris is in France or 3+3=6
(4) Paris is in England or 3+3=7.

Only (4) is false. Each of the other statements is true

since at least one of its components is true.

c) Negation , ~p
Given any statement p, another statement , called the
negation of p, can be formed by writing “It is false that …”
before p or , if possible , by inserting in p the word “not”. The
negation of p is denoted by ~p.
The truth value of the negation of a statement satisfies the
following property:
If p is true then ~p is false; if p is false, then ~p is true.
In other words , the truth value of the negation of a
statement is always the opposite of the truth value of the
original statement.
We can represent this on a truth table as shown below.

P ~p

T F

F T

Find the value of ~ (p q)

 P Q p q ~ (p q)

T T T F

T F F T

F T F T

F F F T

Implication (Conditional) and Bi-Implication (Bi-

Conditional).

Implication , ( or Conditional )

Given two propositions p , q , we write the conditional or

implication of p,q as and define it to be the proposition, ‘if p

then q’. The proposition is determined by its truth table as

shown below:

P Q

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T
There are alternative ways of expressing the proposition ‘ ’

in words. means

(i) if p then q

(ii) p is sufficient for q

(iii) q is necessary for p

(iv) p only if q

(v) q if p

(vi) p implies q

(vii) q follows from p

Example: Consider the following statements;

(i) If Paris is in France then 3+3=7

(ii) If Paris is in England then 3+3=6

(iii) If Paris is in France then 3+3=6

(iv) If Paris is in England then 3+3=7

Therefore, only (i) is a false statement; (ii), (iii) and (iv) are
true statements.

Bi-implication, p↔q ( or Bi-conditional)

Given two propositions p and q , we write the bi-conditional of p ,

q as p↔q and define it to be the proposition, ‘p if and only if q’.
 It is defined by the following truth table:

P Q p↔q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F T

The truth value of the bi-conditional statement p↔q satisfies the

following property:

If p and q have the same truth value , then p↔q is true; if p and q
have opposite truth values , then p↔q is false.

There are alternative ways of expressing the proposition ‘p↔q’

in words. p↔q means

(i) p is equivalent to q
(ii) q is equivalent to p
(iii) if p then q, and if q then p
(iv) If p then q, and conversely
(v) If q then p ,and conversely
(vi) p is necessary and sufficient for q
(vii) q is necessary and sufficient for p
(viii) q if and only if p.

Example: Consider the following statements;

(i) Paris is in France if and only if 3+3=7

(ii) Paris is in England if and only if 3+3=6
(iii) Paris is in France if and only if 3+3=6
(iv) Paris is in England if and only if 3+3=7
Therefore, (iii) and (iv) are true , (i) and (ii) are false.
1.3 Grouping and Parenthesis

Equality of Propositions.

Two propositions are equal if they have the same truth values. To
prove equality of two propositions the general method is to
construct their truth tables.

Example

Let p and q be two propositions. Is ~ (p q)= (~p) (~q) ?

Solution:

P Q p q ~ (p
q)

T T T F

T F F T

F T F T

F F F T

P Q ~p ~q ~p ~
q

T T F F F

T F F T T

F T T F T

F F T T T
 From the tables we see that ~ (p q) and (~p) (~q) have
identical truth values possible ways of assigning truth
values to p and q. Therefore we say that the propositions are
the same and so ~ (p q)= (~p) (~q).

Example : If p, q and r are any three propositions. Show

that
(i) p
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Solution: (i)

P Q R q r p (q r)

T T T T T

T T F T T

T F T T T

T F F F T

F T T T T

F T F T T

F F T T T

F F F F F
P Q R p q (p q) r

T T T T T

T T F T T

T F T T T

T F F T T

F T T T T

F T F T T

F F T F T

F F F F F

From the last two columns in each table it follows that p

.

Solution: (iii)

P Q r q r p (q r)

T T T T T

T T F F T

T F T F T

T F F F T

F T T T T

F T F F F

F F T F F

F F F F F
P q R p q p r (p q) (p
r)

T T T T T T

T T F T T T

T F T T T T

T F F T T T

F T T T T T

F T F T F F

F F T F T F

F F F F F F

that
By comparison of the last columns in each table it follows

Note: Students should try to verify (ii) and (iv).

Example: Show that p↔q =(p→q) (q→p).

Solution:

p q p→q q→p (p→q) (q↔p)

(q→p)

T T T T T T

T F F T F F

F T T F F F

F F T T T T
 From the table , p↔q =(p→q) (q→p).

1.5 Tautology.

A proposition which is always true no matter what

truth values are assigned to its component propositions is called a
Tautology.

Examples:

(i) The proposition “p or not p”, i.e. p ~p , is a tautology.

This fact is verified by constructing a truth table.

P ~p p ~p

T F T

F T T

1.6 Contradiction

A proposition which is always false no matter what truth values

are assigned to its component propositions is called a
Contradiction.

(ii) The proposition “p and not p”, i.e. p ~p, is a

contradiction. This fact is verified by the following table.

P ~p p ~p

T F F

F T F
1.7 Quantifiers

Propositional functions and truth sets

Let a set A be given , explicitly or implicitly. A

propositionalfunction or , simply , an open sentence (or condition)
on A is an expression denoted by p(x) , which has the property
that p(a) is true or false for each a є A.

In other words , p(x) is a propositional function on A if p(x)

becomes a statement whenever any element a є A is substituted
for the variable x.

