Grammar I - General Notes - 2025
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g.biancaUniversidad del Salvador
Escuela de Lenguas Modernas
GRAMÁTICA INGLESA I
GENERAL NOTES
UNIVERSIDAD DEL SALVADOR
Escuela de Lenguas Modernas
Gramática Inglesa I
General Notes
i
Contents
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 1: WHAT IS GRAMMAR ...................................................................................... 2
1.1.- Nature and definitions of grammar .................................................................................... 2
1.2.- Fallacies concerning grammar ........................................................................................... 3
1.3.- Linguistics and the components of language ..................................................................... 6
1.4.- Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships ..................................................................... 8
CHAPTER 2: WORDS AND MORPHEMES......................................................................... 11
2.1.- Words and morphemes .................................................................................................... 11
2.2.- Roots, derivational, and inflectional morphemes ............................................................ 11
2.2.1.- Root morphemes ........................................................................................................... 11
2.2.2.- Derivational morphemes ............................................................................................... 11
2.2.3.- Inflectional morphemes ................................................................................................ 12
2.3.- Morphemes and allomorphs ............................................................................................. 12
2.4.- Morphs and morphemes ................................................................................................... 12
2.5.- English inflectional morphology...................................................................................... 12
2.6.- English derivational morphology ..................................................................................... 13
2.7.- Compounding ................................................................................................................... 13
2.8.- Other sources of words .................................................................................................... 13
2.9.- Concluding words ............................................................................................................ 14
CHAPTER 3: THE SENTENCE ............................................................................................. 15
3.1.- Defining a sentence .......................................................................................................... 15
3.2.- Types of sentences ........................................................................................................... 15
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3.3.- Sentence functions and types ........................................................................................... 16
3.4.- Sentence polarity: positive vs. negative ........................................................................... 17
3.5.- Voice: active and passive ................................................................................................. 17
3.6.- Functions and categories .................................................................................................. 18
3.6.1.- Syntactic function ......................................................................................................... 18
3.6.1.1.- Nuclear constituents ................................................................................................... 18
3.6.1.2.- Extra-nuclear / peripheral constituents ...................................................................... 23
3.6.2.- Syntactic category ......................................................................................................... 26
3.7.- Concluding words ............................................................................................................ 26
CHAPTER 4: THE PARTS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE .................................................. 27
4.1.- Structure, form, and function ........................................................................................... 27
4.2.- Subject, predicate, and verb ............................................................................................. 27
4.3.- The operator ..................................................................................................................... 28
4.4.- Sentence constituents and functions ................................................................................ 28
4.5.- Objects and complements ................................................................................................ 29
4.6.- Intransitive and transitive verbs ....................................................................................... 30
4.7.- Adverbial adjuncts vs. adverbial complements ............................................................... 30
4.8.- Types of adjuncts/complements ....................................................................................... 30
4.9.- Other types of adverbials ................................................................................................. 36
4.9.1.- Conjuncts ...................................................................................................................... 36
4.9.2.- Disjuncts ....................................................................................................................... 37
4.9.3.- Subjuncts ....................................................................................................................... 39
4.10.- Sentence structures......................................................................................................... 40
4.11.- Anticipatory (grammatical, expletive, “dummy”) syntactic elements ........................... 40
4.11.1.- Anticipatory elements: “It” and “There” .................................................................... 40
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4.11.2.- Two parameters that explain these “dummy” elements .............................................. 44
4.11.2.1.- The end-weight parameter ....................................................................................... 44
4.11.2.2.- The non-pro-drop nature of English ........................................................................ 45
4.11.2.3.- Interaction between end-weight and non-pro-dropness ........................................... 45
4.11.2.4.- Other factors supporting anticipatory constructions ................................................ 46
4.12.- Concluding words .......................................................................................................... 47
CHAPTER 5: THE STRUCTURES OF PHRASES................................................................ 48
5.1.- Introduction to phrases ..................................................................................................... 48
5.2.- Noun phrase (NP) ............................................................................................................ 48
5.3.- Verb phrase (VP) ............................................................................................................. 49
5.4.- Adjective phrase (AdjP) ................................................................................................... 49
5.5.- Adverb phrase (AdvP) ..................................................................................................... 49
5.6.- Prepositional phrase (PP) ................................................................................................. 50
5.7.- Complements vs. adjuncts in phrases .............................................................................. 50
5.8.- Functions of phrases ........................................................................................................ 50
5.9.- Concluding words ............................................................................................................ 50
CHAPTER 6: WORD CLASSES ............................................................................................ 52
6.1.- Introduction to word classes ............................................................................................ 52
6.2.- Brief description of the main classes ............................................................................... 52
6.2.1.- Open classes (lexical elements) .................................................................................... 52
6.2.2.- Closed classes (structural words) .................................................................................. 53
6.3.- Word uses and flexibility ................................................................................................. 54
6.4.- Complements vs. adjuncts in word classes ...................................................................... 55
6.5.- Concluding words ............................................................................................................ 55
CHAPTER 7: THE ENGLISH VERB ..................................................................................... 56
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7.1.- Introduction to the verb group ......................................................................................... 56
7.2.- The structure of the verb group (verbal periphrasis) ....................................................... 56
7.2.1.- Components of a verb group ......................................................................................... 56
7.2.2.- Main verb types............................................................................................................. 57
7.2.3.- Auxiliary verbs.............................................................................................................. 57
7.2.3.1.- Modal auxiliaries ....................................................................................................... 57
7.2.3.2.- Aspect auxiliaries ....................................................................................................... 57
7.2.3.3.- Voice auxiliaries: passive .......................................................................................... 58
7.2.3.4.- Semi-auxiliaries ......................................................................................................... 58
7.2.4.- Catenative verbs ............................................................................................................ 58
7.2.5.- Verb forms .................................................................................................................... 60
7.3.- Special considerations in verb usage ............................................................................... 60
7.4.- Examples of complex verb groups ................................................................................... 61
7.5.- Cleft sentences ................................................................................................................. 61
7.5.1.- The clefting process: cleft sentences and pseudocleft sentences .................................. 61
7.5.2.- Cleft sentences .............................................................................................................. 62
7.5.3.- Pseudocleft sentences.................................................................................................... 64
7.6.- Concluding words ............................................................................................................ 65
CHAPTER 8: THE ENGLISH NOUN .................................................................................... 66
8.1.- Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 66
8.2.- Characteristics of the English noun ................................................................................. 66
8.2.1.- Morphological features ................................................................................................. 66
8.2.2.- Syntactic features .......................................................................................................... 67
8.3.- Classification of nouns ..................................................................................................... 67
8.3.1.- Count vs. mass nouns .................................................................................................... 67
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8.3.2.- Concrete vs. abstract nouns........................................................................................... 68
8.3.3.- Proper vs. common nouns ............................................................................................. 68
8.3.4.- Collective nouns............................................................................................................ 69
8.4.-Noun phrases ..................................................................................................................... 69
8.4.1.- Structure of noun phrases.............................................................................................. 69
8.4.2.- Functions of noun phrases ............................................................................................ 69
8.5.- The noun in relation to other parts of speech ................................................................... 70
8.5.1.- The noun and the verb................................................................................................... 70
8.5.2.- The noun and the adjective ........................................................................................... 70
8.6.- Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 70
CHAPTER 9: THE ENGLISH PRONOUN ............................................................................ 71
9.1.- Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 71
9.2.- Characteristics and classification ..................................................................................... 71
9.2.1.- Characteristics of the English pronoun ......................................................................... 71
9.2.1.1.- Morphological features .............................................................................................. 71
9.2.1.2.- Syntactic features ....................................................................................................... 72
9.3.- Classification of pronouns ............................................................................................... 72
9.4.- Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 75
CHAPTER 10: THE ENGLISH ADJECTIVE ....................................................................... 76
10.1.-Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 76
10.2.- Characteristics of the English adjective ......................................................................... 76
10.2.1.- Morphological features ............................................................................................... 76
10.2.2.- Syntactic features ........................................................................................................ 77
10.3.- Classification of adjectives ............................................................................................ 78
10.4- Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 80
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CHAPTER 11: THE ENGLISH ADVERB ............................................................................. 81
11.1.- Introduction .................................................................................................................... 81
11.2.- Characteristics of adverbs .............................................................................................. 81
11.3.- Classification of adverbs ................................................................................................ 82
11.4.- Functional aspects of adverbs ........................................................................................ 84
11.5.- The syntax of adverbs .................................................................................................... 85
11.6.- Adverbial modifiers in comparative and superlative structures .................................... 85
11.6.- Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 86
CHAPTER 12: THE ENGLISH PREPOSITION .................................................................... 87
12.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 87
12.2.- Characteristics of prepositions ....................................................................................... 87
12.3.- Classifications of prepositions ....................................................................................... 87
12.4.- Complex prepositions: definition and examples ............................................................ 89
12.5.- Syntax and position of prepositions ............................................................................... 91
12.6.- Prepositional phrases and sentence structure ................................................................. 91
12.7.- The importance of prepositional phrases in English idioms .......................................... 91
12.8.- Lexical vs. functional prepositions ................................................................................ 92
12.8.1.- Lexical (or semantically contentful) prepositions....................................................... 92
12.8.2. Functional prepositions ................................................................................................ 92
12.9.- Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 93
CHAPTER 13: THE ENGLISH DETERMINER .................................................................... 95
13.1.- Introduction .................................................................................................................... 95
13.2.- Characteristics of determiners........................................................................................ 95
13.3.- Classification of determiners ......................................................................................... 95
13.4.- Central, pre-, and post-determiners ................................................................................ 96
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13.5.- Possessive nouns as determiners: a reasonable hypothesis? ........................................ 100
13.6.- Are determiners functions or categories? .................................................................... 101
13.7.- Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 102
CHAPTER 14: THE ENGLISH CONJUNCTION ................................................................ 103
14.1.- Introduction .................................................................................................................. 103
14.2.- Characteristics of conjunctions .................................................................................... 103
14.3.- Classification of conjunctions ...................................................................................... 103
14.3.1.- By function................................................................................................................ 103
14.3.2.- By form ..................................................................................................................... 104
14.4.- Functions in sentence structure .................................................................................... 105
14.5.- Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 105
CHAPTER 15: THE COMPOUND SENTENCE ................................................................. 106
15.1.- Defining the compound sentence ................................................................................. 106
15.2.- Characteristics of compound sentences ....................................................................... 106
15.3.- Member clauses in compound sentences ..................................................................... 107
15.3.1.- Syntactic independence ............................................................................................. 107
15.3.2.- Semantic dependence ................................................................................................ 107
15.3.3.- Connectors in compound sentences .......................................................................... 107
15.3.3.1.- Semantic classification of coordinating conjunctions............................................ 107
15.3.3.2.- Formal classification of coordinating conjunctions ............................................... 108
15.3.3.3.- Comparing semantic and formal classifications .................................................... 109
15.4.- Diagramming compound sentences ............................................................................. 110
15.5.- Parataxis ....................................................................................................................... 111
CHAPTER 16: THE COMPLEX SENTENCE ..................................................................... 112
16.1.- Introduction .................................................................................................................. 112
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16.2.- Nominal (noun) clauses ............................................................................................... 112
16.2.1.- Functions of nominal clauses .................................................................................... 112
16.2.2.- Connectors in nominal clauses.................................................................................. 113
16.2.3.- Nominal relatives ...................................................................................................... 113
16.2.4.- Noun clauses in apposition and in extraposition....................................................... 113
16.3.- Adjectival (relative) clauses ......................................................................................... 115
16.3.1.- Functions of relative clause connectors .................................................................... 116
16.3.2.- Types of relative clauses ........................................................................................... 117
16.3.3.- Contact clauses.......................................................................................................... 118
16.3.4.- Reduced relative clauses ........................................................................................... 118
16.4.- Adverbial clauses ......................................................................................................... 120
16.4.1.- Types of adverbial clauses ........................................................................................ 120
16.4.2.- Characteristics of adverbial clause connectors ......................................................... 121
16.5.- Connectors: a comparative overview ........................................................................... 122
16.6.- Concluding words ........................................................................................................ 122
CHAPTER 17: THE COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE ............................................. 123
17.1.- Defining the compound-complex sentence .................................................................. 123
17.2.- Characteristics of compound-complex sentences ........................................................ 123
17.2.1.- Multiple independent clauses .................................................................................... 123
17.2.2.- At least one dependent clause ................................................................................... 124
17.2.3.- Coordination and Subordination ............................................................................... 124
17.3.- Functions and usage of compound-complex sentences ............................................... 124
17.3.1.- Conveying complex relationships ............................................................................. 124
17.3.2.- Adding variety to writing .......................................................................................... 125
17.3.3.- Achieving precision .................................................................................................. 125
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17.4.- Structure and analysis of compound-complex sentences............................................. 125
17.4.1.- Clause relationships .................................................................................................. 125
17.4.2.- Connectors in compound-complex sentences ........................................................... 125
17.4.3.- Diagramming compound-complex sentences ........................................................... 126
17.5.- Common errors in compound-complex sentences ....................................................... 126
17.5.1.- Misplacing dependent clauses................................................................................... 126
17.5.2.- Overuse of coordination ............................................................................................ 127
17.5.3.- Lack of parallelism ................................................................................................... 127
17.6.- Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 127
CHAPTER 18: PRACTICE ................................................................................................... 128
18.1.- Morphemes and words ................................................................................................. 128
18.2.- Sentence analysis ......................................................................................................... 129
18.2.3.- Miscellaneous sentence analysis. .............................................................................. 137
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................. 140
APPENDIX 1: FUNCTIONS AND CATEGORIES ............................................................. 142
APPENDIX 2: VERB TENSES (SUMMARY) .................................................................... 146
APPENDIX 3: MODAL VERBS (SUMMARY) .................................................................. 150
APPENDIX 3: PRO THEORY .............................................................................................. 156
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INTRODUCTION
This set of notes has been designed to cover the full syllabus of English Grammar I. They aim to
provide an accessible and practical approach to English syntax and grammar by combining elements
from descriptive and functional traditions with key insights from formal syntactic theories, such as PRO
theory and control. The framework is largely inspired by Randolph Quirk’s (1985) descriptive model
but incorporates a few concepts from generative grammar to deepen analytical skills and broaden
perspectives.
Our goal is to balance clarity and practicality. While the notes rely heavily on descriptive
functionalism —focusing on categorizing syntactic functions and emphasizing economy— they also
introduce generative concepts, like contemporary insights into phonetically unrealized subjects and
control structures, to enrich understanding. The theoretical discussions are supported by numerous
examples and exercises, helping students bridge the gap between theory and practical application.
On the other hand, it should be important to note that there is considerable variation in how
grammarians and teachers analyse linguistic segments and there is also little consensus on terminology.
In fact, multiple perspectives exist on the dynamics of language. As educators, once we evaluate and
select the theoretical frameworks we find most valid—typically those proposed by noted scholars—we
incorporate them into our syllabi, fully aware that these interpretations are never definitive, and that
each teacher will decide on terminology and type of analysis.
We hope this eclectic, unorthodox pedagogical grammar will equip students with the linguistic
awareness and tools they need to navigate the challenges of becoming English language professionals.
NOTE: THIS IS A WORK IN PROGRESS. EACH YEAR, THE CONTENTS WILL BE
UPDATED TO REFLECT NEW TRENDS IN THE FIELD, EXTERNAL ASSESSMENTS, AND
OUR ONGOING CRITICAL REFLECTIONS AS LECTURERS.
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CHAPTER 1: WHAT IS GRAMMAR
1.1.- Nature and definitions of grammar
As well as having a number of misconceptions about the nature of language, students
coming to the study of language for the first time often have a different definition of the term
grammar than linguists do.
It is important at the outset to be clear about the meaning of the ambiguous term
grammar. In linguistics, the term is used to refer to the rules or principles and parameters by
which a language works, that is, its system or structure. Speakers of a language all have an
internalized grammar (their competence), whether they can articulate the rules of the language
or not. And unless they have studied their language in a formal context, they probably can’t.
Throughout the ages, grammarians and linguists have been attempting to formulate the
speakers’ grammar in a set of rules, though it is probably fair to say that they have not yet been
able to do so completely for any language. This sense of grammar is known as descriptive
grammar.
You have probably been exposed to a different sense of grammar known as prescriptive
grammar, which involves attempts to establish and maintain a standard of correctness in the
language, to “prescribe” (dictate) and “proscribe” (forbid) certain ways of speaking; but this
has little to do with the actual working of the language. It is only in a prescriptive sense that we
can talk about “good” grammar or “bad” grammar; prescriptive grammar involves value
judgments based on factors external to language – such as social class or level of education.
NOTE: A prescriptive approach to language is not restricted to grammar, but also extends
to spelling, punctuation, written style, and even what is considered socially correct or
acceptable. Thus being told by your writing teacher “Never use the first person pronoun ‘I’
when writing an academic essay” could be considered prescriptive just as could being
advised that isn’t is the grammatically correct form of ain’t or that any should be substituted
for no in the sentence We don’t need no education. Other examples of prescriptive rules in
writing include avoiding the passive voice, never ending a sentence with a preposition (To
whom were you talking?, not Who were you talking to?), and not splitting infinitives (to
comprehend fully, not to fully comprehend).
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The difference between descriptive grammar and prescriptive grammar is comparable to
the difference between constitutive rules, which determine how something works (such as the
rules for the game of chess), and regulatory rules, which control behaviour (such as the rules of
etiquette). If the former are violated, the thing cannot work, but if the latter are violated, the
thing works, but crudely, awkwardly, or rudely.
NOTE: To understand the difference between constitutive and regulatory rules, consider
what happens if in a game of chess you move a pawn three spaces in a single move. In this
case, you are violating the constitutive rules of chess and are therefore not considered to be
playing the game. But if on the other hand you eat peas off your knife at dinner, you are
violating regulatory rules of eating etiquette and may be considered rude or vulgar. Yet you
nonetheless can manage to eat the peas (perhaps somewhat awkwardly).
If you say, for example, Cat the dog chased you are not speaking English; the sentence
violates the constitutive rules of the language and is thus considered ungrammatical. Hearers
might well have trouble understanding you (Is the dog chasing the cat or the cat chasing the
dog?). However, if you say He did good on the exam, your sentence is grammatical and would
be understood by all, but many people would find your sentence unacceptable; they would
consider it “bad”, “nonstandard”, or “incorrect” English. This sentence violates the regulatory
rules of English but not its constitutive rules.
1.2.- Fallacies concerning grammar
There are some fallacies concerning the nature of grammar which are widely believed.
One fallacy is that there are languages that have “no” grammar or “little” grammar. If grammar
is defined as the principles by which a language operates, it must be recognized that every
language has a grammar and that each language’s grammar is completely adequate. It is
certainly true that there are different types of grammars – such as the widely divergent
grammars of Chinese, German, Turkish, or Cree – but these are all equally operative.
A related fallacy is that certain types of grammars are simpler and hence more
“primitive” than others, while other grammars (particularly grammars which make use of
inflections, or word endings, to express distinctions) are more complex and hence more
advanced. This view was widely held in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but was
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dispelled by the discovery that supposedly primitive languages (for example the American
Indian languages) had extremely complex grammars and that the earliest form of the Indo-
European languages, which has been reconstructed, probably had a more elaborate inflectional
system than classical languages such as Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit.
In fact, it is unclear how a concept such as grammatical “simplicity” would be defined: is
it, for example, simpler to add an inflection to a word or to express the same concept with a
separate word, as English often does? That is, is the dog’s tail or the tail of the dog simpler? It
also seems to be the case that if one area of the grammar of a language is “simple”, other areas
are usually more “complex” in compensation. The number of variant forms of the English verb,
for instance, is quite small, usually only four (e.g. work, works, worked, working).
Compared even with another so-called analytic language (one which has few
inflections) such as French, then, the English verb is inflectionally very simple. But the
auxiliary phrase in English balances matters out by being very complex: there may be as many
as four auxiliaries preceding the main verb, and these must occur in a certain order and form
(e.g. English can produce phrases as complex as might have been being built). Moreover, if one
language makes a grammatical distinction that another language appears not to, further
examination of the second language often reveals that it makes the same distinction, but in a
different way. English native speakers learning Chinese, for example, are often initially
confused by its lack of tense marking on the verb. Instead, they learn, Chinese indicates time
quite differently from English, e.g. via the use of adverbials.
Another fallacy about the form of grammars, which was also current in the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries, was that grammars should be logical and “analogical” (that is,
regular). So strong was this belief that there were a number of attempts to eliminate supposedly
illogical features of English grammar, such as the use of two or more negatives for emphasis,
which was common prior to the eighteenth century, but was then judged by principles of logic
to make a positive. While some of this language engineering was successful, grammars do not
naturally follow logical principles. There is some drive towards regularity in language, causing
certain irregularities to be smoothed out over time, (as when bōc ‘book’ /bēc ‘books’ in Old
English was replaced by book/books in Modern English). However, other irregularities, for
quite unpredictable reasons, have been retained (as in the irregular plural forms goose/geese or
mouse/mice). And in some cases, especially in the area of pronunciation, new irregular forms
are even introduced into the language, as in the change of vowels in five versus fifteen – a
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historical change introduced in Middle English in the fourteenth century. This opposing drive,
which serves to keep language irregular, helps to explain why no perfectly regular language
exists.
A fallacy about changes in grammar is that they result in deterioration, or, alternatively,
evolution. Again, it would be difficult to define what is meant by grammatical “evolution” or
“deterioration”. There is no doubt that languages change over time, sometimes in quite radical
ways, but the changes do not seem to entail an advancement or a loss of any kind; the status
quo is maintained. Furthermore, changes in language are not entirely random, but often proceed
in certain predictable ways (known as “drift”) and by a number of quite well-understood
mechanisms.
It is often believed that people are taught the grammar of their native language, but in fact
little conscious teaching of grammar occurs in the critical period of language learning, apart
from rather sporadic corrections of wrong forms (as in, “it’s not tooken but taken”). Children
learn the language by hearing instances of it, and, it is now believed, constructing their own
“internalized” grammar.
Three further fallacies concerning grammar which have already been touched on are
that there are completely random differences among the languages of the world (the notion of
language universals calls this view into question), that the sentences a person produces directly
reflect his or her grammatical knowledge (the distinction between competence and performance
underlines the incorrectness of this view), and that there is only one sense of the term grammar
(we saw above that we need to recognize both prescriptive and descriptive grammars as well as
the linguist’s as opposed to the speaker’s grammar).
