AGRICULTURAL MECHANISATION AND ENGINEERING

DEFINITIONS
1. Agricultural mechanization is the extensive introduction of machinery to
carryout farm activities.
2. It refers to the use of mechanical power in farming.
3. It refers to the use or application of power or mechanical aids to all types of
agricultural operations making the farmer less dependent on physical
labour.
Mechanization involves the use of tractors, ploughs, planters, milking machines,
artificial incubators, product processors and transportation machines.
TERMS USED
An agricultural machine; this is a mechanical device that has a number of moving
parts e.g. a seed drill, powered tractor.
Agricultural equipment; this is a mechanical device which is stationed in one
place e.g. an irrigation pump.
Agricultural tool; this is a device used especially by hands to carry out work of
mechanical nature e.g. cutting, digging etc
ADVANTAGES OF MECHANIZATION
It increases agricultural output by bringing more land into use.
It makes it possible to perform jobs that are difficult to do manually.
It ensures timeliness of farm operations such as seed bed preparation i.e. saves
times.
It eases farm operations i.e. it speeds the rate at which work is done and
improves efficiency.
It reduces human drudgery by enabling farmers to do difficult and unpleasant jobs
that cannot be done by oxen technology and humans e.g. deep ploughing, land
reclamation etc.
It improves soil physical properties e.g. porosity, structure etc by proper burying
of organic matter.
It increases output per person.
More thorough job is done than by hand.
It eases/ solves the problem of labour shortages where labour is scarce or
inefficient.
It ensures proper utilization of basic inputs like water, seeds and fertilizer on the
farm as a result of using appropriate equipment.
Mechanization may allow a better combination of enterprises such as food and
cash crop system.
It helps farmers to benefit from economies of scale as a result of large scale
production.
It leads to improvement in uniformity, quantity and quality of products by using
improved storage facilities.
It encourages large scale farming hence increasing farm productivity and total
yield.
It makes agriculture more respected, dignified attractive and less tiresome.
It increases labour efficiency i.e. one man using a machine can do more work of
good quality and can be able to even work for longer hours in the field.
It encourages proper planning and management of the farm.
It reduces farm production costs by eliminating expensive labourers on the farm
in ploughing, planting, harvesting and processing.
PROBLEMS/DISADVANTAGES OF MECHANIZATION
It requires specialized skilled labour mainly those to operate, maintain and repair
machines.
It requires a lot of capital i.e. to purchase machines and spare parts.
Mechanization is very expensive to carry out and farmers lack finances to buy
machines and their spare parts.
Machines only benefit large scale farming enterprises and yet most farmers hace
small land holdings. It is thus uneconomical to use machines on small plots.
Some machines e.g. tractors cannot be used in hilly areas and swampy areas or
areas with a lot of obstacles such as roots and tree stamps.
Machines increase the level of environmental pollution. The smoke/fumes from
internal combustion engines increase carbon concentration of the atmosphere
and oil leakage into the soil which affects the ecosystem.
The initial and maintenance cost of machines is high which majority of farmers
may not afford.
Use of heavy machines compact the soil leading to the formation/development of
hard pans and surface capping which discourage root penetration, seed
germination and infiltration in the soil.
Machines may lower the quality of agricultural products e.g. grains, fruits and
coffee. Some farm jobs cannot be mechanized e.g. coffee picking.
If there is any breakdown of machines on the farm, then the farming activity
concerned may come to standstill.
Mechanization can lead to over production on the farm. Over production may
cause other problems like price fluctuation and inadequate storage facilities.
The introduction of mechanization may results into unemployment in rural areas
resulting into rural urban migration.
Clearing land on a large scale by machines exposes the soil to the effects of sun,
rain and wind (erosion).

FACTORS LIMITING AGRICULTURAL MECHANISATION

Reasons why farmers in east Africa are still reluctant in mechanizing their farm
operations.
There is inadequate extension workers who would educate farmers on
mechanization benefits.
Presence of thick vegetation in some parts of the country which make machines
like tractors unsuitable for use
The small size of land holdings/land fragmentation limits the use of heavy
machinery and peasant farmers have scattered land holdings. Mechanization is
impossible and uneconomical on such small land holdings.
Mechanization adopted in order to reduce labour costs, may have little advantage
to subsistence farmers who do not place any monetary value on their family
labour.
Some farming operations such as coffee picking are not yet easily mechanized.
Inadequate capital due to low yields and machines like tractors are costly to
purchase and maintain. This makes farmers resort to human labour.
Poor topography; most farms in east Africa are located on steep slopes and
valleys. This makes the use of machines like tractors in such areas practically
impossible.
Availability of cheap draught animals in most part of east Africa; most farmers in
some parts of east Africa have over relied on the use of animals’ draught
technology which is cheaper and requires less skills than tractors.
Unfavourable farming systems; Some cropping systems e.g. the growing of
perennial crops, mixed cropping, poor crop spacing and intercropping discourage
the use of machines like tractors.
Availability of cheap agricultural human labour; presence of cheap agricultural
labour in most agricultural areas discourage farmers from acquiring or using
machines which are in most cases expensive than human labour.
Lack of appropriate farm machines for different farm operations; most machines
imported in east Africa are not suited to the social economic conditions in east
Africa. The machine needs a lot of skills and difficult to repair.
Lack of adequate trained manpower; most farmers in east Africa lack essential
skills to operate and repair agricultural machines. As aresult farmers resort to
hiring expensive skilled labour which the end make use of machines by the
farmers.
Lack of repairs and servicing facilities for machines; there are almost no servicing
or repair facilities in most agricultural areas in east Africa. In case of fault and
break down farming operations may come to a standstill.
Remoteness of most agricultural areas most farms are situated in remote areas
characterized by the impossible roads. This makes it difficult to transport
agricultural machines to the farms.
Lack of awareness/ignorance; most farmers are not aware of the benefits of using
machines in farm operations. Some farmers are even not aware of the existence
and availability of agricultural machines.
Poor government policy; the government policy on the mechanizing agriculture is
still very weak and unsupportive. Heavy taxes on agricultural machinery and space
parts, inadequate extension and sensitization of farmers in the use of machines
and inadequate quality control of machines, all discourages use of machines.
Low investing capacity of farmers; most farmers in east Africa are generally
peasants with low income due to low agricultural prices. This makes it difficult for
farmers to invest in machinery.
Traditional beliefs and social cultural values/conservativeness and unwillingness;
some traditions have strong beliefs against the use of tractors in cultivation and
put more strong values on the use of hand tools and draught animals. E.g. some
people believe that using tractors would decrease yields and quality and make the
soil infertile.
Political instabilities in some parts of Uganda affect mechanization because
farmers fear to make losses through theft.
Low returns from some crops hinders mechanization
Where marketing is not organized, increased production due to mechanization
may lead to very low prices of produce.
Inadequate availability of spare parts and service centres for machinery limit use
of machines.
Qn. Explain the reasons why hand tools are still continuously used in Uganda?
PRE-REQUISITES FOR AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION (HOW MECHANIZATION
CAN BE IMPROVED IN UGANDA)
There is great need to educate farmers towards accepting the change from
peasant farming to modern farming systems.
Since effective mechanization requires large areas, the land tenure systems which
farmers work a few acres need to be modified by land consolidation, resettlement
schemes etc.
An effort should be made to develop simpler and less expensive machines.
Whenever possible, machines that can be adapted to perform different jobs at
different seasons of the year should be developed.
Improve on prices of agricultural products
Provide good roads to rural areas.
Farmers should be encouraged to own and operate farm machinery collectively or