Example 1:

Let p(x) be “x+3>8”. Then p(x) is a propositional function on N ,

the set of natural numbers.

Example 2:

Let p(x) be “x+3>8”. Then p(x) is not a propositional function on

∀ complex numbers.
C, the set of complex numbers, since inequalities are not defined

set of elements a ∈ A with the property that p(a) is true is called

Moreover , if p(x) is a propositional function on a set A, then the

the truth set (Tp) of p(x). In other words , T p={ x/ x ∈ A, p(x) is

true } or, simply, TP={x/ p(x)}.

Example 3: Consider the propositional function “x+3>8”

defined on N, the set of natural numbers. Then

{ x/ x ∈ N ,x+3>8} = {6,7,8,9,…} is its truth

set.
is {x /x ∈N ,x+5<3}=∅, the empty set.
Example 4: Let p(x) be “x+5<3”. Then the truth set of p(x) on N

Example 5: Let p(x) be “x+4>1”. Then the truth set of p(x) on N

is {x / x+4>1}=N.

Notice, by the preceding examples, that if p(x) is a

true ∀ x ϵA, for some x ∈A or for no x ∈A.

propositional function defined on a set A then p(x) could be

Universal and Existential Quantifier

or ∀x p(x) or ∀x, p(x)

Universal Quantifier. Let p(x) be a proportional function on a
set A. Then (∀ x∈ A)p(x)
(1)

is a statement which reads “For every element x in A, p(x) is a

true statement”, or ,simply, “For all x, p(x)”.

The symbol ∀ which reads “for all” or “for every” is called the
Universal quantifier.

Notice that (1) is equivalent to the set-theoretic statement that

the truth set of p(x) is the entire set A, that is ,

T p={x/ x ∈ A, p(x)}=A
(2)

Existential Quantifier.

Let p(x) be a propositional function on a set A.

Then (∃ x ∈A)p(x) or ∃x p(x) or ∃ x p(x) (1)

is a proposition which reads “There exists an x ∈ A such that p(x)

∃,which reads “there exists” or “for some” or “for at least one” is

is a true statement “ or, simply, “For some x, p(x)”. The symbol,

called the Existential quantifier.

the truth set of p(x) is not empty, that is, Tp={x/x ∈ A, p(x)}≠∅.
Notice that (1) is equivalent to the set-theoretic statement that

Hence,

If {x/p(x)}≠∅, then ∃ x p(x) is true; if {x/p(x)}=∅, then ∃x p(x) is

false.

1.8 Translating Sentences Into Symbolic Form

mortal” can be written as (∀x ∈ M)(x is mortal).

Example 1: Let M denote the set of men. Then “All men are

not have a truth value. But p(x) with the quantifier ∀ in front of it,
Note that p(x), by itself, is an open sentence and therefore does

that is, ∀x p(x) is a statement and does have a truth value. In

view of the equivalence of statements (1) and (2), we state:

If {x/x ∈ A, P(x)}=A , then ∀x p(x) is true; if {x/x ∈ A, p(x)}≠A ,

then ∀x p(x) is false.

Example 2: The proposition (∀n ∈ N)(n+4>3), where N is the set

of natural numbers, is true since

{n/n+4>3}={1,2,3,4,5,…}=N.

Example 3: The proposition ∀n(n+2>8) is false since

{n/n+2>8}={7,8,9,…}≠N.

Example 1: The statement (∃ n ∈ N)(n+4<7) is true since

{n/n+4<7}={1,2}≠∅.

Example 2:The proposition ∃n(n+6<4) is false since

{n/n+6<4}=∅.
EVALUATION QUESTIONS

1. Find the values of p ~q, (~p) q , (~p) (~q), ~(~p q)and

~(p ~q).
2. (i) Draw the truth tables for the statements p q and
(p→q) q.
(ii) What conclusion can you draw from the truth tables you
have drawn? Give a reason for your answer.
3. Show that the proposition {(p q) (p ~q)} ~p is always
true , i.e. is equal to T.
4. Complete the following truth tables for the given logical
statements:

P Q p→q ~p→~
q

T T

T F

F T

F F

Hence determine whether or not the logical statement

‘p→q’ is equivalent to ‘~p→~q’.

HOMEWORK

1. Show that p q=q p.

2. Show that the compound propositions p→q, ~(p
~q ) and (~p q) are all equivalent.
3. Show that the proposition [(p→q) (q→r)]→(p→r) is a
tautology.
4. By constructing a truth table shows that (p q) (~p
~q) is a contradiction.
 Lecturer signature Date

Approved by Head Department Date

2.0 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

2.1 DEFINITION OF PERMUTATIONS

Permutations or (Arrangement): If we have n different objects, we

can arrange them in different orders of selection. Each different
ordered arrangement is called a PERMUTATION. (i.e. order is
important in permutation). Permutation can also be said to be an
arrangement of all or parts of a set of object with attention given
to the order of arrangement.

FACTORIALS (!)

n! means factorial n, which is equal to

i.e., n! =

e.g. 5! = 5x4x3x2x1 = 120

8! = 8x7x6x5x4x3x2x1 = 40320

10! = 10x9x8x7x6x5x4x3x2x1 = 3628800

2.2 Example

Permutations of the three letters a, b, c taken together are abc,

bac, bca, cab, cba and we say 3P3 = 3x2x1 = 6.
The upper 3 denotes the number of items from which the
arrangements are made while the lower 3 indicates the number of
items we are using in each arrangement.