A final fallacy involves equating the grammar of the spoken language with that of the
written language. In fact, research into the grammar of these two distinct modes of language
reveals that in a sense, they have entirely different “grammars”. The grammar of written English
tends to be more embedded (e.g. containing appositives or dependent clauses), with the
independent clause often in second position. The grammar of spoken English is more
fragmented, with phrases or clauses often “strung together” with conjunctions. Spoken
language is also typically more disfluent, with false starts, repetitions, conversational fillers
(e.g. um, er, you know), and “abandoned” thought units.
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1.3.- Linguistics and the components of language
Linguistics is defined as the study of language systems. For the purposes of study,
language is divided into levels, or components. These components are conventional and, to
some extent, arbitrary divisions of linguistic investigation, and although they are interrelated in
complex ways in the system of language, we treat them more or less separately. They constitute
the framework which organizes this textbook.
The first component is phonology (from the Greek word phōnē meaning ‘sound,
voice’), the study of the speech sounds of a particular language. A subdivision of phonology is
phonetics, the study of the speech sounds of human language in general, either from the
perspective of their production (“articulatory phonetics”), their perception (“auditory
phonetics”), or their physical properties (“acoustic phonetics”). Although speech is a continuum
of sound, it is possible to break it into different types of sounds, known as consonants, vowels,
and glides or semivowels; we will study how these different sounds are articulated, as well as
how other features of sound, including stress and pitch, are superimposed over these sounds.
Since the repertory of human speech sounds is quite large (but not unlimited – there are physical
constraints on the sounds human beings are capable of producing), no language makes use of
all possible speech sounds, but instead selects a limited set. Furthermore, within this limited set
of sounds, certain sounds will be distinctive, that is, make a difference in meaning (such as the
“t” and “k” sounds in tap and cap), while others will be nondistinctive and predictable variants
(such as the slightly different “t” sounds in stop and top).
Since the writing system of English does not provide us with a one-to-one
correspondence between oral sound and written symbol, we need a tool for representing human
sounds in a regular way when studying phonology; the International Phonetic Alphabet (the
IPA) has been invented for this purpose. In it, each written symbol represents one, and only
one, speech sound, while each speech sound is represented by one, and only one, written
symbol. We will begin by learning this special alphabet.
The second component of language is morphology (from Greek morphē ‘form’).
Morphology is the study of the structure or form of words in a particular language, and of their
classification. While the concept of a word is intuitively clear, it is not easy to define it
objectively (is ice cream one word or two?), and morphology must begin by trying to formulate
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such a definition. Morphology then considers principles of word formation in a language: how
sounds combine into meaningful units such –– as prefixes, suffixes, and roots (as in re-mind-
er), –– which of these units are distinctive and which are predictable variants (such as the
different forms of the indefinite article, a and an), and –– what processes of word formation a
language characteristically uses, such as compounding (as in road-way) or suffixing (as in pave-
ment).
Morphology then considers how words can be grouped into classes, what are
traditionally called “parts of speech”, again seeking some objective criteria – either of form or
of meaning – for sorting the words of a language into categories. We will study all of these
questions in respect to the form of words in English.
The third component of language is syntax (from Greek suntassein ‘to put in order’).
Syntax is the study of the order and arrangement of words into larger units, as well as the
relationships holding between elements in these hierarchical units. It studies the structure and
types of sentences (such as questions or commands), of clauses (such as relative or adverbial
clauses), and of phrases (such as prepositional or verbal phrases). Syntax is an extensive and
complex area of language, and nearly one-third of the textbook is devoted to the study of
English syntax. The two components of morphology and syntax are sometimes classified
together as “grammar”.
The fourth component of language is semantics (from Greek sēmainein ‘to signify,
show, signal’). Semantics is the study of how meaning is conveyed in words, phrases, or
clauses. The study of semantics focuses either on meanings related to the outside world (“lexical
meaning”) or meanings related to the grammar of the sentence (“grammatical meaning”). In
studying meaning, we consider both the meaning of individual words (“lexical semantics”) and
the meaning which results from the interaction of elements in a sentence (“sentence
semantics”). Lexical semantics often involves the meaning relationships between words, such
as the synonymity (‘sameness of meaning’) of smart and intelligent or the antonymity
(‘opposite of meaning’) of rough and smooth. Sentence semantics involves the relationship
between syntax and semantics, as in the different meanings of the subject of a sentence (as the
agent of a change in the sentence Jill closed the door or the entity undergoing a change in the
sentence The door closed). A further area of study, which is also treated here, is the meaning
relationships holding among parts in an extended discourse (“discourse semantics”).
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A fifth component of language, not part of the traditional subdivision but added in recent
years, is pragmatics (from Greek pragma ‘deed, affair’, from prassein ‘to do’). Pragmatics is
the study of the functions of language and its use in context. For example, in the context of a
driver and a passenger in a car stopped at a traffic light, the phrase The light is green uttered by
the passenger is not simply a description but performs the pragmatic function of advising the
driver to step on the gas pedal and move into the intersection.
As was pointed out above, language, in addition to serving to communicate information,
actually has a variety of functions, including the expression of emotion, the maintenance of
social ties, and even the performance of action (a statement such as I declare you guilty uttered
by a judge). Furthermore, in any context, a variety of factors, such as the age, sex, and social
class of the interlocutors and their relationships of intimacy and power, influence the form of
language used. We will consider this fairly wide-open field from two different perspectives.
1.4.- Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships
Ferdinand de Saussure’s distinction between syntagm and paradigm is foundational in
structural linguistics and provides key insights into understanding how language is structured
and meaning is constructed. In his seminal work, Course in General Linguistics (1916),
Saussure outlines these concepts to differentiate two fundamental axes of linguistic
organization.
Syntagm
A syntagm (also called a syntagmatic relation) refers to the sequential combination of
linguistic elements that occur together in a linear order within a sentence or phrase. These
elements form a chain or structure in which meaning arises from their arrangement and
interdependence. For example, in the sentence "The cat sleeps," the words "the," "cat," and
"sleeps" are arranged syntagmatically. The relationship between these words is syntactic: each
word functions within a specific grammatical role (article, noun, verb) that contributes to the
overall meaning.
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Syntagmatic relations operate horizontally, combining elements based on rules of syntax
and word order in a specific context. These relations explain how units of language (such as
morphemes, words, or clauses) co-occur to create larger grammatical structures. For instance,
a noun typically combines with an article or adjective within a noun phrase (e.g., "a happy
child"), illustrating the dependence of syntagmatic relations on adjacency and linear sequence.
Paradigm
In contrast, a paradigm (or paradigmatic relation) involves the associative relationship
between linguistic elements that could replace each other within the same context. Paradigmatic
relations are based on choices or substitutions rather than combinations. For example, in the
sentence "The cat sleeps," the word "cat" belongs to a paradigmatic set that includes other
nouns such as "dog," "bird," or "child." These words can be substituted for one another while
maintaining the syntactic structure of the sentence.
Paradigmatic relations function vertically, representing the set of linguistic choices
available at any given syntactic position. This dimension is crucial for understanding language's
combinatorial flexibility and semantic variation. Paradigmatic elements are often grouped by
category, such as verb tenses, pronouns, or synonyms, and they reveal how language users
select appropriate elements from a mental lexicon based on context and intended meaning.
In contemporary phrase-structure grammar, syntagmatic and paradigmatic components
play distinct roles in sentence structure.
- Syntagmatic component: This refers to the sequential or combinatorial arrangement of
elements in a sentence, that is, how words or phrases linearly connect to form larger structures.
Syntactic functions operate mainly within this framework, as they define the relational roles
(subject, object, etc.) that words and phrases assume within sentence structures. In other words,
the syntagmatic axis represents the linear sequence in which syntactic functions are combined
to build a sentence.
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- Paradigmatic component: This concerns the substitutability or choices within a syntactic
slot. This component is central to syntactic categories, which determine which types of words
or phrases can fill a particular syntactic position. For instance, in the noun phrase the old tree,
old could be substituted by tall, green, or other adjectives within the paradigmatic set of pre-
modifiers for a noun. Paradigmatic choices give rise to variations in meaning without altering
the syntactic function of each element.
The relationship between syntactic functions and categories aligns with these two axes:
functions depend on syntagmatic structure (the relational sequence), while categories define
the paradigmatic options within a syntactic structure. As Crystal (2008) explains, functions are
about "what elements do," whereas categories are about "what elements are."
Example:
(*) Some consider that determiners are categories. If that is so, the function of the indefinite article would be
‘premodifier’ to the head of the noun phrase. Quirk et al. (1985) uses the word ‘determinative’ to label the
function (e.g. premodifier).
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CHAPTER 2: WORDS AND MORPHEMES
Morphology, as a linguistic subdiscipline, is the study of the internal structure of words
and the rules governing their formation. This chapter introduces essential concepts in
morphology, focusing on words, morphemes, and word-formation processes, particularly as
they relate to English. The concepts and examples here are drawn mostly from Kastovsky's
seminal work on morphology (2017)1, along with other contemporary linguistic research.
2.1.- Words and morphemes
Words are the smallest free-standing units of language capable of carrying meaning. In
contrast, morphemes are the smallest meaningful units of language, some of which cannot stand
alone. For example, the English word unhappiness consists of three morphemes: un-, happy,
and -ness. These are categorized based on their roles and forms, which leads us to the distinction
between root, derivational, and inflectional morphemes.
2.2.- Roots, derivational, and inflectional morphemes
2.2.1.- Root morphemes
The root is the irreducible core of a word, carrying its primary semantic content. For
instance, in happiness, the root is happy, while un- and -ness are affixes. Roots can function
independently (as free morphemes, e.g., play) or require additional elements to form a word (as
bound morphemes, e.g., rupt- in disrupt).
2.2.2.- Derivational morphemes
Derivational morphemes create new words by adding prefixes or suffixes to a root. They
often change the word class or meaning, as in happy (adjective) → happiness (noun) or play
1Source: Kastovsky, D. (2017). Chapter 5: Morphology. In Brinton L. & A. Bergs (Ed.). Volume 1: Historical Outlines from
Sound to Text (pp. 77-101). De Gruyter Mouton.
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(verb) → replay (verb). Derivational processes reflect a language's capacity for creativity,
contributing significantly to vocabulary expansion.
2.2.3.- Inflectional morphemes
Inflectional morphemes, unlike derivational ones, modify a word's grammatical
properties without changing its lexical category or core meaning. For example, the -s in dogs
indicates plurality, while the -ed in played marks past tense. English has a relatively small
inventory of inflectional morphemes, such as those for tense (-ed), number (-s), and
comparative forms (-er, -est).
2.3.- Morphemes and allomorphs
Morphemes can have multiple phonetic or orthographic realizations, known as
allomorphs. For instance, the plural morpheme in English appears as /s/ (in cats), /z/ (in dogs),
or /ɪz/ (in dishes). These variations depend on phonological contexts, following systematic
rules. Allomorphy demonstrates how morphemes interact with a language's phonetic
environment while maintaining their underlying grammatical function.
2.4.- Morphs and morphemes
While morphemes are abstract units of meaning, morphs are their concrete realizations in
speech or writing. While a morpheme is the smallest unit of a word that has meaning, a morph is
the phonetic realization of that morpheme. A single word can correspond to multiple morphs
(allomorphs), as illustrated by the plural morpheme above. Conversely, some morphs, such as
cran- in cranberry, carry no independent meaning and are called cranberry morphemes.
2.5.- English inflectional morphology
English inflectional morphology is relatively limited compared to languages like Latin or
Finnish. Its key features include:
• Nouns: Number (cat → cats) and possessive (cat → cat’s).
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• Verbs: Tense (play → played), aspect (is playing), and agreement (play → plays).
• Adjectives: Comparative (tall → taller) and superlative (tallest).
English relies heavily on word order and auxiliary verbs to express grammatical
relationships that other languages encode morphologically.
2.6.- English derivational morphology
Derivational processes in English are highly productive, generating new vocabulary through
affixation, conversion, and compounding. Key features include:
• Prefixation: Adding prefixes like un- (unhappy), dis- (disagree), or re- (rewrite).
• Suffixation: Adding suffixes like -ness (happiness), -ment (development), or -ity
(clarity).
• Class-changing derivation: Transforming word classes, such as verbs to nouns (to act
→ action) or adjectives to adverbs (happy → happily).
2.7.- Compounding
Compounding combines two or more words into a single lexical item, as in blackboard
or toothpaste. In English, compounds are typically right-headed, meaning the second element
determines the word's syntactic category and meaning. However, exceptions and variations
exist, reflecting historical and semantic influences.
2.8.- Other sources of words
English borrows extensively from other languages, resulting in a rich lexicon. Additionally,
word formation includes processes such as:
• Clipping: Shortening longer words (e.g., refrigerator → fridge).
• Blending: Combining parts of two words (e.g., smoke + fog → smog).
• Acronymy and initialism: Forming words from initial letters (e.g., NASA, FBI).
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• Back-formation: Creating new words by removing perceived affixes (e.g., editor →
edit).
• Conversion: Changing a word's class without altering its form (e.g., to text from text).
2.9.- Concluding words
Morphology reveals the interplay between form and meaning, providing insights into the
structural and functional complexity of language. By understanding concepts like morphemes,
allomorphs, and word-formation processes, students can appreciate how English accommodates
both historical influences and contemporary innovation.
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CHAPTER 3: THE SENTENCE
3.1.- Defining a sentence
A sentence is traditionally the largest grammatical unit, and its definition often varies. It
is sometimes described notionally as expressing a "complete thought," but this criterion is
ambiguous because phrases like "Exit" or "Danger" are meaningful yet are not sentences in the
strict grammatical sense. Formal definitions rely on structure, such as starting with a capital
letter and ending with punctuation. However, this orthographic approach excludes spoken
language, where sentence boundaries are less clear. In spoken contexts, sentences can blend,
overlap, or be interrupted by fillers.
Grammatically, a sentence consists of specific structures, or patterns, that classify it as
"regular." Regular sentences adhere to standard grammatical forms, while irregular sentences
deviate due to omissions or context-specific adjustments, like fragmentary replies in
conversation.
3.2.- Types of sentences
Sentences are categorized into two primary structural groups: simple sentences and
multiple sentences.
• Simple sentences
Compound sentences
• Multiple sentences Complex sentences
Compound-complex sentences
- Simple Sentences: These contain one clause. For example:
o The inquiry revealed the truth.
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- Compound sentences: These consist of two or more clauses, connected by connector
(coordinating conjunctions):
o The inquiry revealed the truth, and it led to new reforms.
- Complex sentences: These consist of a main clause, and one or more embedded
(subordinated) clauses2, dependent on the main clause. They are connected by subordinating
conjunctions (noun or adverbial clauses) and/or relative pronouns/adverbs (adjectival/relative
clauses):
o The lawyer said that the inquiry revealed the truth.
- Compound-complex sentences: These are compound sentences that also have one or more
subordinate clauses. There is coordination and subordination.
o The lawyer said that the inquiry revealed the truth, and we left the room feeling
satisfied.
3.3.- Sentence functions and types
English sentences serve four main communicative purposes, which align with their
grammatical types:
A. Declaratives: Used to convey information. Example: The proposal was accepted.
B. Interrogatives: Posed as questions to seek information. Example: Was the proposal
accepted?
C. Imperatives: Express commands or requests. Example: Accept the proposal.
D. Exclamatives: Used to express emotions or strong reactions. Example: What a great
proposal!
2Subordinate clauses: types and functions
Nominal clauses: Function as noun equivalents (subject, object, or complement): I know [that she is talented]. / [What he said]
surprised everyone.
Relative clauses: Function as modifiers of nouns, introduced by relative pronouns (who, which, that): The book [that I
borrowed] is excellent.
Adverbial clauses: Modify the main verb, expressing time, reason, condition, contrast, etc.
She left [because she was tired] / [If it rains], we’ll cancel the picnic.
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Each type is identified by its structural and functional features. Declarative sentences are
the most common and often serve as a base for illustrating grammatical concepts.
3.4.- Sentence polarity: positive vs. negative
Sentences can be either positive or negative:
• Positive: They completed the project.
• Negative: They did not complete the project.
Negatives may be formed with auxiliaries followed by an adverb of negation like not or
n’t, or through negative words like never or nobody.
3.5.- Voice: active and passive
Sentences in English can be active or passive, depending on whether the focus is on the
subject or on the object (direct or indirect in English):
Active: The teacher praised the students.
• Passive: The students were praised by the teacher.
The choice between active and passive often depends on focus and context. Passives are
more frequent in formal writing, such as scientific texts.
NOTE: The middle construction3
In addition to the active and passive constructions English has a third major construction,
the middle. Typical middles listed in grammars of English are given in (1). Such typical
middles are said to denote situations that are habitual or generic because of permanent
properties of some participant (usually inanimate). Middles were held to allow mainly
simple present tense verbs, but only the simple present, and to require adverbs of manner
such as well, quickly, impressively.
(1) a This sweater washes well.
b Her latest novel reads well.
c My children photograph well.
Some analysts see the English middle construction as having a strong resemblance to the
passive, but this view is not supported by the evidence. The obvious point to make is that
3 Source: Brown, K., & Miller, J. (2013). Syntax: A linguistic introduction to sentence structure (4th ed.). Routledge.
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English middle clauses and English passive clauses share no syntactic properties. (The name
‘middle’, which corresponds to the ancient name given to the equivalent construction in
Classical Greek, captures the idea that this construction is neither active nor passive but in
the middle.)
3.6.- Functions and categories
3.6.1.- Syntactic function
In syntax, syntactic function refers to the grammatical role a word, phrase, or clause plays
within a sentence. Functions are often defined by their relationship to other elements within the
syntactic structure. In English grammar, syntactic functions describe the roles different
constituents play within the sentence. According to Quirk et al. (1985), these functions can be
broadly categorized into nuclear constituents—which are essential to clause structure—and
extra-nuclear (peripheral) constituents, which provide additional information. This
distinction highlights the functional layering within sentences, where nuclear elements ensure
structural integrity and peripheral elements enhance meaning or coherence.
3.6.1.1.- Nuclear constituents
A. Subject
The subject is the central participant in a clause, traditionally indicating who or what
performs the action or is described.
NOTE: There are several types of subjects, and this function cannot be reduced to a mere
“doer” of the action.
1. Grammatical Subject - The subject in traditional grammar, which agrees with the verb
in person and number in languages like English: She runs every morning. (The pronoun she
is the grammatical subject.)
2. Semantic (or Logical) Subject - The participant in a sentence that performs or
experiences the action denoted by the verb.
Types of Semantic Subjects:
- Agent: The doer of the action: John wrote the letter. (John is the agent.)
- Experiencer: The entity that experiences a state or action without volition: Mary felt
cold. (Mary is the experiencer.)
- Theme or Patient: The entity affected by the action: The cake was eaten by John. (The
cake is the theme.)
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3. Psychological (or Topic) Subject - The element that the sentence is about, often related
to the discourse topic or the speaker’s focus: As for Mary, she is quite talented. (Mary is the
topic subject.)
4. Formal (or Dummy) Subject - A subject used for syntactic reasons rather than semantic
roles, often in existential or impersonal constructions. It is raining. (The pronoun it is a
formal subject with no referential meaning.)
5. Expletive Subject - A syntactic subject that has no semantic role, typically found in
sentences like existential constructions: There is a book on the table. (The word there is an
expletive subject.)
6. Implied or Null Subject (PRO) - A subject not overtly expressed in non-finite clauses
but understood from context: John promised [PRO to help Mary]. (The subject of to help
is John.)
7. Raised Subject - A subject that appears to be raised from an embedded clause to the
matrix clause: John seems to be tired. (John is the raised subject from the embedded clause.)
Characteristics:
• Typically precedes the verb in declarative sentences.
• Determines concord (agreement) with the verb.
• Can be a noun phrase, pronoun, clause, or other structures (e.g., "Swimming is fun").
Examples:
a. The dog barks.
b. She is reading a book.
c. That he lied surprised everyone.
Diagram:
[S: The dog] [V: barks]
B. Direct object
The direct object receives the action of a transitive verb and often answers the question
"what?" or "whom?" after the verb.
Characteristics:
• Follows the verb in canonical word order.
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• Often a noun phrase, pronoun, or clause.
Examples:
a. She baked a cake.
b. The teacher praised him.
c. I know that she’s coming.
Diagram:
[S: She] [V: baked] [DO: a cake]
C. Indirect object
The indirect object refers to the recipient or beneficiary of the action, typically answering
"to whom?" or "for whom?"
Characteristics:
• Often appears between the verb and the direct object in ditransitive constructions.
• Can also follow a preposition.
Examples:
a. He gave her a gift.
b. I told them the truth.
c. She sent a letter to him.
Diagram:
[S: He] [V: gave] [IO: her] [DO: a gift]
D. Subjective complement
A subjective complement provides additional information about the subject, often
following linking verbs like be, seem, or become.
Characteristics:
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• Identifies or describes the subject.
• Can be a noun phrase, adjective phrase, or clause.
Examples:
a. She is a teacher.
b. The soup smells delicious.
c. What he wants seems impossible.
Diagram:
[S: She] [V: is] [SC: a teacher]
E. Objective complement
An objective complement gives more information about the direct object, describing or
renaming it.
Characteristics:
• Appears in complex-transitive structures.
• Often follows verbs like make, call, or consider.
Examples:
a. They made her captain.
b. The team painted the house blue.
c. I consider this decision wise.
Diagram:
[S: They] [V: made] [DO: her] [OC: captain]
F. Adverbial complement
Adverbial complements are obligatory elements that complete the meaning of certain
verbs. They often indicate place, direction, time, or manner.
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Characteristics:
• Required to complete the predicate meaningfully.
• Unlike adjuncts, they cannot be omitted without altering the core meaning.
Examples:
a. She put the book on the table.
b. They are staying in London.
c. He behaves as if he owns the place.
Diagram:
[S: She] [V: put] [DO: the book] [AC: on the table]
G. Quasi-predicatives
Quasi-predicatives are constructions in which a secondary predication expresses a state
or quality associated with the subject or object, often reflecting results or circumstances of an
action.
Characteristics:
• They complement the main predicate, functioning as modifiers to subjects or objects.
• Typically realized by adjectives, participles, or prepositional phrases.
Examples:
a. She was born rich.
b. They parted the best of friends.
c. He left the room angry.
Analysis:
In "She was born rich," the adjective rich provides an essential piece of information about
the subject at the time of the action.