as a group.
Agricultural engineering workshops should be established by the government and
agricultural centers where machines of all kinds could be stocked. Such machines
should be loaned to farmers at low cost.
Loans and subsidies should be organized to assist farmers wishing to purchase
suitable agricultural implements, particularly those that can be operated by small
tractors.
Encourage local fabrication of machines and their spare parts.
Through training enough local personnel to operate and maintain the machines.
Through introducing repairing centers
Demonstrations and workshops should be carried out in already mechanized
areas so that those adopting the system can appreciate it.
SUGGESTIONS ON HOW TO IMPROVE AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN EAST
AFRICA
  The government should develop a national policy on farm mechanization; it
should encourage local manufacturing of cheap machines, reduce taxes on
agricultural machinery and spare parts, encourage agricultural education in
tertiary institutions and also establish an apex-body to implement the
national policy on the farm mechanization.
 Land reform policy such as land consolidation and private land ownership
should be encouraged to encourage heavy investment and use of machines in
farming operations.
 Establishment of adequate training centers in villages to train engineers,
machines and operators of machinery.
 Establishment of servicing centers in all sub-counties to handle all technical
problems such as repairs and maintenance.
 Offering tractors/ machine hiring services in every sub-county for farmers
who cannot afford to buy machines to hire at low costs.
 Improving coordination between research organizations and manufactures so
that appropriate machines suitable for social economical and farming
systems are provided to farmers.
 Loaning out machines to the farmers. The government through its programs
such as plan for modernization of agriculture (PMA) can purchase these
machines form manufacturers and give them to the farmers on loan basis at
reduced/subsidized cost. Farmers can pay for machines in installments at a
convenient time.
 Agriculture engineering extension education wing should be established to
keep the farmers up to date on various aspects of application of engineering
to agriculture.
 Rural electrification since most machines require electricity to operate. Most
post-harvest or processing machines and irrigation systems require
electricity to operate.
 Improving the marketing and prices of agricultural commodities. When
market prices are high and market is readily available, farmers are
encouraged to use machines to produce more profits.
 Encourage group or cooperative ownerships of the machines to enable the
farmers to share the cost of purchase and maintaining of machines.
Current mechanization support systems in east Africa
The following services and support systems for farm mechanization are currently
in place in most parts of east Africa.
  Self -help; fsrmers use their limited resources to repair tools and implements
themselves.
 Traditional village metal-craft men; black smith, artisans and fabricators of
tools and equipment.
 Private repair shops; most are usually town based to provide repairs and
fittings.
 Agricultural engineering centers at regional levels; in some countries, they
have been established t district levels to provide repair services to tools and
equipment.
 General trading companies; they mainly supply spare parts.
 Local machine dealers; mostly located in towns, they import and sell
machines and spare parts.
Levels of farm mechanization
Farm mechanization can be viewed under different levels or stages of development
which includes the following
Traditional hand tool technology (M1); at this level all farming operations are
carried out by manual labour. This include level of mechanizations uses labour
intensive tools such as hand hoe, machete, slashers etc. the level of mechanization
is limited to small scale subsistence farming.
Improved hand tool technology (M2); at this level, labour-saving improved hand
tools or foot operated equipment are used to supplement traditional tools. Such
tools/equipment include; wheel burrows, jab planters, push weeders, pedal
threshers, manually operated sprayers etc.
Animal draught technology (M3); at this level animals are intensively usedto
provide power to operate specially designed animal operated equipment. The
equipment is designed for field operations or for transport. Cattle, mules, donkeys
and horses are used in semi- arid and rain-fed areas while buffaloes are mor
common in wetland areas where rice is grown.
Mechanization power technology (M4); at this level, engine powered equipment
are used to perform field operation or for transport. This level rapidly stimulates
farm production and is applicable to large scale commercial farming. It involves
use of use of two-wheeled tractors, four wheeled tractors, simple two wheel
tractors etc.
Automation (M5); use of electrified equipment and other high technology
equipment on the farm such as use of aeroplanes, computers etc.
Indicators of optimum level of mechanization
 Increased productivity per hectare
 Increased opportunity for employment
 Stimulated development of rural non-farm activities.
 Improved quantity and quality and stability of the food supply.
 Improved skills, experience and awareness of rural people.
 Bring about change in social and institutional structure, wealth distribution
and commercial traditions, which are important in stimulating technology
and innovation.
 Increased land acreage for agricultural production.
 Reduced amount of labour and promote timeliness of farming operation.
 Reduced overhead costs on the farm and increase the income and net profit
of the farm.
Factors which favour the shifting from level one and two to level three of
mechanization.
 Availability of cheap draught animals and animal drawn equipment
 Shortage of labour supply on the farms, this is due to rural urbam migration
and compulsory education for all children who provided most of the farm
labour.
 Increase in the cost of hired labour on the farm.
 The need to increase productivity on the farm due to increased food demand.
 The need to cope up with improved farming practices such as raw cropping,
inter-row weeding and irrigation.
 The need to carry out farming practices in required time such as timely seed
bed preparation planting and weeding.
Factors which lead to shifting from level three to level four.
 The need for large scale farming. Tractors are able to open up new land
enlarge land for cultivation.
 Availability of appropriate tractors and tractors equipment.
 Availability and acquisition of skills by the farmers on how to operate and
maintain tractors and tractor equipment.
 Availability of tractor/machine hiring service at in most areas.
  Prevalence of disease and parasite in most areas which affect draught
animals.
 The need to farm and reclaim marginal areas such as swampy and forested
areas.
 Improved in market prices for agricultural products. This has increased
farmers’ incomes and net saving thus increasing the of investment by the
farmers.
 Scarcity of labour on most farms due to rural urban migration and
compulsory education for children who provide most of the labour in
substance farming.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PERFORMANCE OF FARM
MACHINERY
Physical properties of soil i.e. heavy soils are not easily worked with.
Vegetation i.e. thick vegetation does not allow easy machine movement
Topography i.e. machines can’t be used on steep slopes.
Mixed cropping i.e. mechanization is difficult in mixed cropping
System of planting i.e. mechanization is limited with broadcasting method of
planting
Operator skills i.e. some operators can be deficient.
Level of maintenance i.e. well maintained machines work better.
Type of crops i.e. some crops can be mechanized better than others.
SOURCES OF FARM POWER
Power is defined as the rate of doing work or the rate of energy expenditure.
Factors to consider when selecting a source of farm power to use in agriculture
 Initial cost of the power source/availability of capital-choose power which is
affordable/cheap.
 Availability of the power-should be easily obtained
 Reliability of the power produced-should be able to provide power when
ever needed
  Skills needed to operate it /availability(ease of operation)-there should be
skills to operate the power source.
 Personal preference-farmers should choose a source of power that suit
his/her wishes.
 Maintenance and operational costs- choose power with low maintenance
cost
 Effect to the farm environment/safety of the power source-it should not be
dangerious to the environment and the operator.
 The type of farm enterprise
 Efficiency of power source
 Farm size/size of the land i.e. the bigger the land/farm, the more power
required.
 Nature of work to be done-the nature of the power should match the task
to be handled.
 Area/topography of application-the power should suit the topography of
the farm.
 Type of soil-the power should be suited to the type of soil i.e. hard, soft,
stony etc.
The following are sources of power on the farm;