Also, taking the same three letters a, b, c two at a time, we can

form the permutations ab, ba, ac, ca, bc, cb and we say 3P2 = 3x2
= 6.

2.3 Principle of Permutation

In general, if there are A ways of doing one operation and B ways

of doing a second operation, then there are A x B ways of doing
both (one after the other). The principle can be extended for more
than two operations.

2.4 Derivation of formula

Note that to find , i.e. the number of permutations of n different

objects or items taking r at a time is given by

To establish theorem (1), we proceed as follows

Of the r positions in each ordered arrangement,

The first place can be filled in n different ways,

The second place can be filled in (n-1) different ways,

The third place can be filled in (n-2) different ways,

The 4th place can be filled in (n-3) different ways,

The rth place can be filled in (n – r + 1) different ways.

Therefore, the r places can be filled in

n (n-1) (n-2) (n-3) … (n – r + 1) different ways

i.e. (∗)

If r≠n, we can multiply and divide (∗) by

(n-r) (n – r - 1) ….. 3 x 2 x 1

Then

N.B:

For example, , n = 3, r = 3

Also, , n=10 , r=4

∴
Example: In how many ways can five different books be arranged
in order?

Solution: n = 5, r = 5

(2) Find the number of possible permutations of the letter of the

word NOTABLE.

Solution:

The word NOTABLE has 7 letters, i.e. n=7, r=7.

(3) There are six seats in a railway carriage. In how many

different ways can four people occupy them?

Solution:

n=6, r=4

In general, to find , i.e. the number of combinations or

selections of n different items taken r at a time is given by

2.5 Definition of Combinations (or selections)

The arrangements of objects in any order is called combinations.
Let us consider three letters a, b, c, we now make selections
without regard to the order of the letters in each group, i.e., ab is
now the same as ba, etc. Each group is called a combination, and
n
Cr, where n is the total number of items and r is the number in
each selection, gives the number of possible combinations.

2.6 Derivation of Formula

From the derivation of permutation formula in 2.4 above we have

By the definition of Combination, n

C r= n
Pr ÷r. Therefore,

i.e.

2.7 Solution of Problems in Permutation.

Examples:

(1) In how many ways can five different books be arranged in

order?

Solution:
 = 5x4x3x2x1 = 120 ways

(2) In how many ways can seven different objects be placed in a

line?

Solution:

= 7x6x5x4x3x2x1 = 5040

(3) In how many ways can the 1 st, 2nd and 3rd prices be awarded
in a class of 20?

Solution:

= 20x19x18 = 6840

(5) An examination paper has six questions but only four are to
be answered. In how many different ways can the answers be
arranged?

Solution:

= 6x5x4x3 = 30x12 = 360

(5) Find the total number of different arrangements using any

three letters of the word CHEMISTRY.

Solution:

Chemistry has 9 letters

∴ the number of permutations using any three letters of the
word chemistry will be 9p3

= 9x8x7 = 504

(6) How many four digit numbers can be formed using the digits
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (no digit being repeated)?

Solution:

5
P4 = 5x4x3x2 = 120

Examples:

(1) What are the values of 3!, 4!, 6! ?

Solution:

3 ! = 3x2x1 = 6

4 ! = 4x3x2x1 = 24

6 ! = 6x5x4x3x2x1 = 720

(2) Find the value of

Solution:

= 12×11×10=1320.

(3) Find the value of

Solution:

2.8 Solution of Problems in Combination

Examples:

(1) In how many ways can four boys be chosen from six boys?

Solution:

6
The number of permutations of 4 boys from 6 boys is P4 =
6x5x4x3=360

∴ the number of selections (i.e. combinations),

(2) (a) A committee of two men and three women is to be

chosen from five men and four women. How many

different committees can be formed?

(b) If one of the women refuses to serve on the same committee

as a particular man, how many committees are now
possible?
Solution:

(a) The two men can be selected in

The three women can be selected in

∴ Each of the 10 ways of choosing the men can be taken with

each of the 4 ways of choosing the women.

Therefore there are 10 x 4 = 40 possible committees.

(b) First find the number of committees which will include both
this particular man and woman. We select, therefore, one
more man from the 4 others (4 choices) and two more
women from the remaining 3 (3C2 choices).

Hence, the number of committees having both the particular man

and woman is .

Out of the 40 possible committees then, 12 will include both these

people.

Hence 40 – 12 = 28 committees do not include both of them.

(3) In how many ways can three men and two women be chosen
from six men and four women?

Solution:

Three men can be chosen in

and two women can be selected in

∴ Each of the 20 ways of choosing the men can be taken with

each of the 6 ways of choosing the women.

∴ there are 20x6 = 120 possible ways

Examples:

(1) In how many ways can 3 of the 26 of international code

alphabetical flags be selected?

(a) If order is important

(b) If no regard is given to order

Solution:

(a) n = 26, r = 3

with regard to order arrangement

(b) If there is no regard to order, we have

(2) In how many ways can I choose two red pencils and three
blue pencils from a box of eight red and six blue pencils
given that the pencils are all of different lengths?

Solution:

Two red pencils can be chosen in

and three blue pencils can be chosen in

∴ Each of the 28 ways of choosing red pencils can be taken

with each of the 20 ways of choosing blue pencils.

∴ there are 28 x 20 = 560 ways.