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Diagram:
[S: She] [V: was born] [QP: rich]
3.6.1.2.- Extra-nuclear / peripheral constituents
A. Adverbial adjuncts
Adverbial adjuncts provide optional, additional details about the action, such as time,
place, or reason.
Characteristics:
• Can be freely added or omitted.
• Commonly realized as adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, or clauses.
Examples:
a. She reads every morning.
b. He spoke with great enthusiasm.
c. Because it was raining, they stayed indoors.
Diagram:
[S: She] [V: reads] [Adjunct: every morning]
B. Conjuncts
Conjuncts are cohesive devices that link sentences or clauses, indicating relationships like
addition, contrast, or result.
Characteristics:
• Express logical or rhetorical connections.
• Typically adverbial in form.
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Examples:
a. He was tired; however, he kept working.
b. She won the match; therefore, she celebrated.
c. I liked the book; moreover, it was well-written.
C. Disjuncts
Disjuncts reflect the speaker's attitude or evaluation, often functioning outside the main
clause structure.
Characteristics:
• Express stance or judgment.
• Often realized as adverbs or adverbial phrases.
Examples:
a. Frankly, I don’t care.
b. This solution is, in my opinion, flawed.
c. Unfortunately, we missed the train.
D. Nominative absolute constructions
A nominative absolute construction consists of a noun phrase followed by a participial
phrase or an adjective, forming a standalone unit that provides contextual or background
information.
Characteristics:
• Independent of the sentence’s main clause but adds detail.
• Often used to set the stage for the main action.
• Can express time, condition, reason, or circumstance.
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Examples:
a. This done, we started the journey.
b. The sun setting, they returned home.
c. Her voice trembling, she began to speak.
Analysis:
In "This done, we started the journey," the nominative absolute This done provides
background context, indicating that the action (starting the journey) occurred after something
was completed.
E. Other peripheral constituents
These include parentheticals, interjections, and vocatives, which operate outside the
sentence’s main syntactic structure but contribute meaning.
Examples:
a. To be honest, I wasn’t impressed.
b. Well, what do you think?
c. John, could you help me?
Quirk et al.’s framework underscores the interplay between nuclear and extra-nuclear
constituents, highlighting their contributions to syntactic structure and meaning. Nuclear
elements form the backbone of clause structure, while peripheral elements add flexibility,
detail, and coherence. Together, they create a layered and dynamic sentence structure, essential
for effective communication. According to Quirk et al. (1985), syntactic functions are to be
distinguished from syntactic categories, which classify constituents based on their type rather
than their function in a specific context.
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3.6.2.- Syntactic category
Syntactic category refers to the classification of words and phrases based on their
grammatical characteristics and the types of syntactic structures they form. Categories identify
what type of phrase or clause is present, regardless of its specific role in a sentence. Key
syntactic categories include:
• Noun phrase (NP): A phrase with a noun as its head (e.g., the big dog).
• Prepositional phrase (PP): A phrase with a preposition as its head, usually followed by
a noun phrase (e.g., in the park).
• Subordinate clause of reason: A clause that gives a reason for the action in the main
clause, often introduced by because or since (e.g., "She stayed home because she was
ill").
• Present participial clause: A non-finite clause with a verb in the present participle form
(e.g., Running down the street, she waved for help).
As Radford (2004) notes, categories help define syntactic patterns within phrase-structure
rules, providing templates for how words combine.
3.7.- Concluding words
This chapter lays the groundwork for understanding English sentences by classifying their
types, functions, and structures. Additionally, it delves into the relationship between syntactic
functions and categories. It also emphasizes the importance of recognizing regular and irregular
patterns and differentiating between essential (complement) and non-essential (adjunct)
elements. This foundational knowledge prepares readers to delve into sentence components,
explored in subsequent chapters.
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CHAPTER 4: THE PARTS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
NOTE: This chapter is simply aimed to show the simple sentence in action. For this reason,
there will be many concepts discussed in previous chapters that will be repeated and recycled
here and in future chapters.
4.1.- Structure, form, and function
A sentence consists of distinct components that work together to convey meaning. These
components can be analysed in terms of:
- Structure: How elements are organized (e.g., phrases and their internal order).
- Form: The grammatical categories of the elements (e.g., noun phrases, verb phrases).
- Function: The roles elements play within the sentence (e.g., subject, predicate, direct object).
For example, in A heavy snowfall has blocked the mountain passes:
• Structure: The sentence contains a subject (A heavy snowfall), a verb (has blocked), and
an object (the mountain passes).
• Function: A heavy snowfall functions as the subject, while the mountain passes is the
direct object.
4.2.- Subject, predicate, and verb
The sentence traditionally divides into:
• Subject: Who or what the sentence is about.
• Predicate: What is said about the subject. It includes the verb and other elements.
The verb is the core of the predicate and determines the sentence's structure. Verbs can
consist of one word (runs) or multiple words (could have been running). Auxiliary verbs assist
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the main verb and may serve specific functions like forming negatives, questions, or emphatic
statements.
4.3.- The operator
The operator is the first auxiliary verb in a verb phrase or the dummy verb do when no
auxiliary is present. It serves key grammatical functions:
- Subject-operator inversion: Forms questions by flipping the subject and operator.
o He is working → Is he working?
- Negation: Adds not or n’t after the operator.
o She will leave → She won’t leave.
- Emphasis: Stresses the operator in speech for emphasis.
o He DID finish the task!
- No auxiliary: If no auxiliary is present, do acts as the operator:
o He works hard. → Does he work hard?
4.4.- Sentence constituents and functions
Each element in a sentence serves a specific function, with the subject and verb being
fundamental:
• Subject: Identifies the "doer" or "topic" of the sentence.
o Test: Turn the sentence into a yes/no question. The subject is what swaps places with
the operator.
o Example: The cat (subject) is sleeping.
• Verb: Expresses action or state. It can vary in form to indicate tense, aspect, mood, or voice.
o Example: The dog barks.
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NOTE: Tense and Aspect
Tense and aspect are grammatical features that convey information about the time and
nature of an action or state described by a verb.
Tense refers to the time of the action or state. It situates the event relative to the present
moment, distinguishing between the past (e.g., She walked), present (e.g., She walks), and
sometimes future (e.g., She will walk). In English, tense is primarily marked through verb
inflections (e.g., -ed for past) or auxiliary verbs like will.
Aspect, on the other hand, provides details about the nature or structure of the action—
whether it is complete, ongoing, repetitive, or habitual. English primarily uses two aspects:
progressive (continuous) (e.g., She is walking, indicating ongoing action) and perfect
(e.g., She has walked, showing completion or relevance to the present). These aspects often
combine with tense to create forms like the present perfect progressive (She has been
walking).
While tense relates to when, aspect focuses on how the action unfolds over time. Together,
they allow for the expression of time and action in language.
Lyons (1977) states that aspect is concerned with the internal temporal structure of a
situation, as opposed to its location in time, which is the domain of tense.
4.5.- Objects and complements
A. Direct object (DO): Receives the action of the verb.
o She read the book (DO).
o Test: Ask What? or Whom? after the verb.
B. Indirect object (IO): Refers to the recipient or beneficiary.
o She gave him (IO) a gift (DO).
o Test: Reformulate with to or for: She gave a gift to him.
C. Subject/subjective complement (SC): Identifies or describes the subject.
o He is a teacher (SC).
D. Object/objective complement (OC): Identifies or describes the object.
o They elected her president (OC).
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4.6.- Intransitive and transitive verbs
A. Intransitive verbs: Do not take objects. The sentence is complete with just the subject
and verb.
o He sleeps.
B. Transitive verbs: Require a direct object to complete their meaning.
o She wrote a letter.
4.7.- Adverbial adjuncts vs. adverbial complements
A. Adverbial adjuncts (AA): Optional elements that provide additional information about
time, place, manner, reason, etc.
o He spoke softly (AA).
B. Adverbial complements (AC): Essential elements that complete the meaning of certain
verbs.
o She is in the garden (AC).
NOTE: Complement vs. adjunct
In the context of sentence elements:
A complement is an obligatory element that completes the meaning of a verb or sentence.
For instance, in She is a teacher, a teacher is a subject complement.
An adjunct is optional and provides additional information, like time, place, or manner. For
example, in She teaches in the morning, in the morning is an adjunct.
Complements are integral to a sentence's core structure, while adjuncts enhance it without
being essential. A detailed discussion of complements and adjuncts is more fully explored
in later chapters.
4.8.- Types of adjuncts/complements
A. Manner
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This adjunct/complement expresses how an action is performed.
• Examples:
o She sang beautifully.
o He spoke to me in a calm voice.
o The children ran with great enthusiasm.
B. Place
This adjunct/complement refers to location, direction, or source.
a. Fixed place (location)
This adjunct/complement specifies a static location.
• Examples:
o They live in New York.
o The keys are on the table.
b. Direction
This adjunct/complement indicates movement toward a specific place.
• Examples:
o We’re heading to the park.
o He looked towards the horizon.
c. Source
This adjunct/complement identifies the origin of motion or action.
• Examples:
o The letter came from London.
o She ran out of the room.
C. Time
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This adjunct/complement refers to when or how long an action occurs.
a. Point in time
This adjunct/complement specifies a specific moment.
• Examples:
o The train leaves at noon.
o I met her yesterday.
b. Duration
This adjunct/complement indicates how long an action lasts.
• Examples:
o He stayed for an hour.
o She worked all night.
c. Frequency
This adjunct/complement expresses how often an action occurs.
• Examples:
o They meet every week.
o I visit my parents occasionally.
D. Comparison
This adjunct/complement indicates similarity or difference.
• Examples:
o She runs like a professional athlete.
o He behaved as if he were in charge.
o The house is as big as a castle.
E. Condition
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This adjunct/complement states the circumstances under which something happens.
• Examples:
o If you study hard, you’ll pass the exam.
o He won’t go unless you invite him.
o Provided that the weather is good, we’ll go hiking.
F. Concession
This adjunct/complement expresses contrast with the main clause.
• Examples:
o Although she was tired, she kept working.
o They went to the beach, even though it was raining.
o While he likes jazz, he rarely listens to it.
G. Reason (cause)
This adjunct/complement explains the cause of an action or event.
• Examples:
o She left early because she felt sick.
o Since the roads were icy, we stayed home.
o He was punished for lying.
H. Means/instrument
This adjunct/complement specifies how an action is performed or the tool used.
• Examples:
o She wrote the letter with a pen.
o They travelled by train.
o He fixed the machine using a screwdriver.
I. Degree
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This adjunct/complement indicates intensity or extent.
• Examples:
o She was very sad, to the extent that she couldn’t stop crying.
o The project was completed almost entirely.
o They were too tired to continue.
J. Purpose
This adjunct/complement expresses the intention behind an action.
• Examples:
o She left early to catch the train.
o He studied hard so that he could pass the test.
o They built the fence for privacy.
K. Quantity
This adjunct/complement indicates an amount or extent.
• Examples:
o She earns a lot of money.
o The suitcase weighed 20 kilograms.
o We bought just enough for the trip.
L. Topic/subject-matter
This adjunct/complement specifies what the statement is about.
• Examples:
o They argued about politics.
o The lecture was on climate change.
o We’re discussing the latest report.
M. Result
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This adjunct/complement indicates the consequence of an action.
• Examples:
o She studied hard, so she passed the exam.
o He was so late that he made everyone annoyed.
o It rained heavily, causing the river to overflow.
N. Focus
This adjunct/complement highlights a specific part of the sentence.
• Examples:
o Only yesterday did I realize the mistake.
o He works mainly in the evenings.
o She spoke just to him.
O. Concomitant / concurrent circumstance
This adjunct refers to a type of event or situation that occurs alongside or concurrently
with the main action or event of the sentence.
• Examples:
o He left the room humming a song
o Peter was busy working on his project
IMPORTANT NOTE:
Adverbials often resist strict categorization, and their subtle frequently straddle multiple
"labels." This is one of the most fascinating and complex aspects of analysing adverbials.
An example such as "You will pass the exam when you study your texts," indeed reflects
both time and condition simultaneously, depending on how we interpret the sentence
contextually.
Example:
Time interpretation:
If we focus on the temporal sequence, the clause "when you study your texts" tells us when
the passing of the exam will occur. It situates the action of passing in relation to the
studying.
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Temporal emphasis: You’ll pass after/during the period in which you study.
Condition interpretation:
If we focus on the contingency, the clause acts as a condition for passing the exam. It
implies that studying is a prerequisite for success.
Conditional emphasis: You’ll pass only if you study your texts.
Why do these shades of meaning exist?
Semantic overlap: Many adverbials carry overlapping functions because real-life language
use is rarely rigid. For instance, when can function temporally, but it often takes on
conditional implications in contexts like the sentence above.
Context dependency: The interpretation hinges on the speaker’s intent and the listener’s
perception. Does the speaker mean time (sequence) or condition (requirement), or both?
Similar examples:
If you call me after dinner, I’ll help you.
Time: The action occurs after dinner.
Condition: The call is a prerequisite for the help.
The lights turn on when it gets dark.
Time: The lights activate at nightfall.
Condition: Darkness is a requirement for the lights to turn on.
Adverbial analysis is inherently fluid and often defies rigid categorization. This is why
some linguists sometimes prefer broader terms like "adverbial clause of circumstance" to
acknowledge the interplay of meanings without forcing strict labels. There are several
linguists and authors who acknowledge and embrace the inherent flexibility and complexity
of adverbial classifications, often highlighting how language resists rigid categorization.
While traditional grammar often imposes clear-cut labels, many modern linguists focus on
the fluidity and overlap of functions.
4.9.- Other types of adverbials
4.9.1.- Conjuncts
Conjuncts are adverbials that link clauses, sentences, or larger discourse units by
indicating the logical or rhetorical relationship between them. They guide the reader or listener
in understanding how ideas connect, such as showing addition, contrast, cause-effect, or
temporal sequence.
Types of conjuncts
A. Additive conjuncts: Indicate addition or continuation of information.
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o Example: "She enjoys reading novels; moreover, she writes short stories." (Adds
supplementary information.)
o Example: "We cleaned the house. Furthermore, we organized the garage."
(Indicates additional effort.)
B. Adversative conjuncts: Indicate contrast or opposition.
o Example: "The plan seems perfect; however, it lacks flexibility." (Shows a
contrasting point.)
o Example: "He is wealthy. Nevertheless, he lives modestly." (Highlights an
unexpected situation.)
C. Causal conjuncts: Indicate cause, result, or inference.
o Example: "The roads were icy; therefore, we decided to stay home." (Expresses
a logical result.)
o Example: "The data is incomplete; consequently, the analysis is unreliable."
(Shows a consequence.)
D. Temporal conjuncts: Indicate time relationships.
o Example: "First, we need to gather the materials; then, we can start the project."
(Outlines sequential steps.)
o Example: "She hesitated for a moment; meanwhile, he took the lead." (Describes
simultaneous actions.)
Key characteristics
• Conjuncts function primarily at the sentence or discourse level.
• They often occupy initial sentence positions and are followed by a comma in writing.
4.9.2.- Disjuncts
Disjuncts are adverbials that express the speaker's attitude or evaluation of the content of
the sentence or the manner of communication. They operate at the sentence level, providing
commentary or framing rather than modifying individual elements within the sentence.
Disjuncts can signal the speaker's stance on the truth value of the proposition, their emotional
state, or their view of how the information should be interpreted.
Types of disjuncts
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A. Attitudinal disjuncts: Express the speaker's feelings or evaluation of the proposition.
o Example: "Frankly, I don't think this plan will work." (The speaker openly
admits their opinion.)
o Example: "Regrettably, the meeting has been cancelled." (The speaker expresses
regret.)
B. Epistemic disjuncts (modalizers): Indicate the speaker's degree of certainty or belief
about the proposition.
o Example: "Probably, she missed the train." (The speaker indicates a degree of
likelihood.)
o Example: "Undoubtedly, this is her best performance." (The speaker asserts
strong certainty.)
C. Style disjuncts: Comment on the manner in which the sentence is communicated.
o Example: "To be honest, I forgot to call him." (The speaker frames their
statement with honesty.)
o Example: "Strictly speaking, that isn't a valid argument." (The speaker limits the
scope of the statement.)
Key characteristics
• Disjuncts are optional elements that do not affect the grammatical structure of the
sentence.
• They often occupy initial or final sentence positions for emphasis but can appear
medially.
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4.9.3.- Subjuncts4
Subjuncts are adverbials that modify or add detail to particular elements of the sentence,
such as the verb, object, or complement. They reflect aspects like degree, manner, time,
frequency, and speaker attitude toward a specific part of the clause.
Types of subjuncts
A. Degree subjuncts: Modify the extent or intensity of an action or quality.
o Example: "She almost completed the assignment." (Indicates proximity to
completion.)
o Example: "They entirely misunderstood the instructions." (Emphasizes the scope of
misunderstanding.)
B. Manner subjuncts: Describe how an action is performed.
o Example: "He spoke clearly during the presentation." (Indicates the manner of
speaking.)
o Example: "They fought bravely despite the odds." (Describes the courage in
fighting.)
C. Temporal subjuncts: Specify the time of the action.
o Example: "She left early to catch her train." (Indicates an earlier-than-expected
departure.)
o Example: "I have often wondered about that." (Shows repeated occurrences.)
o Example: "She has already finished her homework." (The action is complete earlier
than anticipated.)
o Example: "We already know the results of the test." (The knowledge exists prior to
what might have been expected.)
o Example: "Have they announced the winner yet?" (Asks if the event has occurred
up to now.)
o Example: "He hasn’t replied to my message yet." (Emphasizes the non-occurrence
of the action thus far.)
D. Focus or emphasis subjuncts: Highlight or limit a specific part of the clause.
4 Subjuncts are usually regarded as a subtype of adverbial adjuncts.
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o Example: "She only ate the vegetables." (Restricts the focus to vegetables.)
o Example: "He even brought us flowers." (Adds emphasis to the unexpected gesture.)
Key characteristics
• Subjuncts are integrated into the clause and affect its meaning more directly than disjuncts
or conjuncts.
• They often accompany verbs but can also modify adjectives, adverbs, or noun phrases.
4.10.- Sentence structures
English has seven basic (core) sentence patterns based on the combination of subject,
verb, objects, complements, and adverbials (excluding “transformed” constructions —passive,
clefting, use of anticipatory elements):
A. SV: Subject + Verb (He runs.)
B. SVO: Subject + Verb + Direct Object (She loves him.)
C. SVC: Subject + Linking Verb + Subject Complement (He is happy.)
D. SVA: Subject + Verb + Adverbial Complement (She is here.)
E. SVOO: Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object (She gave him a book.)
F. SVOC: Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Object Complement (They made her leader.)
G. SVOA: Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Adverbial Complement (They placed it on the
table.)
4.11.- Anticipatory (grammatical, expletive, “dummy”) syntactic elements
4.11.1.- Anticipatory elements: “It” and “There”
A. Anticipatory "It"
Anticipatory it is a grammatical placeholder used to introduce or "anticipate" a clause
functioning as the subject or complement of the sentence. In these constructions, it does not
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carry semantic meaning; instead, it serves as a structural necessity in English syntax to maintain
sentence balance and clarity.
Key characteristics of anticipatory "It"
1. Anticipating clausal complements:
Anticipatory it introduces clauses, typically finite (e.g., that-clauses) or nonfinite (e.g.,
to-infinitive clauses, gerundial clauses):
o It is important that you arrive on time.
o It’s nice seeing you again.
o It’s difficult to solve this problem.
The clause that it anticipates often functions as the subject or complement of the
sentence.
2. Structural support:
Anticipatory it enables the main verb to appear earlier in the sentence, improving
readability and processing ease. Without it, the sentence would sound awkward:
o That you arrive on time is important.
o Solving this problem is difficult.
3. Restriction to clausal complements:
Anticipatory it cannot introduce a noun phrase. For example:
o Incorrect: It is very good the book.
o Correct: The book is very good.
This restriction arises because it functions only as a placeholder for clauses, not for
concrete nouns.
B. Anticipatory "There"
Anticipatory there is another grammatical placeholder, often used to introduce existential
or presentational sentences where the subject appears after the verb. Like it, anticipatory there
serves no semantic role but is essential in English syntax for conveying existence or presence.
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Key characteristics of anticipatory "There"
1. Existential sentences:
Anticipatory there introduces sentences expressing the existence of something:
o There is a book on the table.
o There are many reasons to be happy.
In these sentences, there occupies the subject position, while the actual subject (e.g., a
book, many reasons) follows the verb.
2. Presentational sentences:
Anticipatory there can also introduce sentences presenting new information:
o There came a knock at the door.
o There appears to be a problem.
3. Verb agreement:
The verb agrees with the postposed subject, not there:
o There is a cat in the garden.
o There are cats in the garden.
4. Optionality in informal contexts:
In spoken or informal English, there can sometimes be omitted when context makes it
redundant:
o Looks like there’s a storm coming.
(instead of There looks like there’s a storm coming.)
C. Expletive, dummy "weather It"
Dummy "weather it" is used to express impersonal phenomena related to weather, time,
or other environmental conditions. Unlike anticipatory it, dummy it is not a placeholder for
any specific element; it simply serves a syntactic role.
Key characteristics of dummy "weather It"
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1. Weather expressions:
o It’s raining.
o It snowed last night.
o It’s sunny today.
Here, it refers to no specific entity but is required to maintain grammaticality.
2. Environmental conditions:
o It’s getting dark.
o It’s windy outside.
3. Fixed time or distance expressions:
Dummy it also appears in sentences describing time, distance, or conditions:
o It’s late.
o It’s five miles to the nearest town.
o It’s time to go.
D. Summary table
Type Form Function Examples
It’s important that
Anticipatory Placeholder for clausal
It + clause you come. / It’s nice
“It” subject or complement
seeing you.
Introduces existence or There is a book on
Anticipatory There + be/existential
presence of something, the table. / There
“There” verbs + NP
with postposed subject came a loud noise.
Fulfils subject position in
It + It’s raining. / It’s
Dummy expressions of weather,
weather/time/environme late. / It’s five miles
(weather) “It” time, distance, or
nt phrase to the nearest town.
environmental conditions
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4.11.2.- Two parameters5 that explain these “dummy” elements
4.11.2.1.- The end-weight parameter
The end-weight parameter is a tendency in English to position heavier or more
complex elements (e.g., long clauses, detailed phrases) toward the end of a sentence. This
strategy:
• Makes sentences easier to process and understand by presenting simpler, lighter elements
first.
• Helps maintain a natural rhythm in English sentences.