MANUAL/HUMAN POWER
This is the simplest and most basic level of agricultural mechanization. The term
refers to tools and implements which use human muscle as the power source e.g.
hand pushed seeders mounted on a push frame, sticks are normally used a
shallow basket or work tray, using hands when harvesting small grains. Tools like
hoes, slashers, sickles etc are used.
Factors that limit the efficiency of manual power
Health the worker; this affects man power ill health leads to low efficiency
Working hours; man cannot cope with long working hours. Therefore long hours
lead to low efficiency
Nature of tools; the tools used influence the power output
Payments; low pay/wages lowers the efficiency of manual power
Working conditions; the efficiency is reduced by poor working conditions
Age; old and very young age reduces efficiency
Feeding; poor feeding reduces the work done because of less energy in the body.
Type of work. The efficiency of manual power is low when there is heavy duty
work.
Weather condition; bad weather e.g. hot weather lowers the efficiency of manual
power.
Advantages of manual power
It is widely available in many developing countries
It is relatively cheap for the small operations that characterize subsistence
production.
It is more flexible than most other sources of power and can do a wide range of
jobs.
Can work well with locally fabricated tools and equipments.
Disadvantages of manual power
 It is very slow in doing work thus may delay farm activities.
 It may not be able to cope with large acreage in farming
 The efficiency of human labour decreases as the hours worked per day
increase.
 The performance of the workers is influenced by their health conditions.
 The performance of humans depends on their motivation which is very
unpredictable.
 It is expensive in the long run because it is slower and less predictable than
other forms of labour. Also expensive if many people are needed.
 It cannot work efficiently for long hours
 Bad weather affects output.
 The tools used influence the power output.
WIND POWER
This may be used to drive water pumps and wind mills. The wind rotates the
blades which turn the shaft. This can be used to generate electricity.
Advantage of wind power
It produces no air pollution and it is renewable.
Disadvantages of wind power
It is limited because it can’t be controlled
It may not be available when needed.
Wind doesn’t blow fast enough or often enough everywhere.
It needs large arrays of wind turbines (wind farms)
There are many complaints about visual pollution and impact on migrating birds.
Issue of energy storage or alternative production methods when the wind is calm
is still a problem.
WATER POWER (Hydro electric power)
This can be developed from flowing water. As water flows downhill, it is
channeled to a turbine or water wheel. The force of the flowing water turns the
turbine or wheel, which turns a generator to make the electricity. Dams are built
along streams to create reservoirs for water.
Advantages of water power
It produces no pollution and it is totally renewable.
Dams control floods and store water for irrigation and used for recreational
purposes.
Its efficiency is high.
Disadvantages of water power
 It is very expensive to build dams and HEP stations. It takes years to
complete.
 Multiple uses are not always compatible with each other.
 It destroys natural habitats and species by the flooding
  It hinders or even stops fish migration.
 Sediment is trapped behind the dam which limits formation of coastal
beaches and increasing shoreline erosion.
SOLAR POWER
This is the energy got from the sun and may be used for drying and heating. Solar
cells absorbs the sunlight and convert that solar energy to mechanical power to
run pumps or converted into electricity which can be stored in batteries.
Advantages of solar power
 It is clean, unlimited source of energy with little or no pollution of any kind
produced.
 No fuel requirement unlike engine power
 Its supply is free and inexhaustible
Disadvantages of solar power
 It is an expensive technology
 It often needs large collection areas so it results in a large environmental
impact.
 It often needs to be concentrated
 Also some areas where clouds block the sun or sun doesn’t shine at night
require other sources of power or storage system like batteries.
ANIMAL POWER (draught animal)
This is where power is mainly provided by animals. Animals like cattle, donkeys,
horses, camels may be used to drive some implements like the ox-plough drawn
mould boards, they can carry water etc.
Draught animal is a strong working animal used to draw a load.
Advantages of using animal power
 It requires less initial capital to buy both the animal and implements used
for cultivation.
 It is possible to use the animal and implements in steep regions where
tractors can’t work.
 There is no use of expensive fuel as it is with the use of a tractor.
  It doesn’t require many skills when operating the animal and its
implements.
 Maintenance is quite low compared to a tractor.
 Animal work output is greater compared to human work output.
 Animal power can operate even very well in areas where land is
fragmented.
 It is multipurpose since the animal can provide meat and manure.
 It is cheaper than manual power.
 It is faster than manual power.
 Unlike machines, animals don’t depreciate
Disadvantages of using animal power (draught animal)
 It cannot be used in areas with a lot of obstructions
 The animal health will affect the amount of work done.
 They can’t readily cope with very large acreage of land.
 It cannot be used in areas with thick vegetation and hard soil.
 It require pasture land
 They require a big portion of land for grazing as part of their maintenance.
 Animals also require training.
 Farmers also must be trained.
 Cultural beliefs interference e.g. bahima
 They work at slower rate than engine power
PRE-REQUISITES FOR USING ANIMAL POWER
 Sufficient animal feeds/pasture must be available.
 Effective animal health care
 Areas where animal diseases and parasites are a major problem are
unsuitable. Therefore control measures for parasites and diseases must be
in place.
 Farmers must have experience of animal husbandry and the use of animals
for work.
 Effective extension services to advice on animal feeding and management
must be available.
 Animals for draught should have yokes which are well designed and
comfortable for the animals. Yokes are used for hitching animals.
  The availability of skilled labour.
 There must be stable type of soils that favour pasture growth for animals
and light soils for oxen mould ploughs to penetrate through.
 Presence of suitable breeds.
Qn; what should be in place when planning to use oxen animals (draught animals)
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE AMOUNT OF POWER PRODUCED BY
ADRAUGHT ANIMAL
Breed of the animal; some breeds have tough muscles and stout legs that make
them more suitable for draught purpose. Also humped and local breeds are more
suitable than hump less and exotic ones, donkeys can carry more load than
horses.
Training; well-trained animals do better quality work than untrained ones because
are easy to guide.
Feeding/level of nutrition; the nature of the work requires a high energy intake
and so the animals that are fed better are in a better capacity to provide power.
The yoke used for hitching; poorly designed yoke providing only limited contact
with the neck and hump decreases power output. A yoke that has a collar
encircling the neck of the animal is best and must be light.
Age; the ability of the animal to provide power increase with age before it finally
decreases as it over ages.
Health of the animal; ill animals can’t work well better health animals work better
are easy to instruct and produces more traction.
The condition of equipment used; animals can easily pull a heavy load on wheels.
Also the quality and condition of the plough used will affect power output and the
quality of work done by the animal.
Climate; cool climate increases power output and the length of working of the
animals. Hot climate increases sweating panting and weakens the animals.
Length of time of working; long periods of working reduce power output due to
exhaustion. Over working of the animals also can damage of body muscles.
Number of animals; power output increases with the increase in the number of
animals working together as a team thus paired animals produce more power than a
single animal of the same species.
The skills of the operator; keeping other factors constant, when the operator is
highly skilled on how to handle and use the animal and how to hitch the implement
on the animal, power output.
The amount of vegetation; heavy vegetation interferes with free movement of the
animal and as a result reduces power output.
Freedom from body disabilities; animals free from disabilities of the body such as
sound legs, proper sight and hearing are likely to produce more power than
disabled animals.
The topography of the land; very rough and ragged terrain interferes with
movement of animals and makes it difficult for the animal to pull equipment.
Power output is thus low as the animal moves up the hill and as the animal moves
on rough ragged terrain.
Reasons why ox-cultivation has not widely used as a source of farm power
(draught technology)
 Unavailability of work animals as a part of farming business in some areas
 Inadequate advisory services for training of farmers in use of the system.
 Unfavorable topography eg steep areas not suitable for ox-cultivation.
 Lack of spare parts and ox- plough in some areas.
 Farmers’ conservativeness and rejection of new methods of farming.
 Lack of technical knows how to operate and maintain ox-ploughs.
 Presence of poor, heavy and sticky soils which make ox-cultivation
practically impossible.
 Inadequate capital to purchase ox-ploughs and work animals
 Prevelance of diseases and parasites which affect health and effectiveness
of the animals.
 Availability of alternative sources of labour/power e.g. manual power.
 Communication difficulties have hampered effective advertisement and
demonstration use of ox-cultivation.
 Absence of trained animals.
 Heavy and hardy soils in many areas
  Some operations cannot be easily done with animal e.g. weeding and
harvesting.
Qn; Mention the reasons why ox-cultivation has succeed in north eastern Uganda
and western Kenya.
Conditions that favour ox-plough cultivation
 Flatland
 Light soil
 Short grass/vegetation
 Availability of animals
 Parasite and disease free environment
 Existence of advisory centre for training farmers and oxen.
QN; Give reasons why draught technology is practiced in eastern and northern
Ugand
Desirable qualities of a draught/oxen animal
 Should have free moving limbs for easy movements
 Should have sound feet and short stout legs for proper grip/traction
 Should be easily trained/intelligence to learn faster.
 Good adaptability to the local environment such as high temperature or
very low temperature and water shortage.
 Should be free disabilities, with good sight, good hearing and sound legs.
 Should be short horn or polled condition is desirable for inter-row
cultivation to be able to part freely between the crops row
 Should be disciplined and should have cool temperament to reduce
disturbance when working in the field
 Juvenile at least two years of age at this age the animal is still young to
learn but also old to produce some reasonable power.
 Should be castrated animal due to good muscling and high power output in
males.
 Should have quite temperament/ docile i.e. easy to handle
 Should have sharp/high hearing ability to take instructions
 Resistance from diseases and parasites.
 Good food conversion into energy and muscles.
Ways of improving traction and efficiency in draught animals
 Using the right size and design of the yoke for comfortability during work.
 Using animals in pairs of relatively equal strength and sizes
 Proper feeding of the animals with more energy
 Timely and adequate treatment of sick animals and giving them to recover.
 Proper hitching of the implements
 Giving animals enough resting time to regain their strength.
 Matching the workload with the animals abilities or strength
 Using animals on relatively flat topography
 Using animals more during cool weather of the day.
 Adequate treatment of sick animals.
Procedures of training draught animals
 Select the animals with desirable qualities and must be young/juvenile.
 Castrate the animal for the case of bulls to ensure strength among animals.
 Punch the hole on the nose of the animal and insert in the nose ring, leave
the nose ring there and leave the wound to heal.
 Fix the rope in the nose ring and halter around the head.
 Take the animal with others during work to get used to the field.
 Move the animal with the working animals throughout the exercise to get
used to walking.
 Fix alight yoke to the animal to make it get used to the yoke.
 Mount alight log on the yoke and make the animal move with those
working in the field to get used to traction and develop tough muscles.
 Progressively increase the log size as the animal moves with those working
in order to train it to take on instructions.
 Introduce the animal to light work as it gets used to instructions and
working.
 Progressively increase the gravity of work as the animal gets used. Teach
the animal regularly to avoid the forgetting of the animal.
Care of draught animals (oxen)
 Provide good housing to protect the animals from bad weather.
 Identify signs of sickness and give immediate treatment to sick animals.
 Control parasites on the form i.e. both internal and external parasite.
  Give the animals enough rest after work.
 Work the animals for short periods of time to avoid stressing the animal.
 Provide good nutritious foods to the animals.
 Carry out regular foot pairing and disinfection to maintain foot grip/traction
on the ground.
 Work the animals during good weather i.e. cool weather but avoid heavy
rains and storms.
 During off sections when animals are not working on the farm, animals
should be made to pull carts on the farm to ensure that they don’t forget
words of command and do not become lazy and stubborn.
Parts of a yoke
 A shaft; A shaft is a shaped pole with 4 holes into which the skiers that hold
the animal’s legs are inserted
 Skiers; these are pieces of wood shaped to fit into slots in the shaft. They
keep the bulls at specified distances from each other and prevent the yoke
shaft from moving sideways. They are notched on the outer edge to hold
the looped ends of the strops.
 Strops; these are short strings made of twisted animal skin or sisal rope.
They fit around the draught bull’s neck and hook the notches on the outer
edge of the skiers. They also prevent the yoke from slipping over the
animal’s hump when pulling the load.
 U-bolt; This is a curved metal rod with nuts at both edges. It is set in the
middle of the shaft to connect the trek chain to the load. It also serves as a
load equiliser.
 Eyes; these are metal rings fitted to the end of the yoke shaft to hold the
steering rope of the harness.
 Trek chain; this links the draught animals to the working implement. It
should be relatively long and enough to prevent the implement from
injuring the animal’s back legs.
Qualities of a good yoke
 It should be able to carry animal that are tied together
 It should have the design for chasing cycling.
 It should have a wooden brocket to hold animals in position.
 It should be well designed
 Should have attachment.
 Should have a hook in the center and attachment by draft chain.
 Should have smooth surface
 Should be of reasonable size or length.
 Should be light in weight
 Should have strong shaft to withstand breakages during work.
 The wooden pole should be strong, well dried and seasoned
 The chain should be relatively long and enough to prevent the implement
from injuring the animal’s back legs.
Procedure of attaching a yoke on the animal
 Prepare and assemble all the equipment
 Prepare the plough
 Assemble and pair up the oxen.
 Fix the yoke on neck just in front of the hump and secure the yoke with
rope running around the neck.
 Fix the muzzle in place to stop oxen from eating crop.
  Fix the hitching chain between the yoke and the plough.
 Adjust the plough deep and pitch
 Order the animal to move, hence you direct it.