(3) Show that 7C3 + 7C2 = 8

C3 and that

6
C4 + 6C5 = 7
C5
Solution:

Similarly,

7
Since C3 + 7C2 = 56 and 8
C3 = 56

∴ 7
C3 + 7C2 = 8
C3

Also,

and

∴ 6
C4 + 6C5 = 15 + 6 = 21

Similarly

6
Since C4 + 6C5 = 21 and 7
C5 = 21

∴ 6
C4 + 6C5 = 7
C5

EVALUATION QUESTIONS.
(1). A boy has six double-sided pop records. In how many orders
can he play the different sides?

(2). In how many ways can one boy and one girl be selected from
ten boys and eight girls?

(3). Find the values of (a) (b)

(4) A committee of three boys and four girls is to be formed

from five boys and six girls. How many committees are possible?
If one of the girls refuses to serve if a certain other girl is chosen,
how many committees are possible?

(5) In how many ways can I choose two red balls and three black
balls from a bag containing five red and six black balls?

(6) Prove that , and

8
that C5 =

(7) Find the number of arrangement of 10 ships at the Calabar

port if 2 ships under the same flag must be together.

(8). In how many ways can three books be arranged in order if

seven different books are available? (9). There are
six seats in a railway carriage. In how many different ways
can four people occupy them?

HOMEWORK.
(1) Prove that

(2) Simplify

(3) An examination paper has ten questions and a student must

choose seven of them. In how many ways can he do this?

(4) From a group of five boys and four girls a party of five is to
be chosen for a special trip. In how many ways can this be
done if (a) anyone can be chosen, (b) the number of boys
chosen must be greater than the number of girls.

(5) Find the values of 4C2, 8

C4 , 9C6 , 7C3.

(6) Show that

(7). In how many ways can the 1st , 2nd and 3rd prizes be awarded
in a race if there are 10 competitors?

(8). There are three different ways of going from A to B, and 4

different ways of going from B to C. How many possible routes are
there from A to C via B.

Lecturer signature Date

 Approved by Head Department Date

3.0 BINOMIAL THEOREM

3.1 Concept Of Mathematical Induction

Mathematical Induction is the process of proving general theorem

or formula from a particular case.

The principle of mathematical induction is very useful where

particular cases suggest that some result is true quite generally.
The method is an important property of the positive integers. It is
especially useful in proving statements involving all positive
integers when it is known for example that the statements are
valid for n = 1,2,3, but it is suspected that they hold for all
positive integers. The method of proof consists of the following
steps.

(a) Prove the statement for n =1 (or some other positive

integer)

(b) Assume the statement is true for n = k where k is any

positive integer.

(c) From the assumption in (b) prove that the statement must
be true for n = k+1.
This is the part of the proof establishing the induction and may be
difficult or impossible. and,

(d) since the statement is true for n =1 [from step a] it must [from
step c] be true for n =1+1 = 2 and from this for n = 2+1 = 3,
etc., and so must be true for all positive integers.

Examples

(1) Prove that

Proof:

The statement is true for n = 1, since ,

We assume the statement is true for n = k, then

Then we show that it is true for the next value of n, n=k+1,adding

(k+1) ,

to both sides, we have

=
 =

Which shows that the statements is true for n = k+1 if it is true

for n=k. But since it is true for n=1, it follows that it is true for n =
1+1 = 2 and for n = 2+1 =3,…i.e. it is true ∀ positive integers n.

(2) Prove that

Proof:

The statement is true for n = 1 since

Assume the statement is true for n= k. Then

then we show that it is true for the next value of n, n=k+1;

adding (k+1)2, to both sides, we have
 =

Thus, if the result is true for any particular value of n, it is also

true for the next value of n.

The statement is true for n=k+1 if it is true for n=k. But since it is
true for n=1, it follows that it is true for n=1+1=2 and for
n=2+1=3,…, i.e. it is true ∀ positive integers n.

(3) Use the method of mathematical induction to prove that if n

is a positive integer:

Proof:

We observe that the result is true for the particular cases,

n=1,n=2,namely

1=12 , 1+3=4=22.
We assume the result is true for a particular value say n = k.
Thus

Then for the next value of n, n = k+1, adding (2k+1) to both sides

Which shows that the statement is true for n= k+1 if it is true for
n = k. But since it is true for n=1 it is true ∀ positive integers n.

(4) Use the method of mathematical induction to show that

Solution:

We observe that the result is true for the particular cases, n=1,2,
namely

, ,

Assuming that it is true for a particular value of n=k . Then

then for the next value of n, n = (k+1), adding (k+1) 3 to both
sides

Which shows that the statement is true for n = k+1 if it is true for
n=k.

But since it is truer for n = 1, it is true ∀ positive integers n.

(5) Show that ∀ positive integer values of n, is an

integer multiple of 9.

Proof:
We first observe that for n =1

52 + 3.1 – 1=27 which is a multiple of 9

we assume the result to be true for n=k, that is

52 + 3k – 1 = 9N.

Where N is some integer. Then for n= k+1, we have

52(k+1) + 3(k+1) – 1 =25.52k + 3k +2

= 25 (9N – 3k+1) + 3k +2

(since 52k = 9N-3k+1)

= 9.25N-75k+25+3k+2

= 9.25N – 72k +27

= 9 (25N-8k+3)

This proves that 52(k+1) + 3(k+1) – 1 is a multiple of 9 if 52k + 3k -1

is a multiple of 9.

It is true when n =1, therefore, it is true when n = 2 and so on ∀

positive integer values of n.

(6) Prove that has as a factor ∀ positive integers n.