Anticipatory it and there play a key role in implementing this parameter:
A.- Anticipatory It
Instead of placing a heavy clausal subject at the beginning, English uses anticipatory it to
defer the subject until later. For example:
• Without postponement: That you arrive on time is important.
• With postponement: It is important that you arrive on time.
The second sentence is clearer and easier to process because the light element (it is
important) precedes the heavier, content-bearing clause (that you arrive on time).
B.- Anticipatory There
Similarly, there allows the logical subject to appear later in existential or presentational
sentences:
• Without postponement: A book is on the table.
5 In the theory postulated by American linguist Noam Chomsky linguistics, principles are universal grammatical rules that
apply to all human languages, forming the invariant core of UG (Universal Grammar). Conversely, parameters represent
language-specific settings within the Universal Grammar (UG) framework. These settings account for cross-linguistic
variation, they apply to one or more languages, but not all.
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• With postponement: There is a book on the table.
By introducing the subject after the verb, the sentence aligns with English speakers’
preference for placing important or new information toward the end.
4.11.2.2.- The non-pro-drop nature of English
English is a non-pro-drop language (non-pronoun-dropping language), which means it
requires an explicit subject in every finite clause, even when that subject is semantically empty.
In many languages (e.g., Spanish, Italian), subject pronouns can be omitted because verb
morphology indicates the subject:
• Spanish: Llueve. (It rains.)
• Italian: È importante arrivare in tempo. ([It] is important to arrive on time.)
English, however, lacks robust subject-verb agreement and must include a subject, even if it’s
a dummy element (it or there):
• It is raining.
• It is important to arrive on time.
• There are many reasons to stay.
These dummy subjects are purely grammatical and exist to satisfy the syntactic requirement for
an overt subject.
4.11.2.3.- Interaction between end-weight and non-pro-dropness
The combination of these factors reinforces the need for anticipatory constructions:
A. Non-pro-drop nature:
Dummy it and there fill the subject slot when the true subject is deferred or when no
semantic subject exists.
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B. End-weight parameter:
These anticipatory elements allow heavier, more meaningful structures to be
postponed, making the sentence more readable and natural.
Example:
• It is difficult to solve the problem.
o Non-pro-drop: English syntax requires a subject (it).
o End-weight: The heavier clause (to solve the problem) appears at the end.
• There was a loud noise outside.
o Non-pro-drop: English syntax requires a subject (there).
o End-weight: The focus shifts to the heavier subject (a loud noise outside).
4.11.2.4.- Other factors supporting anticipatory constructions
A. Information structure:
Anticipatory it and there often align with the parameter of given-before-new
information, where known or light elements precede newer, more detailed
information:
o There was a knock at the door.
o It seems strange that she left so suddenly.
B. Focus and emphasis:
These constructions allow the speaker/writer to emphasize the predicate or introduce
the subject smoothly:
o It is you I’m talking to! (Cleft construction).
o There happens to be a solution to the problem.
The end-weight parameter and non-pro-drop nature of English are fundamental to the
existence of anticipatory it and there. Together, they ensure that sentences are syntactically
complete, well-organized, and easy to process. These anticipatory elements embody the balance
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English strikes between its grammatical rigidity and its stylistic flexibility to accommodate
clarity and readability.
4.12.- Concluding words
Chapter 4 delves into the fundamental parts of a sentence, emphasizing the interplay
between structure, form, and function. By exploring elements like subjects, verbs, objects,
anticipatory elements and complements, it establishes the foundation for analysing more
complex grammatical constructions.
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CHAPTER 5: THE STRUCTURES OF PHRASES
5.1.- Introduction to phrases
Phrases are groups of words that function as single units within a sentence. Each phrase
is categorized by its head—the word that determines the type of phrase:
• Noun/nominal phrase (NP): Headed by a noun (the tall man).
• Verb phrase (VP): (often also called ‘predicate’) Headed by a verb (has been running in
the park).
• Adjective/adjectival phrase (AdjP): Headed by an adjective (very beautiful).
• Adverb/adverbial phrase (AdvP): Headed by an adverb (quite easily).
• Prepositional phrase (PP): Consists of a preposition and its object (on the table).
5.2.- Noun phrase (NP)
The noun phrase is one of the most versatile and complex structures in English. Its
components include:
A. Head: The main noun.
o Books are expensive.
B. Modifiers:
o Determiners: Words like articles, possessives, or demonstratives (the, my,
these). In general, they can be regarded as premodifiers.
o Premodifiers: Adjectives or other modifiers preceding the noun (the tall
building).
o Postmodifiers: Words, phrases or clauses following the noun, such as relative
clauses (the book that I read).
C. Complexity:
o Coordination (the blue and green book).
o Apposition (my friend, the doctor).
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5.3.- Verb phrase (VP)
The verb phrase expresses the action or state of the subject, plus objects and complements.
In the case of the verb group (head of the verb phrase), it includes:
A. Main verb: The core of the VP (run, think, appear).
B. Auxiliaries: Helping verbs that modify tense, aspect, voice, or mood (has been, might,
can).
C. Aspect:
o Progressive (is running).
o Perfective (has run).
D. Voice:
o Active (She wrote the letter.).
o Passive (The letter was written.).
5.4.- Adjective phrase (AdjP)
An adjective phrase has an adjective as its head and often includes modifiers or
complements:
• Extremely (modifier) tired (head).
• Proud (head) of her achievements (complement).
Functions of adjective phrases include:
A. Attributive: Modifying a noun (a very bright room).
B. Predicative: Following a linking verb (The room is very bright.).
5.5.- Adverb phrase (AdvP)
Adverb phrases modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs:
• He sings quite beautifully (head: beautifully).
• They arrived very late (head: late).
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5.6.- Prepositional phrase (PP)
Prepositional phrases consist of a preposition and its object (sometimes called
‘complement’), usually an NP: 6On (preposition) the table (complement).
• In the park.
Phrases function as modifiers or complements, often indicating relationships like time,
place, manner, etc.
5.7.- Complements vs. adjuncts in phrases
• Complements are required elements that complete the meaning of a head word.
o Proud of her work (complement of proud).
• Adjuncts are optional and provide extra details.
o Proud despite the challenges (despite the challenges is an adjunct).
5.8.- Functions of phrases
Phrases serve various functions in sentences:
• Subject: The boy with the red hat is running.
• Object: I saw the boy with the red hat.
• Subjective complement: The boy is a talented athlete.
• Adverbial adjunct: The boy runs in the park.
• Etc.
5.9.- Concluding words
Chapter 5 provides a look at the structure and function of phrases in English. It illustrates
how phrases form the building blocks of sentences, with each type contributing unique
6 The object (or complement) to a preposition is called “término” in Spanish.
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grammatical and semantic functions. The discussion on complements and adjuncts is
particularly relevant for understanding sentence flexibility and meaning.
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CHAPTER 6: WORD CLASSES
6.1.- Introduction to word classes
Words in English are categorized into distinct groups based on their grammatical
properties and functions. These categories, called word classes, include both open classes (that
is, lexical words, which allow new additions, like nouns and verbs) and closed classes (that is,
structural words, which are more fixed, like pronouns and conjunctions).
6.2.- Brief description of the main classes7
6.2.1.- Open classes (lexical elements)
A. Nouns
o Definition: Words that name people, places, things, or ideas (book, happiness, Paris).
o Characteristics:
▪ May take determiners (a book, the happiness).
▪ Often pluralizable (books, ideas).
o Classes of nouns:
▪ Proper nouns: Specific names (London).
▪ Common nouns: General items (city).
▪ Abstract nouns: Intangible concepts (love).
▪ Count vs. Non-count nouns: Items that can/cannot be counted (apple,
milk).
o Number and case:
▪ Singular vs. plural (car, cars).
▪ Genitive case to show possession (John’s book).
B. Verbs
o Definition: Words expressing actions, events, or states (run, become, exist).
o Characteristics:
7 Each word class will be described in detail in the following units.
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▪ Conjugated for tense (runs, ran), aspect (is running, has run), and voice
(was seen).
o Verb classes:
▪ Regular vs. irregular verbs (walk-walked, go-went).
▪ Transitive vs. intransitive verbs (eat vs. sleep).
▪ Linking verbs (be, seem).
o Tense and aspect:
▪ Simple past/present/future (walks, walked, will walk).
▪ Perfective and progressive forms (has walked, is walking).
C. Adjectives
o Definition: Words that describe or modify nouns (happy, red, large).
o Characteristics:
▪ Gradable (happier, happiest).
▪ Attributive (a happy child) vs. predicative (The child is happy).
o Comparison:
▪ Positive (big), comparative (bigger), superlative (biggest).
D. Adverbs
o Definition: Words that modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or clauses (quickly, very,
unfortunately).
o Characteristics:
▪ Often formed with -ly (slowly, beautifully).
▪ Answer questions like how, when, where, to what extent.
o Comparison:
▪ Positive (fast), comparative (faster), superlative (fastest).
6.2.2.- Closed classes (structural words)
A. Pronouns
o Substitute for nouns or noun phrases (he, it, they).
o Types:
▪ Personal pronouns: I, me, we, us.
▪ Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, theirs.
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▪ Reflexive pronouns: myself, herself.
▪ Demonstrative pronouns: this, that.
▪ Relative pronouns: who, which.
▪ Indefinite pronouns: someone, everything.
B. Determiners
o Specify or quantify nouns (the, a, many).
o Types:
▪ Articles (the, a).
▪ Possessives (my, your).
▪ Quantifiers (some, any).
▪ Numbers (one, two).
C. Conjunctions
o Link words, phrases, or clauses.
o Types:
▪ Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or).
▪ Subordinating conjunctions (because, although).
D. Prepositions
o Indicate relationships, typically spatial or temporal (in, on, before).
o Always followed by an object (sometimes called ‘complement’), forming prepositional
phrases (on the table).
E. Auxiliary verbs
o Help the main verb to form tense, mood, or voice (be, have, do).
o Modal auxiliaries: Express necessity, possibility, or permission (can, must, might).
6.3.- Word uses and flexibility
Many English words belong to multiple word classes depending on their context. For
example:
• Noun: She has a good run.
• Verb: He runs daily.
This flexibility underscores the importance of context in grammatical analysis.
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6.4.- Complements vs. adjuncts in word classes
A. Complements: Required by certain words to complete their meaning.
o She is happy (happy is a complement of is).
B. Adjuncts: Optional modifiers that add extra detail.
o She is happy in the garden (in the garden is an adjunct).
6.5.- Concluding words
Chapter 6 explores the basic characteristics English words, emphasizing their forms,
functions, and flexibility. By distinguishing open and closed classes, it highlights the roles
words play within sentences and how their grammatical behaviour influences sentence
structure. The complement vs. adjunct distinction reappears, reinforcing its significance in
grammatical analysis.
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CHAPTER 7: THE ENGLISH VERB
7.1.- Introduction to the verb group
The verb group (sometimes called ‘verbal periphrasis,’ not to be confused with the
verb phrase, which is almost always also called ‘predicate’) is the central component of a
sentence, as it conveys actions, states, or processes. It consists of a main verb and potentially
one or more auxiliaries. The verb group reflects key grammatical categories, such as:
A. Tense: Past, present, or future.
B. Aspect: Perfective or progressive.
C. Mood: Indicative, subjunctive, or imperative.
D. Voice: Active or passive.
Example:
• Simple VP: She runs.
• Complex VP: She has been running.
7.2.- The structure of the verb group (verbal periphrasis)
7.2.1.- Components of a verb group
A verb phrase can consist of:
A. A main verb: The primary verb that conveys the core meaning.
o Example: He runs.
B. One or more auxiliary verbs: Supporting verbs that modify tense, aspect, mood, or
voice.
o Example: He has been running.
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7.2.2.- Main verb types
A. Lexical (full) verbs: Carry semantic meaning.
o She reads novels every day.
B. Primary verbs: Can function as both lexical and auxiliary verbs (be, have, do).
o Lexical: They have a car.
o Auxiliary: They have driven to the park.
C. Auxiliary verbs: Support the main verb and are further divided into:
o Modal auxiliaries (discussed below).
o Aspect auxiliaries (have, be).
7.2.3.- Auxiliary verbs
Auxiliary verbs play a crucial role in forming complex verb group. They contribute to
tense, aspect, voice, and mood.
7.2.3.1.- Modal auxiliaries
Modal verbs express necessity, possibility, permission, or obligation. Key features
include:
• They are invariant in form (can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must).
• They are always followed by a base form of the main verb.
o Examples:
▪ You must finish your homework.
▪ She might come later.
7.2.3.2.- Aspect auxiliaries
A. Progressive aspect (be + present participle): Indicates ongoing actions.
o Example: She is reading a book.
B. Perfective aspect (have + past participle): Indicates completed actions.
o Example: She has read the book.
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When combined, these auxiliaries create more detailed expressions of time:
• She has been reading for hours.
7.2.3.3.- Voice auxiliaries: passive
The auxiliary be is used to form the passive voice, followed by the past participle of the
main verb.
• Active: The chef prepared the meal.
• Passive: The meal was prepared by the chef.
7.2.3.4.- Semi-auxiliaries
Semi-auxiliaries are multi-word constructions that resemble modal auxiliaries in their
function and are followed by the base form of a verb. Examples include:
• be going to, be about to, have to, be supposed to.
Functions of semi-auxiliaries:
A. Future expression:
o He is going to leave soon.
B. Obligation or necessity:
o You have to finish your work.
7.2.4.- Catenative verbs
Catenative verbs can be followed by another verb, forming chains of verbs. They are
pivotal in expressing varying degrees of intention, continuation, or completion. These verbs
often include:
A. Control verbs: Determine who performs the action.
o Example: She promised to call me.
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B. Non-control verbs: The subject does not directly control the action (E.g. raising verbs8)
o Example: The book appears to have been read.
Verb forms after catenatives:
Catenative verbs can be followed by:
A. A to-infinitive:
o They decided to leave.
B. A bare infinitive:
o Let him go.
C. A gerund:
o She admitted making a mistake.
Catenative verbs are highly versatile and create complex verb structures:
• She seems to have been waiting for hours.
NOTE: Some authors have categorized certain catenative verbs (like begin, start, continue,
cease, finish, promise, etc.) as having modal characteristics. It may not be entirely
conventional but it can be found in discussions of semantics and grammar where broader
definitions of modality are adopted. Some authors do indeed explore this possibility,
especially when emphasizing the semantic contribution of such verbs in expressing aspects
like commencement, continuation, or termination of an action.
In frameworks like Functional Grammar (e.g., Halliday's ‘Systemic Functional
Linguistics’), verbs like begin or continue might be viewed as operating on a similar
spectrum to modal verbs because they influence the aspectual or temporal nature of the
action expressed by the main verb. However, they are not typically called "modals."
Modal-Like Properties in Semantic Modalities: Some semanticists describe begin and
similar verbs as expressing a type of modal meaning, but they typically avoid calling them
"modal verbs." For example:
8 Raising is similar to control in that it involves an embedded clause, but unlike control, the subject of the embedded clause is
raised to a higher clause and does not have a semantic relationship with the main verb. In raising constructions, the main verb
(e.g., "seem," "appear") does not assign a thematic role to the subject of the sentence. Instead, the subject originates in the
embedded clause and "raises" to the subject position of the main clause.
Example of Raising: John seems [to be happy].
Here, "John" originates as the subject of "to be happy" but moves to the subject position of the main clause, leaving a trace (t).
Raising differs from control because, in control, the subject of the embedded clause has a specific semantic role assigned by
the main verb (e.g., "promise" or "ask"), while in raising, the subject does not get a thematic role from the main verb.
Cf. John seems to be happy / It seems that John is happy.
John promised to be happy / *It promised that John is happy (impossible)
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Begin might be seen as introducing a commencement modality, meaning it "frames" the
principal verb's action.
The idea of verbal periphrasis is often used in languages like Spanish or French to
describe combinations where an auxiliary or semi-auxiliary verb modifies the temporal or
modal frame of the action (e.g., ‘commencer à’ in French or ‘empezar a’ in Spanish). In
English, begin to could be described similarly, where begin is viewed as a supporting verb
with a modal-aspectual function.
Suggestion for Terminology: While treating begin as a "modal verb" may not align with
standard definitions of English modality (root and epistemic), these verbs might be called
aspectual modal or pseudo-modal verbs, particularly if one is to define "modal" more
broadly to include verbs that influence the temporal or aspectual framework of the main
verb.
7.2.5.- Verb forms
A. Finite verbs: Marked for tense and agree with the subject.
o Example: She runs daily.
B. Non-finite verbs9: Not marked for tense, often used in subordinate clauses.
o Infinitive: She likes to run.
o Gerund (-ing): Running is fun.
o Present participle (-ing): Coming from work, I met Anne.
o Past participle (-ed/-en): Built in the 18th century, the bridge is still solid.
7.3.- Special considerations in verb usage
Negation with auxiliaries
Negatives are formed by adding not (an adverbial complement of negation) after the first
auxiliary verb or using contracted forms.
• Example: He is not running. / He isn’t running.
Question formation
Auxiliaries facilitate subject-auxiliary inversion in questions.
9 Please see Appendix 2 for PRO theory concerning the subjects of non-finite clauses.
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• Example: Are you coming? / Has she finished her work?
Emphasis with ‘Do’
The dummy auxiliary do is used for emphasis in affirmative sentences.
• Example: I do like chocolate!
7.4.- Examples of complex verb groups
A. She might have been studying when you called.
o Modal auxiliary (might) + aspect auxiliaries (have, been) + lexical verb
(studying).
B. They seem to want to start working early.
o Catenative verb (seem) + infinitive (to want) + another catenative structure (to
start working).
7.5.- Cleft sentences
7.5.1.- The clefting process: cleft sentences and pseudocleft sentences
Clefting (also called the “it-is emphatic transformation”) is a syntactic transformation
used to focus or emphasize particular elements within a sentence. It divides a sentence into two
parts: one that contains the focus and another that provides additional information. Clefting can
be realized through various constructions, with cleft sentences and pseudocleft sentences
being the two most prominent forms.
The clefting process is a method of sentence restructuring in English, often employed
for emphasis or focus. It allows speakers to highlight specific elements of a sentence, such as
the subject, object, or adverbial adjuncts, by rearranging the sentence structure. This
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transformation typically results in two distinct parts: a main clause (which presents the focal
information) and a relative clause (which provides additional, often explanatory, content)10.
In its broadest sense, clefting operates by introducing a sentence with the structure: It
is/was X that Y. Here, X is the element that receives the emphasis (focus), while Y represents
the remainder of the sentence. This transformation splits the information and foregrounds
specific constituents, often marking them as new or important.
Cleft sentences, such as "It was John who won the race," are commonly contrasted with
—and based on— simple sentences like "John won the race," which will be referred to as the
core (original / nuclear) sentence The clefted form places more emphasis on the subject "John,"
distinguishing it from other possible subjects.
Similarly, pseudocleft sentences, which take the form "What X did was Y," or "All X did
was Y," also aim to highlight the focal element, often by introducing the subject and predicate
of the clause in a more complex structure.
7.5.2.- Cleft sentences
Structure and formation of cleft sentences
A cleft sentence typically follows the It is/was X that Y format, where:
• It is/was serves as an expletive, occupying the subject position.
• X is the element to be emphasized (focus).
• That introduces the relative clause (which gives the rest of the information).
• Y is the remainder of the sentence, often providing further clarification.
Examples:
• "It was John who won the race."
10In any case, the element to be analysed will be the core sentence. If the sentence goes “It was Peter who went there,” the
syntactic analysis will be based on the sentence: “Peter went there.”
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o In this example, the focus is on "John," and the sentence structure emphasizes
him as the subject who performed the action.
• "It was his honesty that impressed everyone."
o The focus here is on "his honesty," while the rest of the sentence provides
additional information about what impressed people.
Function and usage of cleft sentences
Cleft sentences are typically used for one of the following purposes:
A. Emphasis: Clefts serve to highlight a particular element in the sentence, marking it as
the new or important information.
o Example: "It was Susan who finished the project ahead of schedule."
B. Contrast: Clefts can differentiate the focal element from other possibilities, especially
when answering a question or providing an explanation.
o Example: "It was a mistake that led to the downfall of the company."
C. Clarification: Cleft sentences can be used to clarify or specify the referent of a noun
phrase or provide a more precise interpretation.
o Example: "It was on Monday that we decided to go."
Variations of Cleft Sentences
While the basic structure of cleft sentences follows the It is/was X that Y pattern, variations
can arise depending on the type of constituent being emphasized. For example:
• Subject cleft: The subject of the clause is emphasized.
o Example: "It was John who called."
• Object cleft: The object of the verb is highlighted.
o Example: "It was the book that she read."
• Adverbial cleft: An adverbial phrase (e.g., a time or place adjunct) is focused.
o Example: "It was at midnight that the storm started."
These structures are flexible and allow for nuanced emphasis in communication.
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7.5.3.- Pseudocleft sentences
Structure and formation of pseudocleft sentences
Pseudocleft sentences have a slightly different structure from clefts, though they share the
goal of emphasizing a particular part of the sentence. A pseudocleft typically follows the What
X did was Y or All X did was Y format.
• What X did: This part of the sentence introduces the event or action that is being
emphasized. It acts as a focus phrase, often referring to an action or event that has been
previously mentioned or is being highlighted.
• Was Y: The rest of the sentence (Y) provides additional information about the focus,
essentially completing the meaning and explaining what the focal element is.
Examples:
• "What he did was make dinner."
o The emphasis is on the event (the action), highlighting what he did—make
dinner.
• "All she did was leave a note."
o Here, the sentence emphasizes the simplicity of her action: leaving a note.
Function and usage of pseudocleft sentences
Like cleft sentences, pseudocleft sentences are used for several purposes, particularly to
express emphasis or highlight a specific action or event:
1. Focus on an action or event: Pseudoclefts are often used to emphasize what happened,
with the focus typically placed on the event or activity.
o Example: "What she said was completely unexpected."
2. Contrasting or correcting information: Pseudoclefts can be used to clarify or provide
a contrast, often following a previous statement.
o Example: "What we need is a plan, not a proposal."
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3. Minimal focus: Pseudocleft sentences can also minimize the focus, showing that only
one simple action was performed.
o Example: "All he did was leave."
7.6.- Concluding words
The chapter, drawn upon verbs in Quirk's Comprehensive Grammar, provides a detailed
analysis of verb phrase structure, auxiliary verbs, semi-auxiliaries, and catenatives. It
emphasizes how these elements interact to express tense, aspect, voice, mood, and modality.