ENGINE POWER (INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE)

This is comprised of diesel and petrol engines in farm machines such as tractors,
hand operated chain saws, mowers, sprayers, milking machines etc.
Advantages of engine power
 The use of such power saves the farmer’s time and money.
 It increases efficiency in timing farm operations
 They are more economical to use in the longer run.
 Machines can keep working continuously without suffering from fatigue as
long as the maintenance is good.
 Products produced are uniform.
Disadvantages of engine power
 It require skilled labour to operate it
 The initial and maintenance costs are high
 It may create unemployment
 It can’t work on fragmented land and small agricultural businesses.
 Engine power like some machines may not work on high lands.
Functions of tractor engines
  They carryout cultivation operations like ploughing, weeding, harvesting,
planting etc
 They provide transport on the farm by pushing or putting a trailer.
 They can operate a water pump for farm water.
 It can be used to operate grinding mills on the farm.
 Can operate a milking machine.
 Can drive a generator for electricity
 Can drive rotary equipments like grass cutters
 Can drive crop sprayers, harvesters etc
Factors that have limited wide spread of tractors
 High cost of tractors such that only few peoples can afford.
 High cost of tractor’s maintenance mainly spare parts.
 Lack of foreign exchange to purchase more tractors and spare parts
 High hire charges for the few available.
 High fuel costs which most farmers may not afford.
 The nature of the land may be unfavorable if it is hilly.
 Thick vegetation may also hinder the use of machine.
 Land tenure systems mainly fragmented land
 Inefficiency and corruption in tractor hire services.
Factors to consider when choosing/buying a tractor
Ease of operation and adjustment; the tractor to buy should be easy to use by the
farmer i.e. knowledge on the use and maintenance on the tractor should be
available.
Adoptability of the machine to work; the tractor should be versatile and able to
perform arrange of jobs.
Cost of machines; the benefits to be obtained from the use of the machine should
outweigh the financial costs of the tractors
Power of the tractor as measured in horse power; The power of the tractor
should be adequate to satisfy the power requirement on the farm.
Farm size; big farms require tractors with large horse power.
Availability of spare parts and after sales services; the more the availability of
these services the better the machine.
Operating costs of the machine; machine should be relatively economical in its
consumption of fuel and oil.
Efficiency at work; the tractor should be of proven competitence in the local
conditions preventing in the field.
Durability of the machine,
The guarantee of the seller, the seller should offer a reasonable period of time
faulty machines can be restored
The wheel width; where possible, the wheels should be adjusted to help in
weeding row crops.
Ease of mounting implements; it should be relatively easy to mount and remove
implements.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE TYPE OF MACHINARY TO BUY FOR FARM USE
 Farm size; larger farms require larger machines
 Amount of capital available; a farmer purchases what his farm can afford.
 Adaptability of the machine to work; machines should be versatile and able
to perform a range of jobs
 Durability; durable machines are more preferred by farmers.
 Cost of maintenance; machines with low maintenance cost are preferred.
 Source of power on the farm; some machines require specified types of
power to run.
 Topography; some machines may not work in hilly areas.
 Nature of vegetation; tall and thick vegetation may interfere with operation
of certain machines.
 Type of job to be performed; lighter jobs may require lighter machines.
 Availability of skills to operate the machines; i.e. one can only buy a
machine which is possible to be operated with the available skills.
 Soil conditions in the field may dictate the machinery to be bought i.e. Disc
plough for heavy clay soils.
  Availability of spare parts and ease of servicing the machine.
 Farmers’ choice and preference i.e. some farmers buy a model of a
machine due to his preference.
 The cost of the machine.
NB. Other sources of farm power which are not well developed in Uganda include.
i. Nuclear fission (use uranium)
ii. Nuclear fusion (use deuterium or tritium)
iii. Ocean energy i.e. tidal energy, wave energy, oceanic heat.
iv. Biogas and biomass.
v. Geothermal power.
vi. Hydrogen fuel cells
WAYS OF MAINTANING FARM TOOLS AND EQUIPTMENTS IN GOOD WORKING
CONDITION
 Keep tools and equipments in a safe place/tool boxes to avoid loss of some
of the parts
 Keep tools and equipment in dry or leak proof store/rusting of the parts
 Sharpen / stragglier the blades regularly to ensure efficiency.
 Replace broken handles to facilitate easy handling while urging them.
 Replace worn out blades and parts to increase efficiency.
 Lubricate the moving parts to reduce friction (wear & tear)
 Tighten any loose part to increase its efficiency while using.
 Use each tool or equipment for a specific job to avoid damage of parts.
 After use, clean the tools & equipments to increase efficiency.
 Make necessary adjustments in some parts to improve efficiency
 Replace lost bolts and nuts to increase efficiency.
Field capacity of a farm machine (tractors)
Theoretical field capacity of a machine; this is the amount of work possible that
can be done by the machine assuming that the machine works all the time at the
recommended speed
Effective field capacity of a machine; this is the actual rate of doing work by the
machines.
Field efficiency; this is the ratio of effective field capacity to theoretical field
capacity.
Performance efficiency; this is the percentage of work performed by the machine.
For harvesting equipment, it implies the efficiency in terms of the percentage of
crop yield harvested by the machine
total yield of a crop
Performance efficiency= themachine ¿ ×100
Output ¿

effective field capacity

Field efficiency = ×100
Theoretical field capacity

How a farmer can maintain ideal field capacity of a machine

 Correct land grading and field lay out to ease the movement of the machine
 Supervise and organization of tasks.
 Proper maintenance of the machine.
 Proper preparation of the machine before taking it to the field.
Why it is difficult to obtain actual field capacity of a machine
 It is always impossible for a machine to work at the recommended speed due
varying nature of the field.
 Bad weather may interfere with the machine operation in the field.
 Poor and skilled machine operators.
 Varying amount of power a vailable.
 Time wasted in turning at the end of rows or loading of seeds or fertilizers in
the machine.
 Mechanical breakdowns in the field.
TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS
These are used for inverting the soil and burying the weeds. They are grouped
depending on the stage/type of tillage they do i.e. primary tillage implements and
secondary tillage implements.

Examples of primary tillage implements; primary cultivation implements are

used for opening of the land in the initial stages of land preparation for planting.
They are used for deep cultivation e.g. the mould board, disc plough, ox-mould
board plough, chisel. Objectives of primary cultivation includes

 To kill or control weeds, unwanted crop plants and prevents their growth.
 To bury the residues of previous crop so as to make planting easy and
control soil erosion by leaving vegetation on the surface.
 To add fertilizer material to the soil.
 To improve upon the aeration of the soil.
 To destroy pest and their eggs by burying them or bringing them to the
surface for desiccation.
 To break impervious soil layers and hence improve drainage.
 To get the right tilth for the crop to be grown.
 To develop a desirable soil structure for seed bed.
 To leave the soil in a condition to retain moisture.
 To increase the total land under agriculture.
 To add humus and fertility to the soil by covering vegetation and manure
plough and sub soilers.

Examples of secondary tillage implements; secondary cultivation refers to

operations aimed at seedbed refinement usually done at least two weeks after
primary cultivation. It involves second ploughing, harrowing and leveling. The
time lag is to allow the weed seeds buried during primary cultivation to germinate
and hence be killed. Examples include cultivators (e.g. rotary
cultivators/rotavators, rigid tine and spring tine cultivators), disc harrows, ridgers
and rollers. Objectives of secondary cultivation includes
 To break down the hard tillage clods left by primary tillage
 To create the right tilth for crops.
 To level the land/soil in preparation for planting.
 To kill the weeds that had germinated after primary tillage.
 To mix fertilizers with the soil.
  To increase aeration and infiltration of water into the soil.
 To pulverize the soil of the seedbed in the field.
The number of operations required depends on
 The condition of the land; densely vegetated land requires more operations
than lightly vegetated land.
 Type of soil; sandy and other light soils require few operations.
 Type of seeds to be sown; small seeds require more operations than big
ones.
 Liability to erosion; if the soil is liable to soil erosion less operations will be
done.
 Financial stand of the farmer; richer farmers can afford more operations.
Factors that influence the choice of implement used for cultivation.
 Soil condition; dry/hard soils require heavy implements like a disc plough
while moist loose may require light implements e.g. hand hoe or ox-plough.
 Type of soil; sandy/light soils are easily cultivated by hand hoes, ox-plough
while heavy soils require disc ploughs.
 Topography; in hilly areas, tractors drawn implements may not be used
whereas ox-ploughs and hand hoes can be used.
 Nature of vegetation; ox-plough is used in areas with short vegetation while
a disc plough is used in areas with tall vegetation.
 Availability of capital/cost of implements; farmers with capital can afford
expensive implements while those with less capital can afford simple or less
expensive tools like a hand hoe, ox-plough etc.
 Conservativeness of farmers; some farmers are not willing to change from
use of traditional implements to modern ones.
 Size of land; where land is small or fragmented hand hoes and ox-plough
may be used. If land is large, tractor drawn implements can be used.
 Condition of the field; fields with many obstacles such as stones, stumps
require disc plough.
 Availability of skills; farmers choose implements which they can operate
easily.
 Nature of the seedbed required/type of crop; rough seedbeds require disc
harrows.
 Depth of cultivation; subsoilers can be used where deep cultivation is
required.
Important words used in relation to ploughing
Back furrows; these are raised ridges which are left behind after ploughing.
Furrow wall; this is the area or the wall separating the cultivated area and un-
cultivated land.
Dead furrow; is the open trench left after ploughing.
Furrow slice; the soil, which is cut, lifted and inverted by the plough.