Solution
The statement is true for n = 1 since

Assume the statement is true for n = k, i.e. assume that has

as a factor.

Consider n = k+1

∴ the first term on the right has as a factor, and the second
term on the right also has x-y as factor because of the above
assumption.

Thus has as a factor if . Then since

has as factor, it follows that has as a
factor, has as a factor etc.

3.2 The Binomial Expansion For A Positive Whole Number

Index.

Using the standard method for the multiplication of algebraic

expressions, recall that

(1+x)2 = 1+2x +x2

(1+x)3 = 1+3x +3x2 + x3

(1+x)4 = 1+4x + 6x2 +4 x3 + x4

 (1+x)5 = 1+5x + 10x2 +10 x3 + 5x4 + x5

The expression (1+x), being an algebraic expression of two

terms, is known as a BINOMIAL, while the series obtained for
(1+x)n is known as a BINOMIAL EXPANSION.

3.3 Properties of Binomial Expansion.

Characteristics or properties of Binomial expansion for a positive

whole number index:

 The first term is always unity

 The expansion consists of a sum of positive term of
ascending powers of x, terminating with
 The second term is
 The series terminates after (n+1) terms.

If n is a positive whole number, this expansion terminates after

(n+1) terms and is true for any value of x.

N.B: If n is a positive whole number:

(a) When the binomial to be expended consists of positive

terms, all the signs of the expansion are positive.

(b) When the binomial to be expanded is a positive term

followed by a negative term, after the first positive term of
 the expansion the signs are alternately negative and
positive.

Example.

Expand (a-2b)3

Solution:

3.4 THE BINOMIAL EXPANSION FOR AN INDEX OTHER THAN

A POSITIVE WHOLE NUMBER.

For example,

Using the binomial expansion formula for positive whole number.

N.B:

(a) If n be a positive whole number, the series terminates after

(n+1) terms, and is valid for any value of x.

(b) If n be any number other than a positive whole number, the

series never terminates, and is valid only if the value of x lies
between 1 and -1.

3.5 Approximations

If x is so small when compared with unity that the effect of

and higher powers of x can be discounted, then the first

two terms of the binomial expansion lead to

(approximately).

Example.

Find the 1st four terms of a series for when x lies between -

1 and +1, and use the series to find to 2 places of decimals.

Solution:
 , to 4 terms.

, to 4 terms

If (1+x)=1.4 , then x=0.4 i.e. (1+0.4)

= 1.184

= 1.18 (2 decimal places)

Example.

Find approximate values of

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Solution:

(1+x)n = 1+nx, approximately

(a) (1.03)2 = (1+0.03)2 = 1 +2 (0.03) approx.

= 1.06 approx.
 (b) approx.

approx.

(c)

approx.

approx.

approx.

approx.

(d)

approx.

approx.

approx.

Example.
Show that if terms of x3 and higher powers of x can be neglected

approximately.

Hence , find to four decimal places.

Solution:

Note that in this problem, terms must be included, and the

approximation cannot be applied.

, if and higher powers of x are neglected

(if and higher powers of are neglected).

 If ,

∴ .

EVALUATION QUESTIONS

(1) Use the method of induction to show that

(2) Use the method of mathematical induction to prove that if n

is a positive integer:

72n+1 +1 is an integer multiple of 8.

(3)

(4)

(5) Find the expansion of (1+x) 4 and use the expansion to find
the values of

(a) 2.54 (b) (2a+3b)4 (c) (a-2b) 4

 (6) Find, using the Binomial theorem, to four decimal
places.

(7) Find the first four terms of the expansions of

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(8) Find the first three terms of the expansion of and by

putting x =4 and y = 0.1, use the expansion to find to five

places of decimals.

HOMEWORK

1. If x is so small that x2 and higher powers of x can be

disregarded, find a value for

2. Find the first three terms of a series in ascending powers of x

for and state for which values of x the series is true .

3. If x is so small that x3 and higher powers of x can be

disregarded, show that

4. Find the cube root of 126 to 4 decimal places.

5. Find values of (a) correct to 2 dec. places

(b) Correct to 4 dec. places

6. Find approximate values for

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

7. Use the Binomial theorem to find the first four terms of the

expansion of in ascending powers of x.

8. If x is so small that x 4 and higher powers can be neglected,

show that .

Use this result to find to four decimal places.

9. If and and x is so small when

compared with d, that terms containing x 2 and higher powers

can be neglected, find a value for .

10. (a) Find the first four terms of the expansion of

(b) If x = 0.04, show that

 and using the series obtained in (a), find to five places of
decimals

Lecturer signature Date

Approved by Head Department Date

4.0 MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

In this Lesson, it is our aim to discuss matrices, the rules of
operation on matrices and determinants. The application of
matrices will also be introduced.
Any quantity that has magnitude and direction is called a vector.
Example of vectors includes velocity, acceleration, force, etc. On
the other hand a quantity that has magnitude but no direction is
called a scalar. Example of scalar quantity includes speed, price,
number of items produced etc. In the sciences and daily
transactions we deal with such quantities. Whichever types they
may be quantities (numbers) are manipulated in many ways. One
of the ways of representing and manipulating quantities is by
matrices.
4.1 Definition
Any rectangular array of numbers (or scalars) enclosed within
curved or square brackets is called a matrix. A matrix consists of
rows and columns. We use upper case (capital letters) to name
(or represent) matrices while the elements are denoted with small
letters. The elements (or members or scalars) in a matrix are
represented by row and column number. For instance the matrix

A with an element means that a is a scalar (or element situated

in the row and column of A. A matrix A which has m rows
and n columns is said to be of order “m by n”, denoted as .
The general form of an matrix is given as:

A = or

For instance a11 = a is an elements in the first row first

column of A
a12 = a is an elements in the first row second
column of A
 a 23 = a is an elements in the second row third
column of A
and so on.