Mastering these structures permits a deeper understanding of English sentence complexity and
flexibility.
Additionally, the clefting process, including both cleft and pseudocleft sentences, is a
powerful syntactic tool for emphasizing particular parts of a sentence and structuring
information in a way that guides the listener’s attention.
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CHAPTER 8: THE ENGLISH NOUN
8.1.- Introduction
The noun is one of the most important and widely studied parts of speech in English
grammar. It plays a central role in sentence structure and has several distinct characteristics that
make it an essential building block of the language. This chapter explores the nature of the
English noun, its defining features, and its classification, drawing on insights from Quirk et al.
(1985), Huddleston & Pullum (2002), and other seminal grammar texts.
8.2.- Characteristics of the English noun
8.2.1.- Morphological features
Nouns in English exhibit distinct morphological characteristics, particularly in terms of
number, case, and possession. According to Quirk et al. (1985), nouns can typically be
pluralized (e.g., cat → cats) and possessive forms can be marked (e.g., cat → cat’s, cats →
cats’). The inflectional markers of number and possession are crucial for distinguishing between
singular and plural nouns, as well as for expressing possession.
• Pluralization: Most nouns in English form the plural by adding the suffix -s or -es (e.g.,
cat → cats, box → boxes). However, there are irregular plural forms, such as man →
men, and child → children.
• Possession: Possessive nouns are formed by adding an apostrophe and -s (e.g., the cat’s
toy), with exceptions for plural nouns ending in -s (e.g., the cats’ toys).
The noun's morphological properties influence its syntactic behaviour, and understanding
these forms is essential for determining its function in a sentence.
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8.2.2.- Syntactic features
Syntactically, nouns serve as the head of noun phrases, which can function as subjects,
objects, or complements within a sentence. Nouns can appear with determiners (articles,
demonstratives, possessives) and adjectives. According to Huddleston & Pullum (2002), nouns
in English can function in various positions, such as:
• Subject: The noun can act as the subject of the sentence (e.g., The dog barked).
• Object: The noun can serve as the direct object or indirect object of a verb (e.g., She read
the book).
• Complement: The noun can be used as a complement, often following linking verbs (e.g.,
She is a teacher).
The syntactic behaviour of a noun is influenced by its role in the clause structure, and it
can be modified by other elements, such as adjectives or prepositional phrases, to form more
complex noun phrases.
8.3.- Classification of nouns
Nouns in English can be classified in a variety of ways based on their meaning, form, and
syntactic function. This section discusses the major classifications of nouns, drawing on Quirk
et al. (1985) and Huddleston & Pullum (2002).
8.3.1.- Count vs. mass nouns
Nouns can be divided into count and mass categories, reflecting how they behave with
respect to quantity and article usage.
• Count nouns: These nouns refer to items that can be counted individually (e.g., book,
apple). They can take plural forms and can be used with numerals (e.g., three books,
five apples).
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• Mass nouns: These nouns refer to uncountable substances or concepts (e.g., water, air,
information). Mass nouns do not take plural forms and are typically used with
quantifiers like "some" or "much" (e.g., much water, some rice).
The distinction between count and mass nouns has important implications for syntactic
constructions, particularly in terms of determiners and quantification.
8.3.2.- Concrete vs. abstract nouns
Another common classification of nouns is based on whether they refer to physical objects
(concrete nouns) or to intangible concepts (abstract nouns).
• Concrete nouns: These nouns refer to physical objects that can be perceived by the
senses (e.g., dog, tree, table). Concrete nouns are often used in sentences to describe the
real world.
• Abstract nouns: These nouns refer to concepts, feelings, or ideas that cannot be
perceived by the senses (e.g., love, freedom, happiness). Abstract nouns are frequently
used to express emotions or philosophical ideas.
8.3.3.- Proper vs. common nouns
Nouns can also be classified based on whether they refer to specific entities (proper
nouns) or general categories (common nouns).
• Proper nouns: These are names of specific people, places, or organizations (e.g., John,
London, Microsoft). Proper nouns are typically capitalized.
• Common nouns: These refer to general categories of things or people (e.g., cat, city,
company). Common nouns can be further classified into count and mass nouns, as
described above.
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8.3.4.- Collective nouns
Collective nouns refer to groups of individuals or things considered as a whole. Examples
include team, family, and committee. These nouns can be treated as singular or plural depending
on whether the group is viewed as a single unit or as individual members.
8.4.-Noun phrases
A noun phrase is a syntactic unit headed by a noun, and it can include various modifiers
such as adjectives, determiners, and prepositional phrases. Quirk et al. (1985) identify the noun
phrase as the central unit in English grammar, often functioning as the subject or object in
sentences.
8.4.1.- Structure of noun phrases
A basic noun phrase consists of a noun and its determiners, while more complex noun
phrases may include adjectives, prepositional phrases, and relative clauses. For example, in the
phrase "the large brown dog," "dog" is the head noun, and "the large brown" are its modifiers.
Noun phrases can also be modified by relative clauses (e.g., the book that I read), adding
complexity to their structure.
8.4.2.- Functions of noun phrases
Noun phrases can fulfil various syntactic functions, such as:
• Subject of a Sentence: e.g., The car broke down.
• Object of a Verb: e.g., She bought a book.
• Complement: e.g., His job is a manager.
Noun phrases serve as the foundation for constructing sentences and clauses, and
understanding their structure is crucial for sentence analysis.
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8.5.- The noun in relation to other parts of speech
The noun's role in the English language is inextricably linked to other parts of speech,
particularly verbs and adjectives. Nouns often function as subjects, objects, and complements,
but they also work closely with verbs to form compound noun structures, such as in "swimming
pool" or "snowstorm."
8.5.1.- The noun and the verb
Nouns and verbs are the two main components in English sentences. Verbs express
actions or states, while nouns typically represent entities. Nouns can be the direct object,
indirect object, or subject of the verb, playing a crucial role in determining sentence meaning.
8.5.2.- The noun and the adjective
Adjectives modify nouns, providing more detailed information about the noun's
characteristics. The order of adjectives before a noun follows a specific pattern in English, with
qualifiers (e.g., "the big, red car"). Adjectives and nouns work together to form noun phrases
that convey precise information.
8.6.- Conclusion
In conclusion, the noun is a central element in English grammar, with a variety of forms
and functions. It can be classified in numerous ways, and its syntactic roles are foundational to
the structure of sentences. By understanding the morphological and syntactic characteristics of
nouns, as well as their various classifications, one gains a deeper appreciation for how the
English language organizes meaning and structures communication.
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CHAPTER 9: THE ENGLISH PRONOUN
9.1.- Introduction
Pronouns are one of the most important and versatile parts of speech in English. They
replace nouns or noun phrases, allowing for brevity and reducing repetition in discourse. This
chapter examines the nature of the English pronoun, focusing on its syntactic, morphological,
and semantic characteristics. We will also explore the various classifications of pronouns and
their roles within sentence structure, drawing on works such as Quirk et al. (1985), Huddleston
& Pullum (2002), and other scholarly grammars.
9.2.- Characteristics and classification
9.2.1.- Characteristics of the English pronoun
9.2.1.1.- Morphological features
Pronouns in English exhibit a variety of morphological features, including gender,
number, case, and person. These features distinguish pronouns from one another and allow
them to perform different syntactic roles.
• Person: English pronouns distinguish between first person (e.g., I, we), second person
(e.g., you), and third person (e.g., he, she, it, they).
• Number: Pronouns can be singular or plural (e.g., I vs. we, he vs. they).
• Gender: English pronouns also mark gender in the third person singular (e.g., he, she, it).
In some cases, the gender is neutralized with the use of they (singular) for non-binary
individuals.
• Case: Pronouns are inflected for case, which reflects their syntactic role in a sentence.
The main cases are:
o Subjective case: e.g., I, you, he, she (subject of the sentence)
o Objective case: e.g., me, you, him, her (direct or indirect object)
o Possessive case: e.g., my, your, his, her (showing ownership)
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The morphological forms of pronouns help indicate their syntactic function and
agreement with other elements in the sentence.
9.2.1.2.- Syntactic features
Pronouns typically function as substitutes for noun phrases, enabling speakers to avoid
redundancy in discourse. According to Quirk et al. (1985), the syntactic roles of pronouns are
highly variable and context-dependent, but they generally serve the following functions:
• Subject: Pronouns can function as the subject of a clause (e.g., She is studying).
• Object: Pronouns can serve as the direct or indirect object of a verb (e.g., I saw him; She
gave me the book).
• Complement: Pronouns can also function as complements, particularly with linking
verbs (e.g., It is she).
• Possessor: Pronouns can indicate possession (e.g., This is mine).
The pronouns' ability to substitute for full noun phrases without losing meaning is
essential for fluency in English sentence construction. Pronouns are essential for sentence
structure, enabling efficient communication by reducing repetition of full noun phrases. In
conclusion, they are an essential part of English grammar, serving as substitutes for noun
phrases and fulfilling a variety of syntactic and semantic functions.
9.3.- Classification of pronouns
English pronouns are typically classified based on their function, form, and referent. This
section explores these classifications, drawing on both traditional and contemporary grammars.
A. Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns are the most common type of pronoun, referring to the participants in
an utterance. They are categorized by person (first, second, third), number (singular, plural),
and case (subject, object, possessive).
• First person: Refers to the speaker(s), e.g., I, we.
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• Second person: Refers to the listener(s), e.g., you (used both for singular and plural).
• Third person: Refers to others, e.g., he, she, it, they.
Personal pronouns play an essential role in sentence structure and conversation, allowing
speakers to refer to people, objects, and concepts without redundancy.
B. Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are used when the subject and object of a sentence refer to the same
entity. These pronouns typically end in -self (singular) or -selves (plural), and include pronouns
like myself, yourself, himself, themselves, etc.
• Function: Reflexive pronouns serve to reflect the action of the verb back onto the subject,
often in transitive verbs (e.g., She blamed herself).
• Emphasis: Reflexive pronouns can also be used for emphasis (e.g., He himself made the
decision).
C. Possessive pronouns
Possessive pronouns indicate ownership or possession, replacing noun phrases that show
possession. These pronouns include forms such as mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, and theirs.
• Function: Possessive pronouns are used to indicate that something belongs to the
pronoun’s referent (e.g., That book is mine).
• Distinction (traditional): Possessive pronouns differ from possessive determiners (e.g.,
my, your, his), which are used to modify nouns, not stand alone. However, many
grammarians now treat these as pronouns too.
D. Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns point to specific things or people and can be used to indicate
proximity or identity. These include this, that, these, and those.
• Function: Demonstrative pronouns identify or emphasize specific referents (e.g., This is
my book; Those are beautiful flowers).
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• Use in reference: They can also distinguish between singular and plural forms (e.g., this
vs. these).
E. Interrogative pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. They include who, whom, what, which,
and whose. These pronouns replace the noun that the speaker is asking about.
• Function: Interrogative pronouns serve as the subject or object of a question (e.g., Who
is there?; What did you say?).
• Specificity: Some interrogative pronouns, such as which and whose, are used when the
referent is known but needs to be specified (e.g., Which book do you prefer?).
F. Indefinite pronouns
Indefinite pronouns refer to non-specific things or people, often when the exact identity
or number is unknown or unimportant. These include pronouns like everyone, anyone,
someone, each, none, several, many, and few.
• Function: Indefinite pronouns can act as subjects, objects, or complements, depending
on the sentence (e.g., Everyone loves the teacher; Few came to the party).
• Ambiguity: Indefinites can be singular or plural, and they often require agreement with
verbs (e.g., Everyone is here vs. Few are left).
G. Relative pronouns
Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses, providing more information about a noun
phrase in the main clause. These include who, whom, whose, which, and that.
• Function: Relative pronouns link a dependent clause to the main clause, usually serving
as the subject or object in the relative clause (e.g., The person who called is my friend).
• Reduction: In spoken English, the relative pronoun that is often used in place of who or
which in restrictive clauses (e.g., The book that I read was fascinating).
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9.4.- Conclusion
Pronouns play a critical role in English grammar, enhancing fluency by replacing noun
phrases and preventing redundancy. Their diverse syntactic functions—serving as subjects,
objects, possessors, and more—make them indispensable for clear communication. This
chapter has explored their morphological and syntactic characteristics, as well as key
classifications such as personal, reflexive, and indefinite pronouns, offering a comprehensive
understanding of their function and importance in sentence structure.
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CHAPTER 10: THE ENGLISH ADJECTIVE
10.1.-Introduction
Adjectives are an integral part of English grammar, playing a crucial role in providing
descriptive detail and adding specificity to noun phrases. They modify nouns, helping to create
vivid, detailed, and precise meanings. This chapter provides an in-depth exploration of the
characteristics and classification of English adjectives, using the insights of Quirk et al. (1985),
Huddleston & Pullum (2002), and other authoritative works.
10.2.- Characteristics of the English adjective
10.2.1.- Morphological features
English adjectives have a range of morphological features that distinguish them from
other parts of speech, especially in terms of comparison, degree, and agreement.
• Comparison: One of the most distinctive features of adjectives is their ability to show
comparison. Adjectives can be compared to indicate differences in degree or quality.
This is usually done through inflection (e.g., big → bigger → biggest) or with the use
of more/most for longer adjectives (e.g., beautiful → more beautiful → most beautiful).
• Degree: Adjectives in English can express different degrees of quality. The positive
degree (e.g., tall) describes the base quality, the comparative degree (e.g., taller)
compares two things, and the superlative degree (e.g., tallest) compares three or more
things.
• Morphological simplicity: Many adjectives in English do not undergo extensive
inflection beyond comparison. However, some adjectives show irregular comparison
(e.g., good → better → best), and a few adjectives have forms for gender or number,
though this is less common in modern English.
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10.2.2.- Syntactic features
Adjectives play several important roles in sentence structure, modifying nouns, linking
with verbs, and helping to convey specific meaning.
A. Modifier of noun phrases
In their most common function, adjectives modify nouns, providing specific details about
the noun. They typically appear directly before the noun (attributive position) or after a linking
verb (predicative position).
• Attributive position: The tall man (adjective tall modifies man).
• Predicative position: The man is tall (adjective tall modifies man).
B. Intensification of meaning
Adjectives can be intensified to emphasize their qualities. This is typically done with
adverbs like very, quite, or extremely.
• Examples: He is very tall, She is quite beautiful.
C. Gradability
Many adjectives are gradable, meaning they can vary in intensity. These adjectives are
often used with comparative and superlative forms.
• Examples: big → bigger → biggest, beautiful → more beautiful → most beautiful.
D. Role in semantic structure
Adjectives can also play an important role in the overall meaning of a sentence,
particularly when they interact with other elements like nouns and verbs. They help refine or
modify the central meaning of the subject or object.
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10.3.- Classification of adjectives
Adjectives can be classified in several ways based on their form, function, and meaning.
This section discusses the major categories of adjectives in English grammar, using insights
from Quirk et al. (1985), Huddleston & Pullum (2002), and others.
A. Descriptive adjectives
Descriptive adjectives, also known as qualitative adjectives, describe the qualities or
characteristics of a noun. These adjectives modify the noun to provide specific attributes such
as size, colour, shape, age, or texture.
• Examples: big, red, round, old, soft.
• Function: These adjectives help to provide more information about the noun they modify.
For example, in a tall building, the adjective tall describes the height of the building.
B. Quantitative adjectives
Quantitative adjectives indicate the quantity or degree of the noun they modify, without
providing specific details about its qualities. These adjectives often answer questions like how
many or how much.
• Examples: few, many, several, all, some, most.
• Function: These adjectives express quantity or scope, as in I have several books or He
ate all the cookies.
C. Demonstrative adjectives (nowadays treated as determiners/pronouns)11
11 There is a shift to treating my in my book and this in this book as determiners/pronouns rather than adjectives. This reflects
a broader trend in modern grammar to emphasize functional roles over traditional categorizations. This approach allows
linguists to account for the variable use of these forms in English and aligns with the way these words are used in spoken and
written language. By classifying them as determiners/pronouns when they function independently to replace nouns,
grammarians can provide a more accurate and descriptive analysis of their usage, enhancing the understanding of sentence
structure and meaning in contemporary English.
However, the treatment of possessive adjectives and demonstrative adjectives as pronouns is a topic of ongoing debate in
modern linguistics.
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Demonstrative adjectives (now determiners/pronouns) specify which noun is being
referred to and indicate proximity in time or space. They are used to point out a particular noun.
• Examples: this, that, these, those.
• Function: Demonstrative adjectives can specify whether the noun is near or far from the
speaker, as in this book (near) or those books (far).
D. Possessive adjectives (nowadays treated as determiners/pronouns —see footnote)
Possessive adjectives (now determiners/pronouns) indicate ownership or possession of
the noun they modify. They are derived from possessive pronouns and are used to describe
something that belongs to someone or something.
• Examples: my, your, his, her, our, their.
• Function: Possessive adjectives are used to show ownership or association, as in my car,
your house, or their dog.
E. Interrogative adjectives
Interrogative adjectives are used in questions to inquire about specific qualities or
characteristics of a noun.
• Examples: which, what, whose.
• Function: Interrogative adjectives ask about the noun's identity or quality, as in Which
book is yours? or Whose shoes are these?.
F. Indefinite adjectives
Indefinite adjectives (now treated as determiners) modify nouns in a general or non-
specific way. These adjectives are used when referring to non-specific items or quantities.
• Examples: any, some, few, many, several.
• Function: Indefinite adjectives provide information about an unspecified quantity, as in
some books, few people, or many choices.
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G. Compound adjectives
Compound adjectives are formed by combining two or more words, typically linked by
hyphens. These adjectives can include descriptive, quantitative, or possessive elements.
• Examples: well-known, high-pitched, blue-eyed, open-ended.
• Function: Compound adjectives often provide more specific or detailed descriptions, as
in a well-known author or a high-pitched voice.
10.4- Conclusion
In conclusion, adjectives are fundamental elements of English grammar that provide rich
descriptive detail and modify noun phrases. They are classified into different categories based
on their form, meaning, and function within sentence structure. Understanding the
characteristics and classifications of adjectives is essential for constructing clear and precise
sentences.
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CHAPTER 11: THE ENGLISH ADVERB
11.1.- Introduction
The adverb is an essential part of English syntax, playing a versatile role in modifying
verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or entire clauses. Unlike adjectives, which modify nouns,
adverbs provide information on how, when, where, to what extent, or under what conditions an
action or state occurs. This chapter examines the characteristics and classifications of adverbs
in English, based on works by Quirk et al. (1985), Huddleston (2002), and Greenbaum et al.
(1996), among others.
11.2.- Characteristics of adverbs
Adverbs in English are characterized by their ability to modify a wide range of elements
within a sentence. They are most commonly recognized for modifying verbs (e.g., She sings
beautifully), but can also modify adjectives (She is very talented), other adverbs (He ran quite
quickly), or entire clauses (Surprisingly, she won the race). The following are some defining
features:
• Semantics: Adverbs typically answer questions about time, manner, place, frequency,
degree, or probability. These categories help to convey specific detail/complexity in
meaning.
• Syntactic position: Adverbs can appear in various positions within a sentence, typically
before the verb, after the verb, at the beginning or end of a sentence, or even within
noun phrases.
• Form and morphology: Many adverbs are formed by adding the suffix -ly to adjectives
(e.g., quick → quickly), though not all adverbs follow this pattern, such as fast, well,
soon, often, etc. Some adverbs, called simple adverbs, do not have the -ly suffix and are
invariable (e.g., here, there, now).
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11.3.- Classification of adverbs
According to Quirk et al. (1985), adverbs can be broadly classified based on the type of
word or phrase they modify. The main classifications include:
A. Adverbs of manner
These adverbs describe how an action is performed. They answer the question How? and
often end in -ly, though not exclusively. Examples include:
• She sings beautifully (How does she sing?)
• He runs quickly (How does he run?)
These adverbs generally follow the verb in declarative sentences (e.g., She dances
gracefully) but can sometimes appear at the beginning or end for emphasis.
B. Adverbs of time
These adverbs describe when an action takes place or how often it occurs. They answer
the questions When? or How often? Examples include:
• She will arrive soon (When will she arrive?)
• He often visits his parents (How often does he visit?)
Adverbs of time are often placed at the beginning or end of a sentence (e.g., I will call
you tomorrow or Tomorrow, I will call you).
C. Adverbs of place
These adverbs indicate where an action occurs. They answer the question Where?
Examples include:
• He is sitting outside (Where is he sitting?)
• The book is lying on the table (Where is the book?)
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Adverbs of place typically follow the verb or object in a sentence, but they can also appear
at the beginning or end for emphasis (e.g., Outside, there was a storm).
D. Adverbs of frequency
These adverbs describe how often something happens. They answer the question How
often? Examples include:
• He always arrives early (How often does he arrive?)
• They rarely go to the cinema (How often do they go?)
Adverbs of frequency usually appear before the main verb (e.g., She often goes shopping),
but can follow forms of the verb to be (e.g., She is always happy).
E. Adverbs of degree
These adverbs express the intensity or extent of an action, adjective, or another adverb.
They answer the question To what extent? Examples include:
• She is extremely talented (To what extent is she talented?)
• He ran very fast (To what extent did he run?)
These adverbs often precede the word they modify, although some, such as too or enough,
may follow the adjective or verb they modify (e.g., She is too young to drive).
Also, there are intensifying adverbs, as can be seen in the figure:
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F. Adverbs of probability
These adverbs express the likelihood of an event occurring. They answer the question
How likely? Examples include:
• She will probably come to the party (How likely is she to come?)
• It may possibly rain tomorrow (How likely is it to rain?)
These adverbs can typically be positioned at the beginning, middle, or end of the sentence.
G. Adverbs of focus and comment
These adverbs focus on specific parts of the sentence or provide commentary on the
information presented. Examples include:
• Only she passed the test (Focus on she)
• Frankly, I don’t like that movie (Comment on the statement)
11.4.- Functional aspects of adverbs
A. Sentence adverbs
Sentence adverbs (usually disjuncts) modify the entire clause and convey the speaker's
attitude toward the proposition. They are often used to indicate possibility, certainty, or attitude.
Examples include:
• Unfortunately, we missed the train.
• Clearly, she is the best candidate.
Sentence adverbs can often be moved around in a sentence without altering its meaning.