Primary tillage implements

The disc plough
It is a plough which cuts, turns and in the some cases breaks furrow slices by
means of separately mounted large steel discs. The series of discs are mounted
onto the beam by the disc hanger.
The use of notched discs is sometimes preferred because they are lighter and chop
up vegetative materials better than the smooth edged.
Adisc plough works well in the conditions where mould board plough does not
work satisfactorily.
It can be used to plough;-
 Dry and hard soils.
 Soil surfaces covered with trash and thick/tall vegetation cover
 Land that has hidden objects e.g rocks/stonny, tree stumps, roots of trees etc.
 Heavy and sticky soils.
 Marsh or water logged areas.
 When deep ploughing is required.
Qn; under what circumstance would you recommend the use of adisc plough.
Structure of a disc plough
Components of the disc plough
Beam or frame; it supports the whole implement and provides an attachment unit
for all parts of the plough either directly or indirectly. Its weight increases the
degree of disc penetration into the soil during ploughing.
Disc; it is circular, concave revolving steel plate used for cutting, turning and
inverting the furrow slices. The edges of the disc is well sharpened to cut the soil.
NB: disc angle; it is the angle at which the plane of the cutting edge of the disc is
inclined to the direction of travel. (420 - 450)
Tilth angle; it is the angle at which the plane of the cutting edge of the disc is
inclined to vertical plane. (150-250).
Scraper; this removes soil that tends to stick to the working surface of a disc.
These small plates help to cover the trash and keep the discs clean by preventing
soil build up on the disc in sticky soils. They also assist the discs in inverting the
furrow slices.
Furrow wheel assembly (furrow wheel)
 It stabilizes the plough to avoid side swaying or swerving or swinging i.e. it
withstand a large amount of side thrust due to the pressure of the soil against
the discs. This is achieved by inclining the wheel in a suitable direction.
 It assists in the penetration of hard land, since the discs themselves have
little suction. The penetration is achieved by weighting the wheels i.e. it
contains springs which maintain pressure that helps the plough to cut deeper
into the soil.
 It also support the rear part of the plough and absorbs shocks and vibration
in fields with tree stumps, rocks, roots etc. this is attained by the adjusting
the pressure springs and screws.
Depth wheel; this can be lowered or raised to increase or decrease thr depth of
penetration of the plough respectively. In absence of depth wheel, the hydraulic
system may be used.
Cross shaft; it is used for attaching the plough onto the tractor in a 3-link system.
It is also used in adjusting the furrow width.
Standard (disc hanger); it connects the disc to the beam and it may be used to
adjust the angle of the disc.
Shank; this suspends the scrappers
The hub (bearings); facilitates rotary motion of the disc.
Bottom; this turns the furrow slices to one side by scooping as a result of its
rolling action.
Spring; it reduces shock on the plough.
Advantages of disc ploughs
  The concave discs freely rotate (discs cut soil by rolling action and not
sliding action of mould board ploughs). This enables the disc to ride over
buried obstructions e.g. roots, roots and tree stumps etc.
 Can work in areas where the climate is dry and where the soil is rough and
stony.
 It can plough well in areas covered with long loose rubbish as it rolls over
them easily.
 It leaves the trash on top of the ground so as to conserve moisture and
control soil erosion.
 The disc plough is less susceptible to damage since it is easy to handle in
difficult conditions e.g. when it strikes an obstruction, it jumps and rides
over without stopping the operation.
 Disc ploughs have less replaceable parts and therefore cheaper to maintain.
 They have longer service life.
 Pulling force by the tractor is less (less power needed)
 It is easy to mount on a tractor.
 Depth of penetration can be increased and controlled in many ways e.g. by
adding weights to the hollow cylindrical beam that is connected to the
frames.
 They also work well in heavy clays, hard pans and loose sandy soils.
 Saves time since they are quick.
 The rough surface reduces soil erosion
Demerits of disc plough
 It does not burry the rubbish/vegetation completely i.e. cannot turn the
furrow slices completely and therefore leaves uneven seedbed. (its inversion
is poor)
 Disc plough is much heavier than mould board plough for equal capacities
because penetration of this plough is affected largely by its weight rather
than suction.
 Its initial cost is more than that of a mould board.
 It leaves the field in a very rough state.
 Sometimes it fails to cut all the ground
 It requires more skills to use and maintain
 Leaves the field in a very rough state.
Care and maintenance of the disc plough
Daily work maintenance (before and after work)
 Check all parts especially tightness of all bolts and nuts and have them
tighten of loose.
 Clean discs and scrapers from soil, trash etc. after work.
 Check for parts worn out, dented or bent and repair or replace if necessary.
 Grease all bearings through nipples using a grease gun i.e. lubricate the
bearings regularly.
 Straighten the plough beam if bent during the operation.
If the plough is to be stored for long period i.e. out of season.
 Clean with great care all parts and coat with wasted oil or grease or paint to
safe guard them from corrosion/rusting.
 Repair or replace faulty/worn out parts.
 Pack grease in all bearings.
 Store the plough in all a good bearing.
 Store the plough in a good shade.
Safety regulations when using a disc plough.
 Horn or signal when taking off.
 Never carryout service when the tractor is moving to avoid accidents.
 Never carryout repairs, adjustments etc. under the plough i.e when the
plough is in a lifted position.
 Never sit on the plough beam or load it while the tractor is moving.
 In dusty and windy weather, use goggles and musks.
Adjustments that can be done on a disc plough.
 The cutting angle (adjusting the disc bottom); the disc should be adjusted at
420-450 from the line of travel. This can be achieved by pivoting the main
beam or the standard
  The depth of digging; this is corrected by changing the height of depth
wheel or adjusting hydraulic system. It can also be adjusted from the top
link i.e. if the link is too short, then the rear units of the plough remain lifted
out of the soil.
 Vertical leveling of the plough; the plough front bottom should dig at the
same depth as the rear disc. This adjustment is done by use of top link of the
tractor mounting system. If the front disc penetrates at greater depth than
the rear disc bottom, it means that the top link is lifting the plough more
from the rear. The top link is therefore short. To level the plough, lengthen
the top link until when all the bottoms penetrate at the same depth. The
reverse is done if the rear bottom digs deeper than the front disc bottom.
 Left and right leveling or horizontal adjustment. When standing at the rear
of the tractor with the plough at work, the plough should be leveled left and
right i.e. parallel to the ground. This adjustment is done by use of the
leveling box of the mounting system of the tractors or lift rods of the tractor
longitudinal lower links. If the plough discs do not turn the soil slices
completely. It means the plough is tilted more to the left i.e. the leveling
box is short. So lengthen the leveling box to make the plough parallel to the
ground.
 Furrow slice adjustment (furrow width); this is attained by adjusting the
plough cross shaft and the furrow wheel assembly.
 Free loaded spring and bolt adjustment; this is used for adjusting the
pressure of the discs on the soil so that it absorbs the shocks when the
furrow wheel meets obstacles or harder soil. Too tight spring causes the
furrow wheel to break and loose makes the plough to come out of the
furrow and the rear part swings sideways during work.
 Scrapers adjustment; this is adjusted such that the blade must be too close
not touching the disc and the nose or point should extend up to the center of
the disc.
Note: By increasing the tilth angle, penetration is improved.
By increasing the disc angle, penetration is improved but the width of cut is
reduced.
By adding weights to the plough, penetration can be increased.
The width of the cut by the plough may be adjusted by adjusting the angle between
the frame and land wheel axle.
Mould board plough
This is also a primary tillage implement/tool and is primarily intended for use in
situations where it is desired to invert the soil in order to burry crop residue. Also it
is used in areas where there is sufficient or large amount of rainfall to produce a
good crop.
This plough performs several functions at a time such as;
 Cutting the furrow slice
 Lifting the furrow slice
 Turning the furrow slice
 Pulverizing the soil.
Structure of mould board plough
 Compone
nts of mould board plough
Share; this is the first part of the plough to enter the soil and cut a furrow slice.
It then lifts the cut soil by sliding action and delivers it to the mould board.
Different portions of the share are called by different names such as;
Share point; it is the first part of the share to enter the soil.
Cutting edge; this is the front edge of the share which makes horizontal cut in soil.
Gunnel; part of the share that is connected to the land side.
Wing of the share; it is the edge of the share forthest from the gunnel.
Clevage edge; forms joint between mould board and share on the frog.
 Types of share
Slip share; it is curved edge with no additional part

Slip nose share; it has additional detachable part

Shin share; has a shin as an additional part

Bar share; has additional bar which works as a land side.

Mould board; this receives the soil cut by the share and because of its curvature, it
inverts, break up and dump the cut slice on the pair of neighbouring furrow slices.
Therefore the mould board invert the furrow slice and covers the vegetation
materials. Mould boards are made of cast iron.
Types of mould boards
Slatted; its body is made up of slats which have gaps between them. It is used
when the soil has attendance of sticking on the mould plough

Stubble; it is short in size. It turns the furrow slice quickly thus pulverized soil. It
is used on old ground where pulverization is needed. But is not used where are
grasses.

General purpose; it is a long mould boards which turns the furrow slice gradually.
It is used in general farm work to give pulverization.