Practical examples of matrices,

,where are the elements.

It should be noted that a matrix can have many rows and

columns. The smallest and trivial case of matrix is the one with
one row and one column.

For example . Hence a single number is a trivial case

of a matrix. It is imperative to note that in describing any
matrix, the number of rows is stated first and then the
number of columns.

Uses of Matrices

1) In the study of simultaneous linear equations. Note that

the coefficients of the unknowns form such an array.
2) In differential equations.
3) In geometry of n-dimensional space.

In physical problems, in mechanics and electrical networks etc

Equality: Two matrices are said to be equal if they are of the
same order and their corresponding elements equal. That is A =

B, if and only if A and B are of the same order and that all ∀
and . For example, matrices
 and are equal if and only if

and . This definition is very important, as

we cannot discuss algebraic operations without using
equality.

4.2 TYPES OF MATRICES.

There are many types of matrices. For the purpose of this book
we shall consider and describe the following.
1. A matrix is said is said to be row matrix, if it has only one

row, i.e. a matrix of order , e.g. . It is also

called row vector. Examples of row matrix includes:

, , and so on.
2. A matrix is said to be column matrix, if it has only one

column, i.e. a matrix of order ,e.g. . It is also called

column vector. Examples of column vectors includes:

, , , etc.
3. A matrix is said to be square matrix, if it has the number of
rows equal to the number of columns. Examples of square
matrix includes:

, ,

4. A matrix is said to be null (or zero)matrix, if all its

elements are zeros. Examples of null matrix includes:

, , ,

5. A matrix is said to be diagonal matrix, if it is a square

matrix and all the elements are zeros except those in the

leading diagonal. That is, all the with are not zeros.
Examples of diagonal matrix includes:

,
6. A matrix is said to be unit or identity matrix, if every
elements in its leading diagonal unity and others are zero.
Examples of unit or identity matrix includes: .
 , ,

It is important to note that all unit or identity matrices are

square matrices.
7. Triangular Matrices:
A square matrix in which all the elements above leading
diagonal are zero is called lower triangular matrix.
Examples of lower triangular matrix includes:

, ,
While a square matrix in which all the elements below the
leading diagonal are zero is called upper triangular
matrix.
Examples of upper triangular matrix includes:

, ,
8. A square matrix of order n such that all elements except the
leading diagonal are all equal to zero is known as diagonal
matrix.
Examples of diagonal matrix includes:
 , ,

9. Echelon matrix can be defined as an upper triangle matrix

with all the elements in the leading diagonal unity i.e. (1’s).
Examples of echelon matrix includes:

, ,

10. Reduced echelon matrix. A matrix is said to be in a

reduced echelon form (REF), if all the elements above and
below the leading diagonals are zeros and those in the
leading diagonal are unity i.e. (1’s). Examples of reduced
echelon form includes:

11. Equal matrices: Matrices A and B defined as and

respectively are said to be equal if and only if they are

of the same order and all the corresponding elements are equal
i.e. ∀ i and j, then

4.3. Examples of Types of Matrices

[See 4.2 Above]

4.4 Laws of Addition and Multiplication of Matrices

1. Addition and Subtractionof Matrices.
Two matrices A and B can be added (or subtracted) on to (or
from) the other if they are of the same order. The major
condition for the existence of A  B is the equality of order.
The sum (or difference) is obtained by adding (or subtracting)

the corresponding elements, i.e. ∀ .

Thus if A and B are defined as and respectively,

then we have that , then

Suppose and are two matrices.

Find (i) A+B and (ii) A-B .
Solution:

(i)

(ii)

Exercise: The reader should find B+A and B-A and compare
the results with that of the given example and comment.
 2. Scalar Product
If matrix A is multiplied by a scalar k, a matrix whose
elements is k times elements of A is defined.

For example if k=2 and , then .

Also, .
Since , then scalar multiplication of matrices is
commutative.

Exercise: If , the reader should find and

compare with and comment.

3. Matrix multiplication.
Let A and B be two matrices, the product AB exist only if the
number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B.
The order of the product is given by the product of rows of A
by the columns of B. To get AB we use the elements in rows
of A to multiply the elements in the columns of B.

For instance if and

 Then

Example: If and , Find .

Solution:

When the product of two matrices is possible, then we say

they aremultiplication comformable or compatible.

4.5 Commutative, Associative and Distributive Laws.

1. A+B = B+A (Addition is Commutative)
2. AB≠BA ( Multiplication is not Commutative)
3. A+B+C =A+(B+C)=(A+B)+C (Addition is Associative)
4. ABC=A(BC)=(AB)C (Multiplication is Associative)
5. A(B+C) = AB+AC (Distributive Law holds)

4.6 Transpose of a matrix

 Let A be matrix, then the transpose of A denoted by

is an matrix such that the element of is equal to

elements of and .

For example if , then

It should be noted that transpose of matrix is achieved by
mere changing of column element of a given matrix to row
element of require matrix.

If the transpose of a matrix is equal to its original value, the

matrix is said to be symmetric.