B. Adverbial phrases
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Adverbs can also be multi-word expressions, known as adverbial phrases, which function
as a single adverb. These can be categorized into:
• Prepositional phrases: in the morning, on time
• Infinitive phrases: to some extent, to a degree
• Other complex adverbial expressions: in a hurry, at the moment
These phrases can modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, expanding the range of
adverbial expression in English.
11.5.- The syntax of adverbs
Adverbs are versatile in their syntactic position, as they can occur in various positions
within the clause. However, the general rule is that they follow the verb in declarative sentences
(e.g., He works hard), though they can also appear at the beginning or end of sentences for
emphasis or stylistic purposes.
• Verb + adverb: She sings beautifully.
• Adverb + verb: She beautifully sings.
In the case of adverbs of frequency, they generally precede the verb (e.g., She always
sings beautifully), but can follow the verb to be (e.g., She is always happy).
11.6.- Adverbial modifiers in comparative and superlative structures
Adverbs also play a role in comparative and superlative structures, modifying adjectives
or other adverbs. For example:
• She sings more beautifully than her sister (comparative)
• She sings the most beautifully of all (superlative)
In these structures, the adverb modifies an adjective or another adverb to compare the
intensity of an action.
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11.6.- Conclusion
Adverbs are a vital part of English grammar, providing detailed information about the
manner, time, place, frequency, degree, and probability of actions or states. Their ability to
modify a wide range of elements within a sentence makes them indispensable in conveying
specific meanings. Understanding the classifications and functions of adverbs, as outlined in
works by Quirk et al. (1985), Huddleston (2002), and Greenbaum et al. (1996), helps to grasp
their pivotal role in sentence structure and meaning.
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CHAPTER 12: THE ENGLISH PREPOSITION
12.1. Introduction
Prepositions play a crucial role in English grammar by linking nouns, pronouns, or noun
phrases to other elements in the sentence. As one of the primary parts of speech, they indicate
relationships of place, time, direction, cause, manner, and other abstract or logical connections.
This chapter delves into the characteristics, classifications, and syntactic functions of
prepositions, with a particular focus on complex prepositions. Drawing from key works like
Quirk et al. (1985), Huddleston (2002), and Greenbaum (1996), we explore how prepositions
interact within sentences and how complex structures, like in the centre of or to the north of,
extend the functionality of simpler prepositions.
12.2.- Characteristics of prepositions
Prepositions in English are short words that establish relationships between the objects of
prepositions (usually nouns or pronouns) and other elements of a sentence. The most significant
features of prepositions include:
• Function: Prepositions express relations of time, place, direction, and cause. They
typically introduce prepositional phrases, which act as modifiers in sentences.
• Position: Prepositions usually precede the noun or pronoun they govern, forming
prepositional phrases (e.g., on the table, under the bridge).
• Syntactic behaviour: Prepositions typically appear in fixed positions relative to their
objects, often requiring a noun phrase as their complement. The object of the preposition
is almost always a noun or noun phrase, which can include pronouns, gerunds, or
nominalized phrases.
12.3.- Classifications of prepositions
Prepositions can be classified based on the type of relationship they express. Key
categories (there are, of course, more) include:
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A. Prepositions of time
Prepositions that convey information about time relationships. Common examples
include at, on, in, since, and for.
• At is used for precise times or holidays (e.g., at 5 PM, at Christmas).
• On is used for days and dates (e.g., on Monday, on July 1st).
• In refers to periods, months, years, or longer durations (e.g., in 2024, in the morning).
B. Prepositions of place and direction
These prepositions express spatial relationships or movement toward a destination. Some
common examples include at, in, on, to, into, under, over, and between.
• At refers to a point or specific location (e.g., at the door).
• In indicates an enclosed space (e.g., in the room).
• On suggests a surface or location on top (e.g., on the table).
• To shows movement or direction (e.g., to the park).
C. Prepositions of cause, reason, and purpose
These prepositions explain why something happens or the purpose behind it. Key
prepositions include for, because of, due to, thanks to, and on account of.
• For often indicates purpose or benefit (e.g., a gift for you).
• Because of and due to refer to reasons (e.g., because of the rain).
• On account of implies cause (e.g., on account of his illness).
D. Prepositions of manner and means
These prepositions describe how something is done or the method used. Common
examples include by, with, through, and like.
• By indicates means or agent (e.g., by car, by email).
• With indicates tools or instruments (e.g., with a pen).
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• Through refers to a medium or method (e.g., through hard work).
• Like indicates similarity or comparison (e.g., like a lion).
12.4.- Complex prepositions: definition and examples
Complex prepositions, also known as prepositional phrases (locuciones preposicionales
in Spanish) are multi-word expressions that function as single prepositions. These structures
typically consist of a preposition followed by a noun phrase, and they extend the versatility of
simpler prepositions. Some common types of complex prepositions include:
a. Prepositions with noun phrases
These complex prepositions consist of a main preposition followed by a noun phrase,
creating a phrase that serves the same function as a single preposition. Examples include:
• in the centre of (e.g., She lives in the centre of the city).
• at the top of (e.g., The book is at the top of the shelf).
• on behalf of (e.g., I spoke on behalf of the committee).
• at the foot of (e.g., The dog is at the foot of the stairs).
B. Complex prepositions with an adjective or noun modifier
These prepositions involve an adjective or noun that modifies the preposition's object
noun phrase, thereby creating more precise meanings. The adjective modifies the noun, which
is the complement of the preposition. Examples include:
• under the direct influence of (e.g., He acted under the direct influence of alcohol.)
• in the freezing centre of (e.g., They camped in the freezing centre of the forest.)
• at the extreme edge of (e.g., We stood at the extreme edge of the cliff.)
In each case, the preposition forms part of a complex prepositional structure where an
adjective (direct, freezing, extreme) modifies a noun (influence, centre, edge). This creates more
detailed meanings.
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C. Complex prepositions with verbal components
A complex preposition incorporating a verbal element uses verb-like forms as part of
its fixed structure. These prepositions are fixed expressions and often idiomatic. Examples
include:
• owing to (e.g., The game was postponed owing to bad weather.)
• given (e.g., Given the number of complaints, Ford had to announce a recall of that
model.)
• considering (e.g., Considering the circumstances, he acted wisely.)
In these examples:
• "Owing to" contains a participial verb (owing).
• "Given" is originally a past participle (given).
• "Considering" uses a present participle as a prepositional element.
These are fixed forms in English that function as prepositions. Here the verb form itself
is integrated into the preposition's structure. Other such cases include:
barring, excepting, excluding; save (formal); concerning (formal), considering, regarding,
respecting, touching (formal or literary), failing, wanting, following, pending (formal), granted,
including, etc.
Further examples:
• The plan was rejected, wanting clear objectives.
• The report was thorough, but wanting sufficient evidence.
• Failing a better solution, we will proceed with the original plan.
• Failing a response by tomorrow, we will assume you agree with the proposal.
• Touching the matter of your recent inquiry, we have no further information to provide.
• The lawyer made a statement touching the defendant's previous convictions.
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12.5.- Syntax and position of prepositions
The syntax of prepositions in English can vary depending on their function and type.
Some key points include:
• Preposition + noun phrase: The most common form of a prepositional phrase, where
the preposition governs a noun or noun phrase (e.g., in the park).
• Prepositional phrases as modifiers: Prepositional phrases can function as adjectives or
adverbs, providing additional details about a noun or verb. For example, She sat in the
room (modifying sat), or The book on the shelf is new (modifying book).
• Position within the sentence: Prepositional phrases typically follow the main verb or
noun in a sentence. However, they can also be moved for emphasis or style (e.g., In the
centre of the room stood a table).
12.6.- Prepositional phrases and sentence structure
Prepositions and prepositional phrases are vital in sentence construction because they add
detail, clarity, and precision. They help form complex syntactic structures by linking ideas and
elaborating on actions or states. Some examples include:
• The cat sat on the mat. (Basic preposition + noun phrase)
• He walked to the store with his friend. (Prepositional phrases serving as adjuncts)
Prepositional phrases can act as:
• Adjectival modifiers: The book on the shelf is mine. (modifying the noun book).
• Adverbial modifiers: She sang with passion. (modifying the verb sang).
12.7.- The importance of prepositional phrases in English idioms
Many common idiomatic expressions in English are formed using prepositional phrases,
which can be complex in nature. Examples include:
• In the long run (e.g., It will pay off in the long run).
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• Out of the blue (e.g., He appeared out of the blue).
• At odds with (e.g., She is at odds with her colleague).
These idioms further illustrate the importance of complex prepositions in both everyday
and formal English.
12.8.- Lexical vs. functional prepositions
12.8.1.- Lexical (or semantically contentful) prepositions
Lexical prepositions12 are those that have clear, independent meanings and convey a
specific relationship or concept between their object and the rest of the sentence. These are the
most common prepositions used to denote spatial, temporal, or other concrete relationships. For
example:
• On (e.g., The book is on the table),
• In (e.g., She is in the room),
• At (e.g., He is at the door).
These prepositions can be understood in isolation and typically involve physical or more
tangible relationships. Their meaning remains largely consistent, and their function is to mark
a specific relationship between the noun (object) they govern and the rest of the sentence. Such
prepositions are typically described as having semantic weight because they carry substantial,
context-independent meaning.
12.8.2. Functional prepositions
In contrast, functional prepositions (sometimes called "semi-lexical" or "structural"
prepositions) are those that primarily serve a grammatical or syntactic function, often helping
to form verb phrases, noun phrases, or adjective phrases13. These prepositions are often less
independent in meaning compared to semantically full prepositions. They don't typically stand
12In Spanish, they are called ‘preposiciones plenas’
13They often function as heads of verbal, nominal, adjectival or adverbial complements (postmodifiers usually referred to in
Spanish as ‘complementos de régimen.’
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alone with a clear, concrete sense but gain meaning in context through their connection with
other words (verbs, nouns, or adjectives).
Examples include:
• To in The right to life (Here, to is not expressing direction or location, but rather a
structural function within the noun phrase, indicating the relationship between right and
life).
• For in Ready for anything (The preposition for helps connect the adjective ready to its
complement anything, indicating the purpose or readiness for something).
These functional prepositions are often found in collocations (fixed expressions) or
specific grammatical structures, particularly in:
• (Verb-governed) prepositional complements: She succeeded in finishing the task,
• (Noun-governed) prepositional complements: He has a talent for music,
• (Adjective-governed) prepositional complements: She is afraid of spiders.
The term "functional" refers to the fact that these prepositions largely serve to structure
or complete a particular syntactic unit, and their meaning often depends heavily on the context.
The main difference between lexical and functional prepositions and structural
prepositions lies in their semantic independence. While lexical prepositions can often be
understood in isolation with clear meanings (e.g., on, in, under), functional/structural
prepositions depend on other elements of the sentence to convey their full meaning. Structural
prepositions, such as to in the right to life or for in ready for anything, are much more context-
dependent and cannot be understood in isolation.
12.9.- Conclusion
Prepositions are a fundamental part of English grammar, linking words and phrases to
express a range of relationships and ideas. Complex prepositions, consisting of multiple words,
provide even greater detail and flexibility, particularly when conveying spatial, temporal, and
causal relationships. By understanding the various types of prepositions and their syntactic
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roles, speakers and writers can use prepositions more effectively to construct clear and precise
sentences.
Understanding the distinction between lexical and functional prepositions is important
for grasping how prepositions function in different sentence structures. Semantically full
prepositions carry independent meaning, while structural prepositions work to help form
specific grammatical units and rely on the surrounding context to convey meaning. Both types
are essential for sentence construction, but their roles are distinctly different, with structural
prepositions playing a more syntactic, rather than semantic, role.
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CHAPTER 13: THE ENGLISH DETERMINER
13.1.- Introduction
Determiners play an essential role in English grammar, functioning to limit or specify
nouns in various ways. They are crucial for understanding the syntactic structure of noun
phrases (NPs) and contribute significantly to sentence meaning. This chapter explores the
characteristics of determiners, their classification, and the specific roles of central, pre-, and
post-determiners. It also addresses the question of whether these elements are best understood
as functions or categories, drawing on works such as Quirk et al. (1985), Huddleston (2002),
and Greenbaum & Quirk (1990).
13.2.- Characteristics of determiners
Determiners are words that appear before a noun to clarify its reference. They include
articles, demonstratives, possessives, quantifiers, and other limiting expressions. The key
characteristics of determiners are:
• Specifier of reference: Determiners provide specific or indefinite reference to a noun.
For example, the book (specific reference) vs. a book (indefinite reference).
• Agreement with noun: Determiners generally agree with the noun they modify in terms
of number (singular/plural) and definiteness. For example, these books (plural) vs. this
book (singular).
• Positioning in noun phrases: Determiners almost always appear at the beginning of a
noun phrase. They precede adjectives and other modifiers.
13.3.- Classification of determiners
English determiners are typically classified into several broad categories, including:
• Articles: Definite (the) and indefinite (a, an).
• Demonstratives: Words such as this, that, these, and those, which point to specific things.
• Possessives: Words like my, your, his, her, its, our, and their that show possession.
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• Quantifiers: Words like some, many, few, all, several, and any.
• Numbers: Cardinal numbers (one, two, three) and ordinal numbers (first, second).
• Interrogatives: Which, what, and whose when used in questions.
13.4.- Central, pre-, and post-determiners
One of the key debates in the study of determiners is whether they are best described as
functions or categories. While Quirk et al. (1985) introduce the term "determinatives" as a
functional label, the elements that function as determiners can be classified according to their
position and role within the noun phrase. For the sake of clarity, this chapter will discuss these
determiners in terms of their central, pre-, and post-determiner functions.
A. Central determiners
Central determiners are the core members of the determiner category. These determiners
generally appear at the head of a noun phrase and directly modify the noun. They include
articles, possessives, and demonstratives. Central determiners are critical in marking the
definiteness and reference of the noun.
• Articles: The, a, and an are considered the central determiners. The is used for specific
reference, while a and an are indefinite articles used for non-specific reference.
Examples:
o The dog is barking (specific reference).
o A dog is barking (non-specific reference).
• Demonstratives: This, that, these, and those are central determiners because they specify
the noun's identity or location relative to the speaker.
Examples:
o This book is interesting.
o Those books are interesting.
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• Possessives: Possessive determiners, such as my, your, his, and her, also function as
central determiners by marking ownership or association with the noun.
Examples:
o My book.
o Her car.
These determiners are central because they directly determine the reference of the noun.
B. Pre-determiners
Pre-determiners are words that precede central determiners and provide additional
specification to the noun phrase. They tend to modify the central determiner or quantify the
noun in a way that is more specific than the central determiner itself. Pre-determiners are often
used to provide more precise information about the noun they modify.
Examples of pre-determiners include:
• Quantifiers: Words like all, both, half, double, etc.
o All the students,
o Both my parents.
• Numerals: Words such as two, first, etc., that precede the central determiner.
o Two dogs,
o First choice.
Pre-determiners are relatively rare but important for adding layers of meaning to the noun
phrase.
C. Post-determiners
Post-determiners follow the central determiner and can provide further specification.
They usually quantify or characterize the noun. These elements are not as frequently discussed
as pre-determiners but can add significant detail to noun phrases.
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Examples of post-determiners include:
• Ordinal numbers: First, second, third, etc.
o The first book,
o The second chance.
• Cardinal numbers: One, two, three, etc.
o The two cars.
• Other quantifiers: Words such as many, few, several, both, etc.
o Many books,
o Few students.
Post-determiners are significant because they allow for additional modification after the
noun has been introduced, contributing to more detailed descriptions.
Final systematization of pre-determiners, central determiners, and post-determiners
Category Definition Examples Explanation
Words that precede central Quantifiers: All,
determiners, providing additional both, half, double All the books – All
specification or emphasis. They often emphasizes totality.
Pre- denote quantity, proportion, or degree. Multipliers: Twice,
Determiners thrice Twice the effort –
These words are not as common as Twice modifies the
central determiners but serve a crucial Fractions: Half, intensity or degree.
role in adding specificity or emphasis. one-third
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The core determiners that directly
The cat – The marks
determine the noun's reference, Articles: The, a, an
definiteness (specific
marking definiteness or possession.
They form the central element of a Possessives: My, cat).
Central noun phrase. your, his, her
My house – My
Determiners
Central determiners are obligatory in Demonstratives: indicates possession.
many noun phrases and appear This, that, these,
This car – This
directly before the noun or adjectives those
modifying the noun. shows proximity.
Words that follow central determiners The first day – First
and further specify or modify the
Ordinal numbers: indicates order.
noun. They often include numbers and
First, second, last
quantifiers indicating order or The two cars – Two
Post- quantity. Cardinal numbers: specifies quantity.
Determiners Post-determiners add detail by One, two, three
Many options –
providing more detailed
Other quantifiers: Many indicates a
characteristics or additional
quantification of the noun already Many, few, several large, indefinite
determined by central determiners. number.
Examples with Full Noun Phrases:
All the three students – All (pre-determiner) + the (central determiner) + three (post-
determiner) + students (noun).
Both my favourite books – Both (pre-determiner) + my (central determiner) + favourite
(adjective) + books (noun).
The second opportunity – The (central determiner) + second (post-determiner) + opportunity
(noun).
Half a cake – Half (pre-determiner) + a (central determiner) + cake (noun).
This structure highlights how determiners work together to specify, quantify, or qualify
nouns in a hierarchical manner, with pre-determiners offering broad emphasis or degree, central
determiners defining reference, and post-determiners refining details or quantities.
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13.5.- Possessive nouns as determiners: a reasonable hypothesis?
The possessive form of a noun (e.g., John's book, Mary's car) often operates in a manner
similar to determiners because it serves to specify the noun in a way that indicates ownership
or association. In a traditional noun phrase, determiners like the, a, his, or their function to mark
reference, quantification, or definiteness. Possessive nouns, like John's or Mary's, seem to fulfil
a similar function by narrowing the reference of the noun to a particular possessor. In this way,
they act like possessive determiners.
Arguments in favour of possessive nouns as determiners
Several points can be made in favour of this idea:
A. Functional similarity: Just like other determiners, a possessive noun modifies a noun
(or noun phrase) by limiting its scope or specifying its reference. For example, in the
phrase John's book, John's functions similarly to a determiner because it tells us which
book is being referred to, just as the or a would.
B. Syntactic behaviour: In terms of syntactic structure, possessive nouns behave like
determiners because they precede adjectives and other modifiers, just as a determiner
would. For instance, in John's big house, John's precedes the adjective big, much like a
determiner would.
C. Grammaticalization: Some grammarians have argued that possessive constructions in
English have evolved in such a way that they can be seen as grammaticalized forms of
determiners. For instance, in languages like French, the possessive construction often
behaves more overtly like a determiner (e.g., mon livre for "my book").
Sources and perspectives
While the treatment of possessive nouns as determiners is not universally accepted in
classical grammar, a few sources and linguists have explored similar ideas:
• Huddleston & Pullum (2002): In The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language,
the possessive pronoun (e.g., my, his, her) is treated as a determiner in terms of its
syntactic role. They also acknowledge the possessive noun construction (e.g., John's
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book) as playing a similar role to a determiner, but they stop short of categorizing it
strictly as a determiner. Instead, they treat it as a possessive phrase that modifies the
noun.
• Quirk et al. (1985): In A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, Quirk and
his colleagues define the possessive case as a marker of relationship, but they do not
explicitly categorize it as a determiner. They focus more on its function in showing
possession and relationship, although it could be argued that its role in limiting the
noun's reference aligns with determiner-like behaviour.
• Klein (2003): Klein discusses the idea of possessive nouns operating as determiners in
some contexts. He suggests that in many cases, the possessive noun has a determiner-
like function, particularly in the way it interacts with adjectives and other modifiers in
a noun phrase.
13.6.- Are determiners functions or categories?
The question of whether determiners should be regarded as functions or categories is a
key issue in grammatical analysis. Quirk et al. (1985) use the term determinatives as a
functional label, emphasizing the role of these words in marking the reference of a noun. In
contrast, other grammarians, like Huddleston (2002), treat determiners as a syntactic category
within noun phrases, which can include articles, demonstratives, possessives, and quantifiers.
While it is clear that determiners perform a functional role in providing reference and
specificity to the noun, the categories themselves—such as articles, quantifiers, and
possessives—are integral parts of the syntactic structure of the noun phrase. The functional
view focuses on the role these words play in structuring noun phrases, whereas the categorical
view emphasizes their classification within the grammatical system.
In essence, determiners can be considered both as functions (in the sense that they serve
to specify or limit nouns) and as categories (in the sense that they belong to distinct
grammatical classes).
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13.7.- Conclusion
Determiners are an essential part of English grammar, providing crucial specification and
reference for the nouns they modify. While traditionally categorized into articles,
demonstratives, possessives, quantifiers, and numerals, determiners can also be analysed in
terms of their function within the noun phrase. The distinction between central, pre-, and post-
determiners allows for a deeper understanding of their roles in sentence structure, while the
debate about whether determiners are best described as functions or categories highlights their
dual nature within English grammar. Understanding the position and function of determiners is
essential for analysing sentence structure and for mastering English syntax, making determiners
a critical element of grammatical competence.
The suggestion that a possessive noun might be treated as a determiner is plausible from
a functional standpoint. Possessive nouns, like determiners, specify and limit the reference of a
noun, but whether they should be classified as determiners is still a matter of debate. Some
linguists argue that possessive nouns perform a determiner-like function within noun phrases,
while others maintain that they belong to a separate syntactic category. The ongoing debate
reflects the flexibility and evolving nature of linguistic categorization, and further research may
continue to explore this intriguing idea.
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CHAPTER 14: THE ENGLISH CONJUNCTION
14.1.- Introduction
Conjunctions are indispensable elements of English grammar, serving as connectors
between words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. They ensure coherence and logical relationships
in discourse. This section explores the nature, classification, and functions of conjunctions,
referencing seminal works such as Quirk et al. (1985) and Huddleston & Pullum (2002).
14.2.- Characteristics of conjunctions
A. Functional role
Conjunctions are syntactic markers that link elements, indicating relationships of
coordination or subordination. Unlike nouns or verbs, they do not carry referential or semantic
content but serve a grammatical function.
• Coordination connects elements of equal syntactic status (e.g., "and," "but").
• Subordination links a dependent clause to a main clause, signalling a hierarchy (e.g.,
"although," "because").
B. Syntactic behaviour
Conjunctions typically occupy fixed positions in a sentence and do not inflect. They are
pivotal in clause combination, enabling complex syntactic structures.