Functions of the parts on mould board plough

Land side; it helps to make a neat furrow. It presses the furrow wall, absorbing the
side way thrust of the plough and makes sure that the board is stable.
Frog; it is a component that connects the share mould plough and land side.
Beam; this provides connection between the ploughs and source of power. It’s
where all components are attached.
NB; the share, mould board, land side, standard and the frog form the plough
bottom.
Adjustments on a mould board plough
 Adjusting the depth
Remove or raise the depth wheel as far as it can go.
For deeper ploughing, raise the vertical adjustment bar and for shallow
ploughing, lower the vertical adjustment bar, then make a few runs to make sure
the adjustment has been successful.
After acquiring the necessary depth, fit back or lower the depth wheel until it
lightly touches the surfaces of the soil.
Adjusting the width
If wide furrows are wanted, the chain attachment needs to be moved towards
the land that has been ploughed. This will cause the beam front to move
towards the unploughed land and cause the share to make a wider cut. If narrow
furrows are wanted, the chain attachment should be moved towards the land
that has not been ploughed
NB; the centre of pull/resistance is the point where all forces on the plough
act.
Making a choice when buying a mould board plough
 Check the plough and ensure that there is sufficient range of adjustments
possible at the front hitching brasket for the chain or beam to enable
adjustments for ploughing width and depth.
 Make sure that all the wearing parts may readily be detachable for repair.
 Choose a light weight plough whenever possible as it is easier to handle.
 Choose alonger mould board shape for heavier soils and windy land. A
shorter mould board works best in lighter soils.
 The support wheel is important for transport and one with a larger diameter
will run more easily than a small wheel.
Preliminary checks/maintenance of mould board ploughs.
Before field work starts
 Check all bolts for tightness
 Ensure that the bolts holding the wheel support and the hitch regulator
can be loosened for later adjustment in the field.
  Look at the plough from the front and ensure that the alignment of the
beam and the landside is straight. Any distortion will make the plough
difficult to control.
 Inspect the condition of the share, mould board, landside and wheel axle
replacing all worn out parts.
 Don’t grease the wheel axle as this attracts soil particles which increase
the rate of wear.
Maintenance at the end of the day work
 Scrap soil off in the field
 Tighten all nuts and bolts
 Check all wearing parts and replace them if necessary.
 If the plough will not be used over the next few days, wash and oil the
plough, particularly the mould board but never oil the wheel axle.
End of season maintenance
 Thoroughly clean and check all the parts on the plough for wear or damage.
 Repair the wearing parts and replace all damaged nuts and bolts.
 Coat the mould board and share with grease/oil to corrosion/rusting or paint
if necessary.
 Store it in a dry shade.
Differences between a disc plough and a mould board plough
Disc plough Mould board plough
The disc rolls as they plough and It glides/slides when ploughing
therefore can roll over obstacles therefore cannot roll over obstacles
Rolling action avoids breakage Plough gets stuck easily and therefore
breaks easily.
It requires less power to pull It requires more power to pull
It has poor inversion of the furrow It has a good inversion of the furrow
slices slices.
It produces a rough seedbed which It produces a relatively smooth seedbed
requires secondary cultivation before which may not require secondary
planting seeds can take place cultivation before seeds are planted
It can be used to plough in areas with It cannot be used in areas with plenty
plenty of trash/vegetation, stones, tree of trash/vegetation, stones, tree stumps.
stumps.
Do not burry the weeds/trash Burry the weeds/vegetation completely
completely
Maintenance cost is low, its blade is Maintenance costs is higher since it
durable and does not require requires frequent replacement or
sharpening or replacement sharpening
It is best suited to virgin land because Best suited to stubble land (land which
of its rolling effect was previously plough)
Operates well in hard baked land, Does not operate in hard baked, heavy
heavy soils, sticky soils or sticky soils.
No skim and disc coulters Has skim and disc coulters
Has heavy components Has lighter components
Disc bearing No disc bearing
Has discs Has mould boards
Has a furrow wheel No furrow wheel
Has scrappers No scrappers

THREE POINT LINKAGE

MOUNTING/HITCHING A PLOUGH ONTO A TRACTOR
Hitching; is a process of attaching any implement on a tractor especially at 3-point
linkage.
The three point linkages consists of the top link and the lower links. The top link
has an adjustable or threaded arrangement which allows its length to be
increased/decreased. It is pivoted on the back housing of the tractor. The lower
links are connected by means of U-shaped yoke and rocker arm to the piston. The
right lower link is adjustable whereas the left link is fixed. Each of the three links
has a ball joint which fits onto the corresponding links on an implement.
Steps when hitching a plough on to a tractor
 Place the implement in a clear area, where the tractor can reach.
 Reverse the tractor with the lower links raised just above the level of the
cross shaft towards the plough until the left hand lower link is correctly
placed for the attachment.
 Ensure all the ball joint are in the same category as those of the implement.
 Lower the linkage until the left lower link is at the correct height.
 Then brake the tractor and dismount.
 Attach the left lower arm and secure with linch pin.
  Using the leveling box fitted to the right hand lower link and if necessary the
cross-shaft adjusting screw, align the right hand link and secure with linch
pin.
 Fix the top link which is also adjustable.
 Reverse the tractor and raise the tractor implement using the hydraulic
system.
 Do not allow anyone to stand between the implement and tractor when
hitching.
 Avoid excess swing of the implement that may affect the tractor wheel by
shortening the check chains evenly on each side of the tractor.
 Ensuring that there is still sufficient free plain to permit the plough to move
freely when at work.
NB; tractor drawn/mounted implements can either be of trailed, semi-mounted
or mounted implements.
A trailed implement is the one that is attached to the tractor draw bar by a pin joint.
The main body of the implement is supported by its own wheel.
A semi mounted implement is hitched to more than one point. The front part of the
implement is mounted and the other part is supported on its own rear wheel.
Amounted implement is hitched to three points. When raised, it is fully supported
by the tractor. It is raised or lowered by use of tractor hydraulics e.g. disc ploughs,
mould board ploughs, disc harrows.
Maintenance of farm machines (conditions for keeping farm machinery)
 There should be a proper shed or shelter for storage of implements when not
in use. This ensures longer service life.
 An effort should be made to ensure that particular implements are stored in
particular places to avoid mixing them.
 The implements should be kept clean and dry after use and where applicable,
hung up to drain.
 The implements should be used for the job for wich they are intended
following the manufacturer’s instructions.
 Regular servicing either daily or periodically and carrying out of minor
repairs and replacements are vital
 When using mobile machinery, it is necessary to use the correct speed and
watch out for any leakages and breakages.
  Implements should be kept clean and dry after use.
 Grease, oil or paint moving parts of the implement to reduce friction.
Sharpen blunt blades.
 Replace and repair worn out parts
 Tighten loose bolts and nuts
ANIMAL DRAWN EQUIPMENT
Unlike tractor drawn equipment, animal drawn equipments are simple in
construction, smaller and made of lighter material. Examples include ox-
mouldboard ploughs, ox-ridgers, ox-seeders, ox-weeders, ox-carts and ox-tool
frames and toolbars.
Advantages of animal drawn equipment
 They are cheap to buy and have low maintenance costs.
 They don’t need highly skilled labour
 They need no fuel and therefore don’t burn fuel to pollute the
environment.
 They require more people to work with, thus create job opportunities on
the farm.
 Most of the implements can be made locally, thus saving foreign
exchange.
Disadvantages of animal drawn equipment
 They do less work as compared to tractor drawn implements
 Can only operate shallow cultivations.
 Require more land for grazing of oxen.
 For animals which work as a pair, if one of the animals becomes sick the
other cannot work alone, leading to postponement of work.
 Animals easily tire up and cannot work effectively in hot or very cold
weather conditions.
OX-PLOUGH (OX-MOULD BOARD PLOUGH)
This implement is commonly pulled by an oxen hence the name ox-mould
board plough. It is light in weight, simple to set and needs no specialist of skills
to operate it.
Structure of ox-drawn mould board plough
Components of ox-plough
Main beam; it where all components are attached either directly or indirectly.
Handle bar/grip/braces/stay; used to keep the handle in position
Handles; they provide the point where the operator controls and guides the
plough during transportation to the field and during ploughing.
Hitch point; provides an attachment point for the draw chain from the yoke.
Shaft rod; it is used to adjust the depth and width of ploughing.
 Mould board; used to invert/turn the furrow slice received from the share and
covers the vegetation materials.
Frog; it provides attachment for the mould board, land side and the share.
Draft rod; it is where a chain is connected from the yoke for pulling purposes.
Land/wheel; helps to regulate the depth of ploughing and also enables the
operator to gauge furrow slice.
Land side; it presses against the furrow wall, separating the furrow slice from
unploughed land and makes the plough stable.
Share; used to cut the furrow slice and pass it to the mould board.
Coulter; it is round disc blade used for cutting grass. It makes a vertical cut
into the soil to separate the furrow slice to separare the furrow slice from
unploughed land. It is also used to cut strips of soil from the furrow slice to
assist in burying surface vegetation.
The depth wheel; it is used in setting plough depth. When the wheel is raised
the plough depth is increased and when the wheel is lowered the plough depth
is decreased.
Necessary adjustments on the ox-mould board ploughs
(i) Plough depth adjustments may by;-
 Depth wheel adjustments; raising the position of the depth wheel
increases the depth of ploughing and lowering the depth wheel
educes the depth of ploughing.
 Adjusting the angle of hitch
 Adjusting the depth rod
(ii) Ploughing width adjustment is achieved by adjusting the depth rod by
moving the depth rod vertically.
Procedures of hitching a plough to the oxen
By the use of the yoke and the hitching chain, the oxen and the plough should act
together as a single unit.
 Prepare and assemble all the needed equipment at the field to be cultivated.
These include the yoke, hitching chain, muzzles or halters.
 Prepare the plough.
  Assemble and pair up the oxen; the number of animals to use will depend on
the type of the yoke available and the amount of power needed from the
animal.
 Fix the yoke on the neck just in front of the hump and secure the yoke with a
rope running around the neck.
 Fix the muzzle in place to stop the oxen from eating crops.
 Fix the hitching chain between the yoke and the plough.
 Adjust the plough depth and the pitch as required.
Advantages of ox-mould board plough
 Gives a good inversion of the furrow slice.
 Ox-mould board plough requires less skills to operate than tractor drawn
ploughs
 Ox-mould board plough requires less power to pull.
 It can operate at uniform depth of seedbed and furrows.
 It clearly burry vegetation.
 The furrow slices are well crushed to give a fine soil tilth favourable for seed
germination
 It leaves the soil surface relatively smooth since the furrows have shallow
depressions and there are no uncultivated strips of land between furrows.
 Some reversible types of ox-ploughs can be used in construction of soil
conservation structures like ridges and furrows
 It is cheap to buy than tractor drawn ploughs
 It produces relatively clean and good seedbed ready for planting in one
operation thus there is no needs for secondary cultivation thus reducing
costs.
Disadvantages of ox-mouldboard plough
 It can’t work in stony/slum areas i.e. places with obstruction
objects/obstacles e.g. stones or thick vegetation.
 Easily breakable since it is rigid.
 It can’t work efficiently in dry and hard areas or heavy sticky soils.
 It can easily create hard soil pans since it operates at the same depth.
 Requires high power for pulling.
 It is more expensive to maintain than a disc plough.
 Cannot be used in steep slopes.
 Animal scan not work well in hot or very cold weather.
  Continuous usage can lead to development of hard pans.
 It can increase soil erosion because of fine/smooth seed bed.
Maintenance of the ox-mouldboard plough.
 Regular checking of the condition of the share, it should be re-sharpened if it
becomes blunt, worn out share should be replaced with new share.
 Regular checking off the bolts and nuts; loose bolts and nuts should be
tightened, broken or damaged or lost bolts and nuts should be replaced with
new bolts and nuts.
 Replace warn out heel of the landside.
 Keep the plough parts clean and free from soils all the time as long as the
plough is not in the field working to reduce chances of rusting.
 Keep all moving parts mainly the depth wheel and the disc coulter well
lubricated with grease.
 At the end of the season store the plough under a shade to protect it from bad
weather such as rains and sunshine which could lead to distortion and
degradation of the plough parts.
 Coat the whole implement with oil film or paint the parts to prevent rusting
of the components.
Achieving excellent performance from the ox-mouldboard plough during
cultivation
 Mount the implement properly on the ox.
 Use the right type of share for the right soil conditions.
 Sharpen the share properly before using it on the plough
 Use the right mouldboard for the required field condition use the
digger/stable type for higher pulverization and general purpose for moderate
pulverization.
 Check for loose nuts and bolts and tighten them.
 Clear the field very well removing tall vegetation, roots and tree stumps.
 Drive the oxen at a constant speed.
 Plough the soil when it has moderate moisture. Not too dry or too wet as
these affect animal traction.
 Set the depth wheel correctly to ensure correct ploughing depth.
Some calculations related to ploughing
NB; center of draft; this is the point at which the entire load of the implement
acts.
Center of power or pull; this is the point at which the power source is supposedly
acting. For the case of apair of animals, it can be taken as being half way between
the yoke. For a tractor, it is at the halfway between the wheels or at the center of
the tractor draw bar.
Line of draft; this is a straight line from the center of draft to the center of power.
Plough draft; this is the force or pull to overcome soil resistance.
Suppose a plough 150mm wide is furrowing 60mm deep in the soil that offers a
resistance of 2N per square centimeter of cross-section and the plough is pulled a
distance of 3.6km in one hour (1m in one second). Calculate
(a) Total draft of the plough
(b) Power expended by the oxen
Solution
(a) Total draft of the plough
Total cross-section of furrow=6 X 15 = 90cm2
Unit draft (or resistance) = 2N/cm2
Therefore total draft = cross section of the furrow X unit draft
=90 X 2 =180N
(b) Power expended by the oxen
Power =force (N) X rate of working
But, work done = draft force X distance = 180 X 1 =180kgm
By definition, one horse power equals the work done when 75kg have been
lifted through a distance of 1 metre in 1 second.
Power =180 X 1 =2.4 hp
75