For example if , then

Therefore is a symmetric matrix, because .

4.7 Determinants, Minors and Cofactors

1. Determinant
A determinant is a number associated with a matrix and is

defined for square matrices. It is denoted by det. A , , ∆A or

For example if ,

Then,
Determinants of higher orders are also evaluated in a similar way.
This process is called expansion by the row. Note that the value of
det. A can take positive, negative, or zero value.
Note that determinant is not a matrix but an integer.
A square matrix of order n which has an inverse is called a Non-
Singular Matrix or Invertible. That is, the determinant of a
non-singular matrix is not equal to zero (∆≠ 0).
A square matrix of order n which does not has an inverse is
called Singular or Non-Invertible Matrix.
2. Minors:

Suppose we have a determinant of order n, the determinant

formed by removing the row and column of is called

the minor of A. Consider a matrix of order 3, each element in the
matrix is associated with a determinant which is found by
omitting the row and column containing the element concerned,
this determinant is called MINOR.

4.8 Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix

Example: Find all the minors of the determinant

Solution : ,

,
 ,

3. Cofactors:

The cofactor of a determinant are the signed minors. If

is the minor of det. A, then the cofactor is given as

.That is, if we give the proper sign to minor as

indicated under the definition of minor, we have what are
called Cofactors, of the elements of the determinant.
In other words the matrix of minors with the proper sign
attached to each
is known as the Cofactors.
Hence the cofactors of the above determinant is given as

, ,

, ,

, ,

Exercise: The reader should find all the minors and cofactors of

.
 Alternative formula for det. A can be expressed in terms of

cofactors as , where = First

row elements, = the first row cofactors. Hence for the

above example can be evaluated as
= 3(11) + 2(-14) + 1(-2)
= 33 – 28 – 2
= 33 – 30
= 3
Properties of Determinants
4.9 Theorem 1
If two rows or two columns of a matrix are identical, then the
value if the determinant is zero.

Example Let A= . Then det (A) = 0.

4.10 Theorem 2
If two rows or two columns of a matrix are interchanged, the sign
of the value of its determinant is changed.

Example. Let A= and let B be a matrix obtained by

interchanging row 1 and row 2 of matrix A. Thus B= .

Det (A)=
Det(B)=

4.11 Theorem 3
If one row or one column of a matrix is multiplied by a constant,
the determinant itself is multiplied by that constant.
Example. Muliplying a row by 5.

Let A = , B=
B is obtained by multiplying row 1 of matrix A by 5.
Det(A)=-2 and det(B) = -10. Hence, it can be seen that
det(A)=5×det(B).

4.12 Theorem 4
If a constant times the element of a row or a column are added to
a corresponding element of any other row or column, the value of
the determinant itself is unchanged.

Example. Let and let B be a matrix obtained by

multiplying row 1 of matrix A by 2 and adding it to the

corresponding elements of row 2 of matrix A. Thus B=

Thus
4.13. Examples.
[see 4.12]

4.14 Adjoint:
Let A be a matrix. The adjoint of A denoted by Adj.A is the
transpose of the matrix

of its cofactors. i.e.

That is,
Hence the adjoint of the above example is given as

4.15 Matrix Inverse:

A square matrix A is said to be invertible (has an inverse) if there
exist a matrix B
such that BA = I = AB. The matrix B is called the inverse of A,
denoted by . If a
square matrix A has an inverse , then it has the following
properties:
- is unique
- Inverse of is A

- , if A and B are invertible

- Not all square matrices have an inverse.
There are many ways of finding an inverse but in this book, we
shall consider only two methods, adjoint and row operation.
a. Inverse by row operation: Given any square matrix A of
order n. To find the inverse, we use the formula, A = IA. We
can find A-1 by applying row operation on both sides of the
matrix equation until the left hand side (matrix) is
transformed into an identity, , so that the equation
becomes . The matrix B so formed on the side of A is
the required inverse.

Example: Find the inverse of the matrix A,

A = 1 3 3
1 4 3
1 3 4

Solution:1 3 3 1 0 0 1 3 3
1 4 3 = 0 1 0 1 4 3
1 3 4 0 0 1 1 3 4

1 3 3 1 0 0 1 3 3 R1 = R1
0 1 0 = -1 1 0 0 1 0 R2 - R 1
0 0 1 -1 0 1 0 0 1 R3 - R 1

1 0 3 4 -3 0 1 0 3 R1 = 3R2
0 1 0 = -1 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 -1 0 1 0 0 1
 1 0 0 7 -3 -3 1 0 0 R1 = 3R3
0 1 0 = -1 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 -1 0 1 0 0 1
Note that the whole system is of the form , hence the

inverse of A is the matrix

The product of and also will produce an identity . This

procedure is simple and can be applied on any order of square
matrix.

b. Inverse by Adjoint: We can also obtain inverse by the

adjoint method.
Let A be a square matrix of order n whose determinant is A ,
and is the identity matrix of A of order n, then the inverse of A
is defined as

.
The steps required in finding the inverse of a matrix is as follows:

(i) Evaluate the determinant of the given matrix i.e.

(ii) Evaluate the minor of every elements of the matrix.
(iii) Attach the proper sign to each minor and form a matrix of
its cofactors.
 (iv) Transpose the matrix of cofactors to find the adjoint of the
matrix.

(v) Then evaluate the formula .