14.3.- Classification of conjunctions
14.3.1.- By function
A. Coordinating conjunctions
These linking elements of equal grammatical weight, such as words, phrases, or
independent clauses. Common types include:
• Cumulative: Add information (e.g., "and").
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• Adversative: Contrast ideas (e.g., "but").
• Alternative: Present options (e.g., "or").
• Ilative: Show result or inference (e.g., "so").
Example:
• "She likes tea and coffee."
• "He was tired, but he kept working."
B. Subordinating conjunctions
These introduce dependent clauses, providing context such as time, cause, condition, or
purpose.
Examples include:
• Cause: "because," "since."
• Condition: "if," "unless."
• Time: "after," "before."
Example:
• "She stayed home because it was raining."
14.3.2.- By form
A. Simple conjunctions
These are single-word conjunctions, such as "and," "but," "if," and "after."
B. Complex conjunctions
These consist of multiple words, often phrases functioning as conjunctions. Examples
include "as long as," "provided that," "even though," and "in order that."
Example:
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• "You can go out as long as you finish your homework."
14.4.- Functions in sentence structure
Conjunctions significantly impact sentence cohesion:
• Coordinating conjunctions enable compound sentences (e.g., "I called her, and she
answered.")
• Subordinating conjunctions create complex sentences (e.g., "Although he tried, he
couldn’t lift it.")
Through their use, conjunctions enrich communication by reflecting logical and temporal
relationships between ideas.
14.5.- Conclusion
The English conjunction is a key part of sentence architecture, linking ideas in cohesive
and meaningful ways. Mastery of their use enhances both written and spoken clarity, ensuring
effective communication.
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CHAPTER 15: THE COMPOUND SENTENCE
A compound sentence is a type of sentence that consists of two or more independent
clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction or punctuation (e.g., a semicolon). Each clause is
grammatically independent and could stand alone as a separate sentence, but they are linked to
show a relationship.
15.1.- Defining the compound sentence
A compound sentence combines two or more independent clauses (also called members),
creating a balanced syntactic structure. Unlike complex sentences, which contain dependent
clauses, the compound sentence focuses on joining equal ideas or events.
15.2.- Characteristics of compound sentences
A. Multiple independent member clauses: Each member clause has a subject and a
predicate.
B. Coordination: Member clauses are joined using coordinating conjunctions,
punctuation (e.g., semicolons), or both.
C. Logical relationships: Coordination implies semantic relationships such as addition,
contrast, choice, or result.
Example:
The sun was shining, and the birds were singing.
• Member 1: The sun was shining.
• Member 2: The birds were singing.
• Connector: and (cumulative conjunction)
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15.3.- Member clauses in compound sentences
Each independent clause in a compound sentence has its own grammatical integrity.
However, the relationship between clauses is essential for understanding their function as a
whole.
15.3.1.- Syntactic independence
Independent clauses can stand alone and make sense by themselves:
• She loves reading.
• He prefers watching movies.
When joined:
She loves reading, but he prefers watching movies.
15.3.2.- Semantic dependence
While syntactically independent, the clauses in a compound sentence are semantically
connected to convey a unified meaning. For example:
• Contrast: The cake was delicious, but it was too sweet.
• Addition: She went to the market, and she bought fresh vegetables.
15.3.3.- Connectors in compound sentences
The relationship between member clauses is expressed through coordinating
conjunctions, which function semantically and formally. Coordinating conjunctions are
categorized based on their semantic roles and formal types.
15.3.3.1.- Semantic classification of coordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions signal specific logical relationships between clauses:
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• Cumulative conjunctions
These conjunctions express addition or continuation, linking ideas that reinforce or build
upon each other.
Examples: and, also, besides, furthermore
Function: Add information to the preceding clause.
Example sentence: The children played in the park, and their parents enjoyed a picnic.
• Adversative conjunctions
Adversative conjunctions indicate contrast or opposition between clauses.
Examples: but, yet, still, however
Function: Highlight a conflict or exception.
Example sentence: I wanted to join the party, but I was too tired.
• Alternative conjunctions
Alternative conjunctions present a choice between two or more options.
Examples: or, nor, otherwise, either…or
Function: Offer alternatives or exclude possibilities.
Example sentence: You can have tea, or you can have coffee.
• Ilative conjunctions
Ilative conjunctions indicate a result, consequence, or inference.
Examples: so, therefore, thus, hence
Function: Show that one clause is the logical outcome of the other.
Example sentence: She studied hard, so she passed the exam.
15.3.3.2.- Formal classification of coordinating conjunctions
From a structural perspective, coordinating conjunctions can be divided into simple,
compound, and correlative types.
• Simple conjunctions
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These are single-word connectors that link clauses directly.
Examples: and, but, or, so
Example sentence: We could take a walk, or we could stay home.
• Compound conjunctions
Compound conjunctions consist of two or more words functioning as a single connective.
Examples: so then, and yet, but still
Example sentence: He was exhausted, and yet he continued to work.
• Correlative conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions occur in pairs, linking clauses while emphasizing parallel structures.
Examples: either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also
Example sentence: Either we solve this problem, or we face the consequences.
15.3.3.3.- Comparing semantic and formal classifications
To best understand the dual categorization of coordinating conjunctions, here’s a table
summarizing their relationships:
Semantic category Formal type Examples
Simple and, also
Cumulative Compound and then
Correlative Not only…but
Simple but, yet
Adversative
Compound but still
Simple or, nor
Alternative
Correlative either…or, neither…nor
Simple so, hence
Ilative
Compound so then
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15.4.- Diagramming compound sentences
Visualizing the relationships between clauses can clarify the role of coordinating
conjunctions. Below are examples with diagrams:
Example 1: cumulative conjunction (and)
The sun was shining, and the birds were singing.
Sentence
/ \
Member 1 Member 2
The sun shone and the birds sang
Example 2: adversative conjunction (but)
He wanted to go out, but it started raining.
Sentence
/ \
Member 1 Member 2
He wanted to go out but it started raining
Example 3: correlative conjunction (either…or)
Either we leave now, or we miss the train.
S
/ \
Either or
Member 1 Member 2
we leave , we miss the train
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15.5.- Parataxis
Parataxis refers to the juxtaposition of clauses or phrases without subordination, meaning
that the elements are placed next to each other with equal syntactic status, often connected by
coordinating punctuation or conjunctions. In this context:
A. Comma: A comma can indicate parataxis when it separates two independent clauses or
items in a list without a coordinating conjunction. For example:
She went to the store, he stayed home.
Here, the comma is used to connect two independent clauses in a paratactic manner, with
no subordinating conjunction linking them.
B. Semicolon: A semicolon is a stronger form of paratactic punctuation. It connects two
independent clauses that are closely related in meaning but do not have a coordinating
conjunction. For example:
I wanted to go swimming; the weather was perfect for it.
The semicolon indicates a paratactic relationship, linking the two clauses without
subordination, yet implying a close connection between them.
C. Colon: While less common in direct paratactic constructions, a colon can still be seen as
facilitating parataxis, especially when it introduces an explanation, example, or list that
follows from the first part of the sentence. For example:
He had one goal: to finish the race.
The colon separates the main clause and its explanation, creating a paratactic structure
between them, though the second part functions more as an expansion or elaboration rather than
a full independent clause.
Commas, semicolons, and colons can all be used in constructions that are syntactically
paratactic, where clauses or elements are linked without subordination. The exact punctuation
used depends on the relationship between the elements and the desired level of separation or
connection.
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CHAPTER 16: THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
16.1.- Introduction
A complex sentence consists of a main (independent) clause and one or more subordinate
(dependent) clauses. The defining feature of complex sentences is the hierarchical relationship
between their clauses: the subordinate clause depends on the main clause for its meaning or
function. This interdependence is achieved through the use of connectors such as subordinating
conjunctions, relative pronouns, or relative adverbs.
Subordinate clauses function as integral parts of the main clause, fulfilling roles related
to those of words or phrases (e.g., noun phrases or adverbials). The three primary types of
subordinate clauses are nominal clauses, adjectival (or relative) clauses, and adverbial
clauses. Each serves a distinct grammatical purpose and is introduced by specific types of
connectors.
16.2.- Nominal (noun) clauses
Nominal clauses, also called noun clauses, function as noun phrases within the larger
structure of the sentence. They can act as subjects, objects, complements, or appositive
elements. Nominal clauses are typically introduced by subordinating conjunctions like that,
whether, if, or by wh-words (e.g., what, who, why).
16.2.1.- Functions of nominal clauses
A. Subject:
o That she left early surprised everyone.
(That she left early functions as the subject.)
B. Direct object:
o She said that she was tired.
(That she was tired is the object of said.)
C. Subject complement:
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o The problem is that he forgot his keys.
(That he forgot his keys is the complement of is.)
D. Appositive (in apposition):
o The idea that we should leave was debated.
(That we should leave renames or explains idea.)
16.2.2.- Connectors in nominal clauses
Nominal clause connectors often have no syntactic function within the clause; their role
is primarily connective or subordinating. They are usually classed as complementizers:
• That, if, whether are complementizers with no syntactic role within the clause.
• Wh-words like what or who may function as constituents of the subordinate clause (e.g.,
subjects, objects).
16.2.3.- Nominal relatives
Nominal relative clauses (also called fused relatives) are hybrid structures that resemble
both noun phrases and subordinate clauses. For example:
• What she said was surprising.
Here, what she said is equivalent to "the thing that she said" and functions as the
subject. While they resemble adjectival clauses in their use of relative pronouns, their
function aligns with that of nominal clauses. Therefore, nominal relatives are typically
classified under nominal clauses rather than adjectival clauses.
• Other examples: Whoever says that is an idiot.
This is not who you are
16.2.4.- Noun clauses in apposition and in extraposition
Noun clauses in apposition and extraposition serve different syntactic functions, and
their distinction goes beyond terminology:
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a.- Appositive noun clauses
An appositive noun clause renames or provides additional information about a noun. It
typically follows a noun that it explains or defines more precisely. The noun it modifies often
refers to abstract concepts like fact, idea, belief, news, etc. In Spanish those clauses need the
preposition ‘de’ (“El hecho de que viniera…” / “La idea de que podríamos ir” / etc.
Example:
• The fact that he came surprised everyone.
o Explanation: The noun fact is defined by the appositive clause that he came. The
clause specifies what the fact refers to.
Key Features:
• Appositive clauses are in apposition to a preceding noun.
• They cannot usually be moved without disrupting the meaning (That he came fact
surprised everyone is ungrammatical).
• Typical introductory nouns: fact, idea, belief, hope, possibility.
b.- Extraposed noun clauses
An extraposed noun clause involves moving a clause subject to the end of the sentence
and inserting a placeholder subject (it) in its place. This construction often improves sentence
clarity and flow.
Example:
• Extraposed: It is surprising that he came.
• Non-extraposed: That he came is surprising.
Key Features:
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• The clause that he came is the real subject of the sentence, but in extraposition, it
(expletive/dummy/anticipatory subject) takes the subject position, and the clause is
moved to the end.
• Extraposition is typically used with subject clauses to avoid a heavy subject at the
beginning of the sentence (mostly owing to the end-weight parameter; see 4.11.2.1).
Comparison
Feature Appositive Noun Clause Extraposed Noun Clause
Modifies a Yes (provides more information about No (functions as the subject or
noun a noun) complement)
Position in Often moved to the end with it as a
Immediately follows a noun
sentence subject
Examples The fact that he came surprised me. It is surprising that he came.
Summary
• The difference is not just terminology but syntactic function:
o Appositive clauses clarify or add specificity to nouns.
o Extraposition is about sentence structure, placing a noun clause at the end with a dummy
subject (it) for smoother sentence flow.
• The fact that he came... is an example of an appositive clause, not extraposition. In contrast,
It is a fact that he came... would use extraposition.
16.3.- Adjectival (relative) clauses
Adjectival clauses, often called relative clauses, function as modifiers for nouns or
pronouns. They provide additional information about the noun they modify, specifying,
identifying, or elaborating on its meaning. These clauses are introduced by relative pronouns
(e.g., who, whom, whose, which, that) or relative adverbs (e.g., where, when, why).
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16.3.1.- Functions of relative clause connectors
Unlike other types of subordinate clauses, relative clause connectors often perform a
syntactic function within the subordinate clause:
Relative pronouns:
o The person who called you is at the door.
(Who acts as the subject of the relative clause.)
o The book that I read was fascinating.
(That acts as the object of read.)
o He spoke in a way as would convince anyone
o The chemical, as is described in the manual, is dangerous. (Special use of as,
which allows the omission of be.)
Relative adverbs:
o The house where she was born is now a museum.
(Where functions as an adverbial of place within the relative clause.)
o This is the reason why he went there.
(Why functions as an adverbial of reason within the relative clause.)
Relative determiner:
o The house whose roof is leaking needs repairs. (Of which can also act as a
possessive determiner: The house, the roof of which is damaged, needs
repairs.)
Fixed expressions with relative functions:
In specific contexts, expressions such as the following may serve as relative connectors:
The way: I dislike the way he speaks. (It functions similarly to how, but it is not
technically an adverb)
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The place: That is the place I was telling you about. (It functions similarly to
where)
The reason: I don’t know the reason she left. (It functions similarly to why)
16.3.2.- Types of relative clauses
A. Defining (restrictive) relative clauses:
These clauses limit or specify the meaning of the noun they modify.
o The car that I bought is red.
B. Non-defining (non-restrictive) relative clauses.
These clauses provide additional, non-essential information and are set off by commas.
o My car, which I bought last year, is red.
C. Sentential relative clauses:
Which can be used to refer to a whole clause, not just one word (the whole previous clause or
sentence is the antecedent). In such cases, it can be replaced by and this or and that:
o She married Joe, which (= and this/that) surprised everyone.
Which, in the sense of this or that, can also be used in expressions such as in which case at
which point, on which occasion, which can refer back to a complete clause:
o I may have to work late, in which case I'll telephone.
o The speaker paused to examine his notes, at which point a loud crash was
heard.
Which, in the sense of this or that, can replace a whole sentence and, in informal style, can
even begin a sentence:
o He was fined £500. Which we all thought served him right. (This is particularly
studied by Discourse Grammar)
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16.3.3.- Contact clauses
A contact clause is a reduced form of a relative clause in which the relative pronoun is
omitted. This omission is possible when the relative pronoun would function as the object of
the relative clause. Contact clauses are common in informal English and often occur when the
antecedent is immediately followed by the clause.
Examples:
• The book [that] I borrowed was excellent.
(That is omitted, but the meaning remains intact.)
• The person [whom] you met yesterday is my cousin.
(Whom is omitted.)
While contact clauses streamline communication, their usage depends on the syntactic
role of the omitted relative pronoun; they cannot omit relative pronouns functioning as subjects
(The man who called is here cannot reduce to The man called is here).
16.3.4.- Reduced relative clauses
A reduced relative clause is a more concise form of a full relative clause. It typically
omits the relative pronoun (who, which, that) and, often, part of the verb phrase, resulting in a
participial or prepositional phrase. Reduced relative clauses are used to streamline sentences
while preserving essential information.
Types of reduced relative clauses:
A. With present participles (-ing form)
Used when the relative clause describes an ongoing or active action.
o Full clause: The man who is running won the race.
o Reduced clause: The man running won the race.
B. With past participles (-ed form)
Used when the clause describes a completed or passive action.
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o Full clause: The book that was written in 1960 dealt with...
o Reduced clause: The book written in 1960 dealt with...
C. With prepositional phrases
The prepositional phrase acts as a modifier, omitting the relative pronoun and verb.
o Full clause: The chemical which is described in chapter 2 is...
o Reduced clause: The chemical described in chapter 2 is...
D. Special case: "As" in full or reduced relative clauses
The word ‘as’ can function like a relative pronoun, particularly in formal contexts,
introducing a clause that refers to something previously mentioned.
o Full clause: The chemical, as is described in chapter 2, is highly reactive.
o Reduced clause: The chemical, as described in chapter 2, is highly reactive.
In such cases, as described implicitly contains the full meaning of the relative clause
(as is described).14
E. Noun phrases in apposition
An appositive noun phrase renames or provides additional information about another
noun phrase, often functioning like a non-defining relative clause. These are frequently set
off by commas in writing:
o Full relative clause: The book, which is a classic in its genre, remains popular.
o Apposition: The book, a classic in its genre, remains popular.
o Full clause: The concept, which was initially proposed in 1990, revolutionized
the field.
o Reduced: The concept, initially proposed in 1990, revolutionized the field.
14 The resumptive pronoun ‘it’ should be omitted to avoid turning a relative clause into an adverbial clause of time or reason.
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While appositive phrases and reduced relative clauses can appear similar, they differ in
function:
• Apposition renames or defines the noun directly.
• Reduced relative clauses provide additional information about the noun’s characteristics
or actions.
16.4.- Adverbial clauses
Adverbial clauses function as adverbials, modifying verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
They describe the circumstances of the action or state expressed in the main clause, answering
questions like when?, where?, why?, or how?. These clauses are introduced by subordinating
conjunctions.
16.4.1.- Types of adverbial clauses
A. Temporal clauses: They indicate time.
o She left when the meeting ended.
(When introduces a clause specifying time.)
B. Conditional clauses: They express conditions.
o If it rains, we’ll stay inside.
(If introduces a condition.)
C. Causal clauses: They explain reasons.
o She stayed home because she was sick.
(Because introduces a reason.)
D. Purpose clauses: They indicate intent.
o He studies so that he can pass.
(So that introduces a purpose.)
E. Concessive clauses: They acknowledge contrasts.
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o Although it was late, she kept working.
(Although introduces a concession.)
F. Result clauses: They show outcomes.
o He was so tired that he fell asleep immediately.
(That introduces a result.)
G. Comparison clauses: They establish similarities or differences in degree, quantity, or
manner.
o She is taller than I am.
(Than I am introduces a comparison in height.)
o He speaks Spanish as fluently as she does.
(As fluently as she does indicates equivalence in fluency.)
H. Manner clauses: They describe the way in which an action is performed.
o She danced as if she were floating.
(As if she were floating describes the manner of dancing.)
o He explained the problem as though it were simple.
(As though it were simple conveys the way the explanation was presented.)
16.4.2.- Characteristics of adverbial clause connectors
Subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clauses primarily act as connectors, not fulfilling
any syntactic role within the subordinate clause itself. For example:
• In He left because he was tired, because connects the clauses but has no grammatical
function within the subordinate clause he was tired.
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16.5.- Connectors: a comparative overview
Clause type Typical connectors Connector’s role
Purely connective (no syntactic
Nominal That, whether, if, what, who, why
role in the subordinate clause).
Always both connective and a
Adjectival Who, whom, whose, which, that,
clause constituent: subject,
(Relative) where, when, why
object, etc.
Because, although, if, when, while, Purely connective (no syntactic
Adverbial
since, so that, etc. role in the subordinate clause).
16.6.- Concluding words
The difficulty of complex sentences lies not only in their hierarchical clause structure but
also in the varied syntactic and functional roles of their connectors. Among the three types,
adjectival/relative clauses uniquely assign syntactic functions to their connectors, whereas
nominal and adverbial clause connectors primarily serve a connective or subordinating purpose.
The classification of nominal relatives remains a topic of debate, but they are generally
considered part of the nominal clause category due to their functional resemblance to noun
phrases.
This intricate interplay of syntax and semantics in complex sentences underscores their
richness and utility in structuring sophisticated ideas and relationships within language.
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CHAPTER 17: THE COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE
17.1.- Defining the compound-complex sentence
A compound-complex sentence is a type of sentence that combines the characteristics of
both compound and complex sentences. It consists of at least two independent clauses and one
or more dependent (subordinate) clauses. This structure allows the sentence to express multiple
ideas while showing their interrelations through subordination and coordination.
Example:
The sun was shining, and the birds were singing because the storm had passed.
▪ Independent clause 1: The sun was shining.
▪ Independent clause 2: The birds were singing.
▪ Dependent clause: because the storm had passed.
This example illustrates how compound-complex sentences enable both the combination
of equal ideas (via coordination) and the inclusion of additional dependent information (via
subordination).
17.2.- Characteristics of compound-complex sentences
17.2.1.- Multiple independent clauses
Compound-complex sentences include two or more independent clauses. Each
independent clause has its own subject and predicate and can stand alone as a complete
sentence.
Example: The students completed their homework, and the teacher graded their assignments
after class.
▪ Independent clause 1: The students completed their homework.
▪ Independent clause 2: The teacher graded their assignments.
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17.2.2.- at least one dependent clause
In addition to the independent clauses, compound-complex sentences must include one
or more dependent clauses. These clauses cannot stand alone and rely on the independent
clauses for their meaning.
Example: She went to the library because she needed to study, and her friend stayed home.
▪ Dependent clause: because she needed to study.
17.2.3.- Coordination and subordination
The defining feature of compound-complex sentences is the combination of coordination
(joining independent clauses) and subordination (linking dependent clauses to independent
ones).
Example: Although the weather was cold, we decided to go hiking, and our friends joined us
later.
▪ Subordination: Although the weather was cold (dependent clause linked to an
independent clause).
▪ Coordination: we decided to go hiking, and our friends joined us later (two independent
clauses).
17.3.- Functions and usage of compound-complex sentences
17.3.1.- Conveying complex relationships
The use of compound-complex sentences allows writers and speakers to express intricate
relationships between ideas. These sentences are particularly useful in academic, literary, and
formal writing to present cause-and-effect, contrast, or detailed explanations.
Example: While the presentation was engaging, the technical issues disrupted the flow, and
many participants left early.
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17.3.2.- Adding variety to writing
Using compound-complex sentences can enhance the rhythm and variety of writing,
preventing monotony and showcasing advanced language skills.
Example: The committee discussed the proposal, but no decision was reached because the
members needed more time to review the data.
17.3.3.- Achieving precision
By combining coordination and subordination, compound-complex sentences allow
precise expression of related ideas.
Example: Since the project was behind schedule, the team worked overtime, and the manager
appreciated their effort.
17.4.- Structure and analysis of compound-complex sentences
17.4.1.- Clause relationships
The interplay between independent and dependent clauses in compound-complex
sentences determines their structure. Dependent clauses can act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs
within the sentence.
Example: The book that she recommended was out of stock, so I ordered it online.
▪ Adjective clause: that she recommended (modifies the noun "book").
▪ Independent clause 1: The book was out of stock.
▪ Independent clause 2: I ordered it online.
17.4.2.- Connectors in compound-complex sentences
Connectors play a crucial role in establishing relationships within compound-complex
sentences. These include:
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▪ Coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, so, for, yet, nor.