PLANTING EQUIPMENTS
Planting refers to the placement of planting materials at a particular depth into the
soil.
Classification of planting equipment
Broadcasters; these randomly scatter seeds on the soil surface
Transplanters; these shift seedlings into a field from the nurseries.
Row crop planters; these are the most common planting equipment. They are
designed to plant seeds in rows far enough to permit inter row cultivation of the
crop. They may be xo-mounted or tractor mounted or driven by hands.
Other uncommon types include; precision planters, check row planters, hill drop
planters and drill planters.
Features/qualities of a good planting equipment
 It should be able to regulate the seed rate i.e. the quantity of seed to be
planted per given area.
 It should be able to change planting depth as desired or plant at uniform
depth
 It should be able to change space between crop rows as desired by the
farmer.
 It should have its own mechanism of covering the seeds with soil to avoid
birds and rodents from picking the seeds.
 It shade be able to plant seeds of different sizes and shapes.
 It should be relatively light to easy transportation from the store to the farm.
 It should remain accurate even when much or less seeds are left in the seed
hopper.
 Preferably it should have a provision for fertilizer application so that seeds
and fertilizers are released to the soil simultaneously. This saves time and
costs on the farm.
 It should remain accurate at varying soil conditions (in either wet and dry
soil or light and heavy/stony soils.)
 It should be able to operate at varying speed without changing the seed rate
and spacing and without damaging the seeds.
 It should be able to maintain its accuracy even when there is few seeds in
the seed hopper
Illustration of tractor drawn row-planter
Illustration of ox drawn row-planter

Functions of the parts of row planter (tractor drawn) and ox-drawn planter
Press wheel
 It helps to move the planter over the soil while planting.
 It provides the source of power to derive the seed metering mechanism.
 Presses and firms the soil covering the seed to allow maximum contact
between the soil and the seed to prevent birds and rodents from picking the
seeds.
Seed box or hopper; it holds seeds until they are released to the delivery tube for
dropping in the soil.
Seed metering unit/mechanism;
 It controls the amount of seeds released from the hopper for placement into
the soil.
 With the help of the seed plate, it controls the spacing of the seeds within the
crop rows.
Seed metering tube; it carries seeds from the seeds released from the hopper to
the furrow opener. The texture and the length of the delivery tube has a direct
effect on the time is dropped in the soil, thus the spacing of the seed during
planting.
Furrow opener; it cuts the soil and pushes the soil sideways leaving an open
furrow where the seed is dropped. It is used in adjusting the depth of sowing the
seeds, lowering the position of the furrow opener produces deeper sowing and
raising the position of the furrow opener producers shallow sowing.
Seed covers; a chain dragged behind the furrow opener. It covers seeds in the
furrow with the soil to allow easy germination of the seed and to protect the seeds
from birds and rodents.
Frame; provides a base to which all the parts of the planter are attached either
directly or indirectly.
Transport device; this allows the machine to move easily over the soil during
planting or used to transport the produce from the field to the store.
Depth regulating lever; lowers or raises the furrow openers.
Boot; joins the furrow opener to the seed tube.
Drive mechanism; transport power from the transport wheels to the seed delivery
system.
Agitator; stirs and keeps the seed flowing freely.
Factors affecting the performance of the planters
 Speed of the drive; very high animal/tractor spend increases the revolving
speed of the seed plate results into massive seed damage or failure of te seed
plate to pick seeds from the hopper.
 Soil moisture content; wet soils reduce animal traction and the soil tends to
stick to the press wheel which drives the metering mechanism affecting the
 spacing of the seeds within the row.
 Soil tilth; very rough tilth interferes with smooth movement of the planter on
the soil surface in that when the press which reaches deep furrows, it fails to
rotate preventing the release of the seeds from the hopper.
 Amount of seeds in the hopper; the seed pickup capacity of the seed plate is
reduced when the volume of the seeds in the hopper decrease thus it is
advisable to refill the hopper frequently to keep the level of seeds in the
hopper at acceptable level.
Factors affecting the seed rate/spacing by the planter
 The size of the seed plate
 The number of seed cells and the space between individual cells.
 The speed of rotation of the seed plate.
 The position of the bottom plate
 The length and nature of the delivery tube
 The position of the adjustable slide.
 The condition of the seedbed (texture and moisture content)
Maintenance of the planters
 Clean the whole planter every after day’s work; clean the hoppers, furrow
openers and the drive wheel.
 Repair/replace all the damaged or lost parts of the planter
 Lubricate all the moving points regularly with appropriate lubricants such as
oil or grease.
 Keep the body of the moving planter well painted to avoid rusting.
 At the end of the season work, empty all the remaining seeds and fertilizer
from the hoppers and wash the hoppers with clean water.
 Thoroughly scrub all the fertilizers clogged in the metering mechanism and
other metal parts in contact with fertilizers to avoid corrosion of these parts.
 Store the planter under cover to avoid bad weather that could lead to
deterioration of the planter parts.
 Coat the entire planter with oil film-rust preparation.