Example: Find the inverse of the matrix ,Using the

adjoint method.
Solution: The problem can be solved following steps below:
a). Find all the minors of A:
M11 = 7, M21 = 3, M31 = -3.
M12 = 1, M22 = 1, M32 = 0.
M13 = -1, M23 = 0, M33 = 1.

b). Find all the cofactors of A:

α11 = 7, α21 = 3, α31 = -3.
α12 = -1, α22 = 1, α32 = 0.
α13 = -1, α23 = 0, α33 = 1.

c). Form the matrix of cofactors of A in that order or otherwise

transpose it in order to form the adjoint.

7 3 -3
Adj.A = -1 1 0
-1 0 1
d). Find the determinant of A:

Since the inverse exist. The inverse is given by

4.16 SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Many problems can be resolved into systems of linear
equations. Hence the need to understand their nature, types and
methods of solutions. Before we go to the methods of solving
them, let us briefly explain their nature and types. The general
form of a system of m linear equations in n unknowns is given as,

……………….(1)

Where are coefficients of the variable

and , i = 1, 2, … are constants.

The system (1) above can either be homogeneous or in
homogeneous. It is said to be homogeneous if all the values of
bi’s are zeros, otherwise it is in-homogeneous( not all bi’s are
zeros). Again it can either be consistent or inconsistent. Such
system is said to be consistent if it has solution(s), otherwise it is
inconsistent (having no solution). If (1) is consistent, it either
have unique or infinitely many solutions. A system is said to have
unique solutions if it has only one set of solutions, otherwise it
has infinitely many set of solutions. All these terminologies have
important applications in science, mathematics, engineering,
business, etc.
Since our aim is to use matrix methods to solve such system,
there is need to state its matrix form. To do this we use a matrix

, called coefficient matrix to represent the coefficients of .A

column matrix is used to represent the unknowns and another

column matrix to represent all the constant terms . Putting

all these together we have matrix equivalent of the system as:

So the solution of the system is given by

Where is the Inverse of as we have already discussed.

The major task in solving such system is the evaluation of the .
There are various approaches to obtain and hence the
solution.
4.17 CRAMER’S RULE
Cramer’s rule can only be used when the determinant,
of the coefficient matrix is not zero, implying that the system has
unique solution. Its disadvantage is that it cannot be used to solve
a system of m-equations in n unknowns, if m  n. The Cramer’s
rule states that if is a system of n linear equations in n
unknowns and , then the solutions are given as

Where are determinants formed from by replacing

the column by the column vector B; and is the determinant

of the coefficient matrix of the system A. In this procedure, one
has to check the value of . Once it is zero, Cramer’s rule fails.

Example: Solve the system,

Solution: First form the coefficient matrix

Then evaluate and as follows:

So that the solution is given by

SOLUTION BY INVERSE
 This method also applies to system of n-equations in n
unknowns. Given any system of n equations in n unknowns,
the solution is given by . What need being done is to
evaluate the inverse of the coefficient matrix. This can be
achieved by either elementary row operation or adjoint as
discussed above.

Example : Solve the system,

Solution: The coefficient matrix is

The minors of A are:

The cofactors of A are:

The Adjoint of A = (Cofactors of A)T

The determinant of A is:

∴

Alternatively the inverse can be obtained by row operations. Since

the inverse is unique the same solution will result.

4.17 Application of Inverse of a Matrix in Solving Linear

Simultaneous Equations
[See 4.16]
4.18 OTHER IMPORTANT MATRIX OPERATIONS
 In this section we shall conclude matrix operations as we
discuss two other important operations - row operation and
inverse. Inverse is the equivalent of division of matrices.
Elementary operation has to do with the process of transforming
matrices into echelon or reduced echelon form.
1. The process of reducing matrix from ordinary form to
echelon or reduced echelon form is called elementary row
(or column) operation. The process consists of three
important steps:
a. Interchanging any two rows
b. Multiplying any row by a non-zero number
c. Adding multiple(s) of one row to another row.

Example: Reduce the matrix to

i). Echelon form
ii). Reduced echelon form

Solution:

~
 ~

~
The matrix is in echelon form.
Using the same procedure the matrix can be reduced to ‘reduced
echelon form’ in which case we have an identity matrix. Let us
proceed as follows.

Rank of a Matrix: The rank of a matrix is the number of non-

zero rows (or columns) in its echelon form. When in reduced
echelon from, the rank is given by the number of leading 1’s. For
example the matrix
 is of rank 2.

So also the matrix

and

EVALUATION QUESTIONS

1. Use the method of induction to show that

2.
3. Find the expansion of (1+x) 4 and use the expansion to find
the values of

(a) 2.54 (b) (2a+3b)4 (c) (a-2b) 4

4. Find the first three terms of the expansion of and by

putting x =4 and y = 0.1, use the expansion to find to five

places of decimals.
5. If x is so small that x2 and higher powers of x can be

disregarded, find a value for

6. Find the cube root of 126 to 4 decimal places.

7. Find values of (a) correct to 2 dec. places

(b) Correct to 4 dec. places

HOMEWORK
1. Use the method of mathematical induction to prove that if n
is a positive integer:

72n+1 +1 is an integer multiple of 8.

2.

3. Find, using the Binomial theorem, to four decimal places.

4. Find the first four terms of the expansions of

(a) (b) (c) (d)

5. Find the first three terms of a series in ascending powers

of x for and state for which values of x the series is

true .
6. If x is so small that x3 and higher powers of x can be

disregarded, show that

Lecturer signature Date

Approved by Head Department Date