9.10.
1 Point-by-point Nethod (Step-by-Step Method)
Cons the seg cqu
-P,-Pesa-P, : Pog- Pe
TZiCiaei z e berrng of a i 2 is assuned o re
.Tectege i peeá criag tis time is given by
aurny PowER SsEV SAgTy 45
(9.81)
Fromour assunption, the specd is COnstai throurhout the nien2l. The change in 2nguir
aTO
during he intervzl is
A6,
- so!
= Ao
wT0te
Silty. we can
9.83)
Stating (983) from (9.82), we ga
Paris -19.8)
posiion a the end of he rievl isg a by
9.55 )
The pxoess is repezted io obzin Prr 15, d. I h s ins sorion is ceTied or al
ieofreres Grezter acray c2 be oied bT cosiSalir int aai.
AT SSitching eveni (occrence of a fzt cizn ci 2 i k i cone. ) css
zard fon the vale of P, the begioz of the l The foüoning rpie lucrs
te tod
452
n-1
PAn-.
O,-j2
n-2
parameters for point-by-point method.
Fig. 9.23 Discrelization of
47 370 -1.041
C25 1333 1.041 -0.241 2.931
0781
51 350 -0.279 -1.205
1333
0.612
1.079 1.726
1333 S4 280
0.3$ 0.305 -1.317 0.409
1.105
0 829
1333 S6 000
040 -0.306 -1.322 -0.913
1.106
0.839
1.333 56 410
045 -1.287 -2.200
1.098 -0.298
1333 55.490 0624
050
055 1.333 53.300
shown in Fig. 9.24. It can be scen that the swing is
for all the three cases are
The swing cunes increascd.
greater when the faut clearing time is
40
*t* Substaincd fault
120
** Fault clcared in 2.5 cyrles
" Feult cleared in 6.5 cycles
100
60
40
20
0 01 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Time (scconds)
Fig. 9.24 Swing curves for example 9.12.
Modified Euler's method
Lulers mctlhod is ong of the casiest methods to program for solution of differential
a dignal computerAt uscs the Tuylor's serics ¢spansion, discarding all cquations USng
oTder tems. Mod1ticd uler's alyorithn uUses the derivatives at the second-order and high
beginning of a time step. t0
piedietthc values of the depcndent variables at the cnd of thestep (!,, A). Using the predicted
4 5.194
the PowEs SrstEw STABUTY 457
ihe derivatives at cnd of the
in updating the variablcs Consiinterval
der two
are
computeo. The av crage of the two
dr simul tancous differential cquations:) derivatives
dt =(r.y.n
dy
dt =flr.y. n)
Starting from initial values xo V o at the
follows:
Let
beginning of atime step and a step sizc At we
solve as
dr
di lo
dt o
*), +D, Ar
,,+At=1,+h (h is normally used for step size)
dtp
Dyp = dy
dtp
=+
Par 2
and y, are used as initial values to compute x, and y, at end of t, = 4, t At and so on. In
general at any time step (1 + 1)we compute the values of x,. and y as follows.
D, -fi.J, ) =
di ,
dt,
=,t D, At
ANO MooELS N PoWER ShsENS
458 ConnuTER TrCNOES
D, f(uy.t+)=
Dr -falylr ) drl,
Euler's method, it is written as two first order difr
Tosolve the swing cquation by Modified
cotial cqations:
= ()
dt
o -Pray Sin
dt M M
step, and choosing a step sizg
Starting from an initial value õ,. , at the beginning of any timefollows:
Afs, the cquations to be solved in modified Euler's method are as
=D, =
do = D, = P,-Paax sin ð,
dt M
8 -, +D, Ar
il
dtp
do Pa-Par Sin &
M
step.
ß, znd , are uscd as initial values for the succcssivc timc
In 2ny time step * .
PoWER SYsTEM STABUTY 459
D, = O,
dt \,
do
D, = Pa-Pax sinð,
di M
8P -5, +D, At
oP = o,+ D, A
di
Dip =l,= P
do, _ P, -Prax sinS
Dp dt Ip M
appropriate
be used will depend on the time of computation. We use the because of
The value of P, to post-fault.Numerical errors are introduced
during fault and
value of Pma, before fault,
expansion. Errors can be decreased by choosing smaller
discarding higher-order terms in Taylor's
size, will increase computation, which can lead to large crrors
values of step size. Too small a step
Runge-Kutta method which uses higher-order terms is more popular.
due to rounding off. The (iii) using modified Euler's
PoWER SYSTEM STABILITY 461
1.333 0.860
1,333 1.820 0.943 1.446
a 35 0.943 1.446 54.03
1.333 1.005 1.005 0.984 57.58
'o.40 0.984
0.45 1.333 1.042
1.042 0.467 59.70
0.467
0.50 1.333 1.052 -0.074
1.052
1.035
-0.074 60.27
1.333 1.035 -0.612
-0.612 59.30
0.991 -1.J18 S6.78
.1Runge-Kutta Method
In Runge-Kuta
fornulae, derived method, the changes in depcndent variables are calculatcd from a given set of
formulac for the
by using an approximation, to replace a truncatcd Taylor 's serics expansion. The
Runge-Kutta
ential equations are given fourth order approximation, for solution oftwo simultaneous differ-
blow:
Given d
dt
dy
dt
Starting from initial valucs x, Vo, lo and step size h, the updated values are:
1
(k, + 2k, + 2k, + ka)
%t 6 (4, + 2/, + 21, +14)
where,
Yo
2
452 CoTeR TECNOLES AND MoOELs NPoMER SYsTEMs
In the above cquations fo arethe initial valucs in any time
used
step and x,' are the
as initial values to vala
at the end of the time step, In the subscquent step, X are
, and so on. comput e
Tbetwo fist order diferential cquations to be solved to obtain solution for the swing
equation
ds
dt
do_PP-Pnan sin &
dt M
(Comparing wih the general cquations, x = and y = o)
Starting from initial value n, , , and a step size of Ar the formulae are as follows:
P-Pax Sin d |Af
M
P-Pax sin ,+ 2
M
P -Pax sin do
I, = Ar
M
k, = (@, + )Ar
P, - Pamx sin (B, +k,)]
M
6, =8, k+2k, +2k, +kl
eto x
vatjhe PowER SYsTEM SrARLIY
463
+
+21, +2/, 4)
lse S, , 0, as initial values in the next time stcp and update the variables as before. Appropn
value ofP must be used in the cquations.
max
ate Rungc-Kutta
Time (Secconds)
Fig. 9.25 Swing curves with modified Euler and Runge-Kutta methods.
9.16 Milne's Predictor Corrector Method
The Milne's fommulae for solving two simultaneous differential cquations are
given below.
Consider dx
dt
-S,y, )
dy
dt =f(,y, )
With values of x and y known for four consccutive previous times, the predicted value for n +
1 time step is given by
4h
3 -[2xn-2-xn-t 2xJ
4h
+
3 (2-2-n- t 2J
Whcre, X and arc derivatives at the corresponding timne step. Thecorrccted values are
SsTEALS
400 CoTER TEoNs ANO Moons N PowER
+ 4y, +')
wherc.
To start the computations we need four initial values which may be obtaincd by
Euler's mcthod, Runge-Kutta mcthod or any other numerical method which is self starting, modibeffoireed
pplying Milne's method. The mcthod is applicd toto the solution of swing equation as follows:
fol ows:
Define 8, = dt = 0,
do h-Pax sin S,
o', d1 M
8. -&,t282-8-+
3
28,]
4At
3
3 -[+4ß, + ß,+]
3 o,+40',+o',+1}
where.
PP, - Prax sin tSl
M