How to ensure efficient functioning of the tractor drawn row-planter

 Put seeds in the hopper about three quarters full to avoid spillage.
  Set holes according to the size of the seeds e.g. small holes to small sized
seeds.
 Ensure that the disc is rotating during planting to be able to drop the seeds.
 Plant when soils are fairly dry as wet soils reduce the speed of the disc
rotation.
 The tractor should operate at recommended speed to come up with even
planting.
 Ensure the functioning of the press wheel and fertilizer attachment.
 Ensure proper tension of the drive chains.
 Ensure that seeds are there all the time in the seed hopper during work.
 Use appropriate sprockets for appropriate rate of turning of the seed plate.
How the ox-drawn planter and tractor drawn planter works
 As planter is pulled by the animals/tractor the press wheel fitted with
sprocket also rotates.
 A chain or gears fitted to the press wheel rotates the seed plate
 The furrow opener fitted at the end of the tube cut small furrow by
scratching the soil.
 As the seed plates rotates, the cells or pockets on the seed plate picks up
seeds from the hopper and drops the seeds into the delivery tube.
 The delivery tube delivers seeds from the seed plate to the furrow.
 The chain pulled behind the seed delivery tube covers the seed with the soil.
 The press wheel at the back of the planter rides over the soil covering the
seed and presses it to make it firm
 Spacing between plants in the row is altered by changing the seed plate and
by adjusting the speed of rotation of the seed plate.
 The depth of sowing is altered by changing position of the furrow opener.
(either lowering or raising the position of the furrow opener)
(Opening of the furrow, selection/metering the seeds from the hopper,
placement of the seeds, covering of the seeds and firming the soil around the
seed)
Advantages of using a planter
 It is faster thus can plant a large volume of seeds/ large area of land
within a short time.
 It can sow different types of seeds.
  Some planters can be used to sow seeds and apply fertilizers at the same
time reducing labour and time required to perform the two activities
separately.
 Produces uniform spacing of crops within and between rows. This makes
mechanical weeding, spraying and harvesting easy to carry out.
 It reduces the cost of planting the field since planters reduce labour cost
of seeds as there is no wastage of seeds.
 It require less labour to sow seeds per unit area of land.
 It covers and firm the seeds uniformly and give a uniform emergence of
seedlings.
 It saves seeds since seeds are not wasted by burying them too far.
 It plants seeds at uniform depth and so give uniform germination.
Calibration of planters
It involves selecting the correct seed plate and checking its performance on
whether to well apply the rates you want. It is the checking of the sowing rate of
the planter.
The field method
 Fill the seed hopper with known volume of seeds
 Sow all the seeds in the hopper
 Measure the total area sown with the seeds
 Calculate the amount of seeds required to sow the whole field
 Compare the results with required standards and adjust the planter
accordingly
The static or laboratory method
 Jack up the driving/press wheel of the planter
 Remove the delivery tube and put a bag/container to collect the seeds which
falls out the metering unit.
 Put seeds in the hopper
 Set the planter at the setting to be checked.
 Put the planter into gear and turn the driving wheel for a number of times
equivalent to the length of the field.
 Weigh the seeds collected in the bag and multiply with the number of rows
to be planted to obtain the amount of seeds to be required to sow the whole
field.
Reasons why it is important to calibrate the planter before using it in the field.
 Wearing of the parts of the feed mechanism normally takes place that alters
the seed rate
 Different seeds require different planter settings in terms of spacing and
depth of planting.
 Sometimes the instructions in the manual may have been wrongly
interpreted.
 Wrong setting may lead to wrong seed rate and sometimes lead to damaging
of the seeds.
 Proper calibration increase efficiency and increases profitability on the firm
due to high yield and reduces cost of gap filling and thinning.

Praying equipments
Spraying equipments are designed to apply agricultural chemicals to crops and
livestock precisely without interfering with the life of crops and animals.
Dusters are equipments used to apply agricultural chemicals in powder form
while sprayers apply agricultural chemicals in liquid form. When chemicals are
applied in liquid form, water or oil acts as the carrier and when applied in
powder form, air acts as the carrier.
Generally, the chemicals when mixed can form one of the following
Solutions; the concentrate whether originally powder or liquid is completely
dissolved in water and it doesn’t require further mixing/stiring.
Emulsions; the concentration whether originally powder or liquid breaks into
small droplets and disperses in water but does not actually dissolve
Suspensions; the concentrate in powder form remain suspended in water and
needs constant stiring to prevent settling of the chemical at the bottom of the
container.
Advantages of using a bucket spray pump
  It is simple to operate i.e. requires less skills.
 It has low maintenance costs due to few delicate parts.
 Can be used for a long time without breaking down i.e. its robust/durable.
 It is cheap to buy.
 Its highly mobile hence can be operated in different parts of the farm.
 Uses human power hence good for remote areas without electricity.
Disadvantages of bucket spray pump
 Its labour intensive i.e. requires a lot of labour.
 It may not easily spray crops in gardens since it cannot be moved
Working of a bucket spray pump
 Place the acaricide in the bucket.
 Dip the barrel in the acaricide until the valve and strainer are fully
immersed.
 Place the leg and foot out of the bucket.
 Place your foot on the foot of the pump while holding the handle.
 Ensure that the hose pipe is well connected to the delivery hose.
 Use the right hand to hold the handle while the left should hold the lance
handle trigger control.
 Move the handle up to suck the acaricide and down to deliver it to the hose
pipe.
 Use the trigger to control the acaricide released through the nozzle during
spraying.
Merits of using a plantector pump
 Cheap to buy
 Cheap to maintain
 Easy to operate
 Light to carry i.e. highly portable.
 Can be used to spray crops and animals
 Can be used in watering crops
Working mechanism of operation of a knapsack sprayer.
 Open the cap and fill the tank with liquid
 Close the cap tightly
 Operate the handle to build pressure in cylinder
  Press the trigger to open outlet valve
 Liquid flows to the nozzle through the lance.
 Liquid comes out through the nozzle in a spray fashion
Datails about operation of hand operated knap sack sprayer
The knapsack sprayer has a pump that is operated by hand. The chemical solution
is filled into the sprayer tank. Upward and downward movement of the handle
causes the pump piston to move up and down. When the piston moves down, the
inlet valve opens and the outlet valve closes. The chemical solution enters the
pressure chamber. When the piston moves up, pressure is created in the pressure
chamber. The inlet valve closes and the outlet valve opens allowing the pressurized
chemical to flow out of the pressure chamber to the lance which is fitted with the
valve. When the trigger along the lance handle is pressed, the lance valve opens
and the pressurized solution is forced to pass out through the nozzle fitted at the
end of the lance. As the pressurized solution passes through the nozzle, it breaks
down into fine droplets.

Essential parts of asprayer and their functions

Tank; this may be made of plastic or fiberglass, so as to prevent corrosion caused
by the chemicals used. The tank carries and stores the chemical before it is pumped
to the nozzles.
Pump; creates the necessary pressure to the chemical that pushes the chemical
through the lance and the nozzles.
Trigger; controls the flow of the liquid to the nozzle to achieve aspray.
Lance; this is the metallic pipe to which the nozzle is fitted. It acts as the extension
for the nozzle.
Nozzle; this is an exit of the chemical from the tank. It helps to break the spray
liquid into fine droplets which can be applied sufficiently on the plant surface or
animal’s body.
Filters; they are located at the filling point, at the pump and the nozzle. They help
to trap any dirt from the liquid spray to avoid damaging and blocking of the pump
and the nozzle.
Maintenance of sprayers.
 Use clean water/acaricide in the sprayers to reduce blockages.
 Ensure that leakages on the hose pipes are repaired.
 Replace all damaged valves regularly.
 Regularly oil the parts that require oiling.
 Wash the sprayers after work to reduce corrosion by the chemicals.
 Regularly unblock the nozzles, pipes, filters and hoses.
 All rubber parts should be well washed and stored in cool dry place.
 At the end of the season, the sprayer should be emptied, washed and the
nozzles removed and stored separately.
 Store the sprayer under cover to protect it from strong sunshine and rains.
 During mixing of the chemicals never put concentrated chemicals first in the
empty tank but rather first put water in the tank and then add the
concentrated chemical, this avoid corrosion of the sprayer parts.
 When changing from one chemical to another the tank should be drained and
the whole sprayer washed with clean water and soap.
Checks carried out before using a sprayer
 Check that the pump is working properly.
 Check and seal off any leakage all over the sprayer.
 Check and ensure that the tank is clean, remove any leftover chemical
especially if a different chemical is to be added.
 Check and ensure that the filters are in good condition.
 Check and ensure that the nozzle is in good working condition and that the
proper type of nozzle is attached.
 Ensure that the sprayer is well calibrated.
  Ensure that the tank contains correct amount of liquid chemical.
Factors affecting the performance of sprayers
 Operating pressure; this determines atomization (droplet size) of the liquid,
application rate is reduced.
 The nozzle size; the nozzle size affects the application rate, size of the
droplets, and droplet distribution, small sized nozzles produce low
application rate, small droplets and high drift.
 The height of the nozzle above the target; this affects the swath width and
droplet distribution.
Crop processing equipment
After the crop is harvested the following operations need to be carried put;
Threshing; detaching grains from the earheads (as in the case of sorghum, millet,
wheat). The machine involved is called a thresher.
Dehusking; this is the removing of the sheath covering maize cobs or removing
outer layer of rice grain. The machine involved is called a dehusker.
Decorticating; this involves breaking and removing the shell from crops like
groundnut, cocoa. The machine involved is called a decorticator.
Shelling; this involves removing seeds from the cobs (as for maize). The machine
involved is called a sheller.
Hulling; this involves removing seeds if the seed coat or testa from grains. It is
done in shelled maize and rice. The machine involved is called a huller.
Pulping; this involves the removal of coffee beans from the husks. Mainly done
immedietly after picking, before the cherries dry out. The machine involved is
called a coffee pulper.
Pressing; this involves squeezing of the crop harvest to extract juice or oil. It is
done in sugar cane and oil crops.
Winnowing; this involves separating chaff, pods and shells from threshed grains.
The machine involved is called a winnower.
Milling; this involves grinding or crushing the grain/crop to reduce its. The
machine involved is called a mill or milling machine.