▪ Subordinating conjunctions: because, although, since, while, if, when, etc.
▪ Relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that.
Example: She smiled because she was happy, and everyone noticed her cheerful demeanour.
Subordinating conjunction: because (links dependent clause to independent clause).
Coordinating conjunction: and (links two independent clauses).
17.4.3.- Diagramming compound-complex sentences
Visualizing the structure of compound-complex sentences can clarify the relationships
between clauses. Consider the following example:
Diagram Example:
Sentence: Although it was raining, we went for a walk, and we enjoyed the fresh air.
Main Structure:
Sentence
/ \
Subordinate Coordination
/ \
(Although it was raining) (we went for a walk and we enjoyed the fresh air)
This structure shows the dependent clause modifying the first independent clause and
coordination linking two independent clauses.
17.5.- Common errors in compound-complex sentences
17.5.1.- Misplacing dependent clauses
Placing a dependent clause incorrectly can lead to confusion or ambiguity.
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▪ Incorrect: *We went home, and after we played soccer, it started to rain.
▪ Correct: After we played soccer, we went home, and it started to rain.
17.5.2.- Overuse of coordination
Using too many coordinating conjunctions in a single sentence can overwhelm the reader
and obscure meaning.
▪ Incorrect: *She likes coffee, and he prefers tea, and they both enjoy hot chocolate, and
their kids love juice.
▪ Correct: She likes coffee, and he prefers tea. They both enjoy hot chocolate, and their
kids love juice.
17.5.3.- Lack of parallelism
In compound-complex sentences, maintaining parallel structure is crucial to clarity and
readability.
▪ Incorrect: *He enjoys swimming, to read books, and cooking meals.
▪ Correct: He enjoys swimming, reading books, and cooking meals.
17.6.- Conclusion
Compound-complex sentences are essential tools for expressing complex ideas and
relationships within a single sentence. By combining multiple independent clauses with
dependent clauses, these sentences allow complex and detailed communication. Mastery of
compound-complex sentence construction enhances both written and spoken language, offering
precision, variety, and depth to any discourse.
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CHAPTER 18: PRACTICE
18.1.- Morphemes and words
18.1.1.- Break down each word into its component morphemes and classify each as a root,
derivational morpheme, or inflectional morpheme.
1. Unhappiness
2. Misunderstanding
3. Played
4. Rewritten
5. Nationalism
6. Disrespectful
7. Agreement
8. Worker
9. Unbelievably
10. Deactivation
18.1.2.- The plural morpheme in English has different phonetic realizations. Indicate the plural
allomorph used in each of the following words and explain the phonological rule governing its
selection.
1. Cats
2. Dogs
3. Dishes
4. Knives
5. Leaves
6. Churches
7. Matches
8. Cars
9. Watches
10. Heroes
18.1.3.- Identify the word-formation process (compounding, derivation, clipping, blending,
back-formation, acronymy, or conversion) in the following words and justify your answer.
1. Brunch
2. Email
3. Babysitter
4. Gym
5. Burglar (from "to burgle")
6. Webinar
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7. Smartphone
8. NASA
9. Flu (from "influenza")
10. Text (as a verb, from "text" as a noun)
18.2.- Sentence analysis
18.2.1.- Sample analyses
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18.2.2.- Analyse the following sentences
A.- Subject + BE + subjective complement
1. The sky is blue.
2. She is tired.
3. The food was delicious.
4. The teacher is strict.
5. He was happy.
6. The soup is hot.
7. The children were quiet.
8. This book is interesting.
9. Her voice was soothing.
10. The test was easy.
11. The keys are on the table.
12. The meeting is at 3 p.m.
13. The house is in London.
14. The children were in the garden.
15. The party was on Friday.
16. The train is at the station.
17. The shop is next to the bank.
18. The event was in July.
19. The car is outside.
20. Dinner was at seven o’clock.
21. The room is spacious.
22. The cake was sweet.
23. The story is fascinating.
24. Her dress was elegant.
25. His speech was inspiring.
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26. The lake is calm.
27. The weather was cold.
28. The flowers are beautiful.
29. The day was perfect.
30. Their proposal was acceptable.
B.- Subject + BE + adverbial complement
1. The keys are on the table.
2. The meeting is at 3 p.m.
3. The house is in London.
4. The children were in the garden.
5. The party was on Friday.
6. The train is at the station.
7. The shop is next to the bank.
8. The event was in July.
9. The car is outside.
10. Dinner was at seven o’clock.
C.- Subject + intransitive verb + adverbial adjunct
1. She danced gracefully.
2. The dog barked loudly.
3. The children played outside.
4. He slept peacefully.
5. The train arrived at ten.
6. The baby cried all night.
7. Birds sing in the morning.
8. They walked along the beach.
9. He works late every night.
10. The plane flew over the city.
D.- Subject + transitive verb + indirect object + direct object
1. She gave him a gift.
2. The teacher told the students a story.
3. He sent her a letter.
4. They offered us a ride.
5. She showed me the photo.
6. He handed her the book.
7. The chef cooked them a meal.
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8. The mother gave her son a hug.
9. The guide told us a fascinating fact.
10. He taught the children a lesson.
E.- Subject + transitive verb + direct object + objective complement
1. They elected him president.
2. She painted the wall blue.
3. The jury declared him guilty.
4. He named his dog Max.
5. They called the event a success.
6. She made her point clear.
7. He found the room empty.
8. The committee appointed her chairperson.
9. The doctor pronounced the patient healthy.
10. The coach called the team champions.
F.- Subject + intransitive verb + quasi-predicative
1. They parted best friends.
2. She died happy.
3. He returned a different man.
4. The meeting ended in chaos.
5. She left determined to succeed.
6. The children arrived tired but excited.
7. The discussion concluded unresolved.
8. He came home a hero.
9. They grew old together.
10. The negotiations began on friendly terms.
G.- Sentences containing modal auxiliary verbs
1. She can play the piano beautifully.
2. You must finish your homework by tomorrow.
3. He might arrive late.
4. We should not waste this opportunity.
5. They could solve the problem quickly.
6. The letter may be delayed.
7. You ought to apologize for your mistake.
8. The meeting must not be postponed again.
9. We shall overcome these challenges.
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10. He will not attend the event.
H.- Sentences with catenative verbs + (principal) verbs
1. She wants to learn French.
2. They tried to fix the car.
3. He began to speak softly.
4. The baby started crying loudly.
5. I hope to visit my grandparents soon.
6. She avoids meeting new people.
7. He managed to solve the puzzle.
8. They failed to notice the sign.
9. We intended to call you earlier.
10. She refuses to participate in the discussion.
I.- Sentences containing defining relative clauses
1. The book that you recommended was excellent.
2. This isn’t the house where I grew up.
3. The man whom we saw yesterday was a famous actor.
4. The girl whose dog ran away was very upset.
5. I met someone who knows your brother.
6. The car I rented broke down.
7. That’s not the place we visited last year.
8. The reason why I left early was obvious.
9. This is the device that she invented.
10. The teacher who gave the lecture is retiring.
J. Sentences containing non-defining relative clauses
1. My brother, who doesn’t live in London, is visiting next week.
2. The book, which I borrowed from the library, was fascinating.
3. The restaurant, where we had dinner, was quite expensive.
4. Her father, whose health has improved, looks much better.
5. The painting, which was stolen last year, has been recovered.
6. The museum, which is located downtown, attracts many visitors.
7. Our professor, who specializes in linguistics, gave a great talk.
8. The train, which was delayed, finally arrived.
9. Their house, which they built in the 1980s, needs repairs.
10. The lawyer, whose reputation is impeccable, won the case.
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K.- Sentences containing transitive verb + noun clause as direct object
1. She said that she would come tomorrow.
2. I believe that honesty is important.
3. He knows why she left early.
4. They thought that it was a good idea.
5. We heard that the concert was cancelled.
6. She wonders whether he will call.
7. He asked how the machine works.
8. They admitted that they were wrong.
9. I assumed that you knew the answer.
10. The teacher explained why the solution was correct.
L.- Sentences containing noun clauses in apposition to (postmodifying) nouns
1. The fact that she passed the exam surprised everyone.
2. The idea that we could fail never crossed our minds.
3. His belief that honesty matters is admirable.
4. The news that they were leaving shocked us all.
5. The suggestion that we postpone the meeting was accepted.
6. Their decision that the project be cancelled caused outrage.
7. The rumour that he had resigned was untrue.
8. The claim that the product is safe has been disputed.
9. The theory that time travel is possible fascinates many.
10. The assertion that he is innocent remains unproven.
M.- Sentences containing adverbial clauses
Time
1. We waited until the rain stopped.
2. When the bell rang, the students left.
Place
3. He lives where the air is clean.
4. She went wherever her friends were.
Condition
5. If you study, you will pass the test.
6. Unless it rains, we will go hiking.
Concession
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7. Although it was late, he kept working.
8. She smiled, even though she was nervous.
9. Although it wasn’t easy, they succeeded.
Reason
10. He left early because he was tired.
11. Since the roads were icy, they stayed home.
12. We stayed home because we didn’t feel well.
Purpose
13. She worked hard so that she could save money.
14. They left quietly to avoid waking the baby.
Comparison
15. She ran faster than I expected.
16. He is as intelligent as his brother.
Manner
17. He spoke as if he were the boss.
18. She looked at me as though she knew me.
Result
19. He was so tired that he fell asleep instantly.
20. She studied hard, so she passed the exam.
18.2.3.- Miscellaneous sentence analysis. Analyse the following:
1 His job was to predict the next day’s weather.
2 We have played football every day this week.
3 We saw two horrible accidents on our way here
4 The woman sitting next to you is an engineering student
5 Her birthday is next Monday, so I must buy her a present.
6 They made him chairman but didn’t increase his salary.
7 Frank worked hard and became an architect.
8 He couldn’t find his pen, so he wrote in pencil.
9 He not only washed the car but polished it as well.
10 I took off my coat, searched all my pockets but couldn’t find my key.
11 He was neither an idler nor a gambler.
12 We must face the fact that we might lose our deposit.
13 He was found guilty, and therefore he was hanged.
14 She is very rich, yet she is not contented.
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15 His love of literature was due to the fact that his mother read poetry to him when he was
a child.
16 I don't suppose you can help us.
17 I want to know if he has signed the contract or not.
18 Tell whoever is knocking at the door to stop doing it.
19 They made him what he is.
20 It turned out that he was not guilty.
21 They started to wonder how soon they would get the results of the tests.
22 He spoke as if he meant business.
23 The church was built where there had once been a Roman temple.
24 Since you can’t type the letter, you’ll have to ask Susan to do it for you.
25 I’ve arrived early so that I may get a good view of the procession.
26 Don’t pay attention to my words, but please give hers some thought.
27 What do you think of what I suggested yesterday?
28 Why should I give the rich anything?
29 He couldn’t make his voice heard by all the people.
30 I found the box completely empty.
31 She has always thought it essential that everyone should help the poor.
32 She brought their parents all the things they needed.
33 Why don’t you give studying a bit a chance?
34 Although a little frustrated, he kept on working quite actively.
35 This part in the play is very hard to memorize.
36 The new variant of coronavirus went completely undetected for at least half a year.
37 All things considered, we concluded that Peter was not telling the truth.
38 In fact, he is a little stupid boy.
39 They all told him to stop; however, he didn’t stop.
40 The soldier continued walking; his eyes fixed on the enemy’s gun.
41 I would prefer them to come next week.
42 A full-blown financial collapse of the kind last seen in the 1930s is not out of the
question.
43 Daniel Blumenthal gives performances of the two concertante pieces which
convincingly combine Ravelian delicacy of articulation with genuine feeling for the
jazz-based idiom.
44 The new system, described in a recent report, provides criteria for evaluating scientific
priorities.
45 I accept your suggestion that my secretary omit this item from the minutes.
46 Industrial leaders have complained that high interest rates will make borrowing
expensive for industry
47 When Roger Smith, a well-known physician, checked his credit card statement, he was
surprised to find out several items which were not part of his own expenses, so he
immediately called the bank and mentioned the incident.
48 Wordsworth’s several reactions to tourism’s threat to treasured precincts exhibit
tendencies we can also observe in many nineteenth- and twentieth-century records.
49 Iron resolve in the fight against internationalism terrorism and determined leadership on
the budget and the economy could make Mr. Bush the president no one ever really
thought he could be.
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50 It has been officially announced that after some long negotiations the airline, whose head
office is in France, will begin to fly between Paris and Bombay provided that the
international company does not break the official agreement.
51 These artists go on fitting you until they are satisfied, and that means they continue after
you have lost your interest in the matter
52 When decay reaches the inner material of your tooth, you may need a root canal. This is
a treatment to repair and save a badly damaged or infected tooth. Medication is
sometimes put into the root canal to clear any infection.
53 Cavities, also called caries, are caused by a combination of factors, which include
bacteria in your mouth, sipping sugary drinks and not cleaning your teeth well.
54 If cavities aren't treated, they get larger and affect deeper layers of your teeth and, what
is more, they can lead to a severe toothache, infection and tooth loss.
55 Regular dental visits and good brushing habits are your best protection against cavities
and tooth decay, and this is especially good to avoid cavities, which are permanently
damaged areas in the hard surface of your teeth that develop into tiny openings or holes.
56 Before Mr. Honey realized what was happening the airport was below and behind.
Although there was nothing to be seen out of the window, he could feel a blackness that
reflected his own face and everything that was shining brightly in the cabin.
57 I wondered if they remembered what they had felt when they entered the room and what
they had said to each other the moment they had to sign the agreement.
58 After a trip to the seaside that I particularly enjoyed, school started, and I was excited to
see my friends because I hadn’t seen them for a month and because I wanted them to see
all the pictures that I took.
59 Periodontal diseases comprise a wide range of inflammatory conditions that affect the
structures that support the teeth , which could lead to tooth loss and contribute to
systemic inflammation.
60 After I had thought about it for a while, I felt that the phenomenon of connecting all the
computers in the world had such a wide reach that it would affect a number of industries
we do business with.
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GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
Biber, D., Conrad, S., & Leech, G. (2002). Longman student grammar of spoken and written
English. Pearson Education.
Blanco, A., Guaragna, E. & Armendáriz, A. (1991). Grammar notes. ISP Joaquín V. González.
Brinton, L. & A. Bergs (Ed.) (2027). Volume 1: Historical outlines from sound to text. De
Gruyter Mouton.
Brinton L. J. & D. M. Brinton (2020). The linguistic structure of modern English. John
Benjamins.
Brown, K., & Miller, J. (2013). Syntax: A linguistic introduction to sentence structure (4th ed.).
Routledge.
Burton-Roberts, N. (2016) Analysing sentences: an introduction to English syntax. Routledge.
Chomsky, N. (1981). Lectures on government and binding: The Pisa lectures. Foris.
Crystal, D. (2008). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics (6th ed.). Blackwell.
de Saussure, F. (2011). Course in general linguistics (W. Baskin, Trans.; P. Meisel & H. Saussy,
Eds.). Columbia University Press. (Original work published 1916)
Downing, A and Locke P. (1992). A university course in English grammar. Prentice Hall.
Greenbaum S. & G. Nelson (2002. An introduction to English grammar. Longman.
Hickey, R. (2015). The pragmatics of style (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Huddleston, R., & Pullum, G. K. (2002). The Cambridge grammar of the English language.
Cambridge University Press.
Huddleston, R., and Pullum, G. (2005). A student´s introduction to English grammar.
Cambridge University Press.
Kastovsky, D. (2017). Chapter 5: Morphology. In L. Brinton & A. Bergs (Ed.), Volume 1
Historical outlines from sound to text (pp. 77-101). Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.
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Klein, E. (2003). ‘Possessive constructions and determiners.’ Linguistic Inquiry, 34(2), 345-
379.
Lyons, J. (1977). Semantics (Vol. 2). Cambridge University Press.
Quirk, R., & S. Greenbaum (1990). A student’s grammar of English. Longman.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., & Svartvik, J. (1985). A comprehensive grammar of the
English language. Longman.
Radford, A. (2004). English syntax: An introduction (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Swan, M. (2005). Practical English usage (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Trask, R. L. (1993). A dictionary of grammatical terms in linguistics. Routledge.
Van Valin, R. D. (2001). An introduction to syntax. Cambridge University Press.
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APPENDIX 1: FUNCTIONS AND CATEGORIES
Nuclear constituents / Core functions and their categories
Details and/or
Function Category Example(s)
Characteristics
Often the doer or
Noun / Noun phrase Gasoline is expensive.
experiencer of the action.
Includes personal
pronouns,
Pronoun He came yesterday.
demonstratives,
possessives, etc.
Subject Gerund / gerundial clause - Swimming is fun.
Infinitive / infinitival clause - To err is human.
Noun clause / Nominal relative
- What he said is true.
clause
Nominalized adjective / Adjective
- The poor need help.
phrase
Noun / Pronoun / Clause / Gerund I saw the film. / She loves
Direct object -
/ Infinitive / Adj. phrase reading.
I gave him the book.
Noun / Pronoun / Clause / Gerund They may be introduced
Indirect object Why don’t you give
/ Adj. phrase by to or for.
studying a chance?
She is happy.
Adjective / Adjectival phrase
We found it clean.
She is a teacher.
Subjective / Noun / Noun phrase
Describes the subject / We elected her president.
objective
object.
complement
He is in trouble.
Prepositional phrase
She put him in trouble
Noun clause The issue is that we’re late.
Pre-determiners All, both, half, etc. All his books are here.
Determiner Central determiners A, the, this, some, etc. The car is red.
Post-determiners Other, two, several, etc. The first three answers.
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Details and/or
Function Category Example(s)
Characteristics
They parted the best of
friends.
Quasi-predicative Noun phrase
She saw him leave the room
(subject-related an angry man.
A secondary predication
or object-related)
expresses a state or
(“predicativo She was born rich.
quality associated with
subjetivo/objetivo Adjective /adjectival phrase They saw him die very
the subject or object.
no obligatorio in poor.
Spanish”)
She finished her job in very
Prepositional phrase
poor health
Prepositional Verb-governed Postmodifies verbs. He’s waiting for you.
Complement15
(“complemento Noun-governed Postmodifies nouns. Her thirst for success.
de régimen” in
Spanish) Adjective-governed Postmodifies adjectives. She’s afraid of spiders.
Adjective / adjectival phrase They were very close to us.
He left it very close to us.
He is right there.
Adverb / adverbial phrase He put it right there.
We are early today.
Adverbial
complement This is where we stayed last
- year.
(of subject or Noun clause
That’s why we didn’t go
object) back there.
He is in the kitchen right
now.
Prepositional phrase He left it in the kitchen.
The cancellation was due to
rain.
15 Some grammarians call them verbal complements, nominal complements and adjectival complements respectively.
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Extra-nuclear constituents / Peripheral functions and their categories
Details and/or
Function Category Example(s)
Characteristics
Adds circumstantial
Prepositional phrase information (time, place, She works in the morning.
manner, reason).
Adverb / Adverbial phrase - He runs fast.
Adverbial adjunct
He left because he was
Adverbial clause Finite or non-finite.
tired.
Subject omitted; verb implied Although tired, she
Verbless clause
(be). worked.
Adverb / Adverbial phrase Honestly, I disagree.
To be absolutely honest, I
Infinitive / Infinitival clause
Disjunct don´t agree with that.
Expresses speaker’s attitude.
(Sentence modifier) Comment clause You see, this is important.
Without a doubt, that’s
Prepositional phrase
true.
Indicates logical/textual However, we continued.
Adverb / Adverbial phrase
Conjunct (Textual connections between clauses. Moreover, he persisted.
connector) Functions as linking
Prepositional phrase On the other hand, she left.
expressions.
Conveys degree, modality, or
Adverb / Adverbial phrase He spoke quite clearly.
speaker perspective.
Subjunct
Intensifiers Modify adjectives/adverbs. She is very tired.
(a type of adjuncts)
Conveys conditional or
Adverbial clause If you insist, I’ll come.
concessive detail.
This done, we started the
journey.
A standalone unit that provides
Nominative absolute Present / Past participial The sun setting, they
contextual or background
construction clause returned home.
information.
Her voice trembling, she
began to speak.
Vocative Noun / Name / Title Directly addresses someone. Mary, could you help?
Adverbial / Clausal Connects ideas or manages
Discourse marker Well, let’s continue.
constructions discourse.
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Special constructions
Details and/or
Function Category Example(s)
Characteristics
Anticipates a real subject
(infinitive, infinitival clauses,
It is important to study.
gerund, gerundial clauses, noun
Anticipatory pronoun I consider it useless to work
Anticipatory IT (Subject/Object)
clauses).
on Sundays.
It was nice seeing you!
IT does not anticipate a noun.
Expletive adverb Introduces existential
Anticipatory THERE (Subject) constructions.
There is a problem here.
Weather it It is raining
Existential it It seems that he’s ready
I had it!
Idiomatic sentences containing
Expletive / Dummy IT Expletive pronoun I lost it!
the expletive it
We had to pad it home.
I didn’t like it when that
Causative it happened.
It took them ages to come.
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APPENDIX 2: VERB TENSES (SUMMARY)
1.- Present Tenses
1.1.- Present Simple
Form: Base verb (add -s for third-person singular)
• I walk, she walks
Uses:
• Habitual actions: She walks to school every day.
• General truths: The sun rises in the east.
• Scheduled events: The train leaves at 6 PM.
• States: He loves chocolate.
• Historical present: In 1492, Columbus arrives in America. (this makes narratives vivid or
immediate)
1.2.- Present Continuous
Form: am/is/are + present participle (-ing)
• I am walking, they are eating
Uses:
• Actions happening now: He is reading a book.
• Future plans: We are leaving tomorrow.
• Temporary actions: She is working in Paris for the summer.
1.3.- Present Perfect
Form: have/has + past participle
• I have finished, she has eaten
Uses:
• Past actions with present relevance: I have lost my keys (I still don’t have them).
• Experiences: She has visited Japan.
• Unfinished actions: I have lived here since 2010.
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1.4.- Present Perfect Continuous
Form: have/has been + present participle
• I have been reading, they have been working
Uses:
• Actions continuing to the present: She has been studying all day.
• Emphasizing duration: I have been working here for five years.
2.- Past Tenses
2.1.- Past Simple
Form: Base verb + -ed (regular verbs) / irregular forms
• I walked, he ate
Uses:
• Completed actions: They arrived yesterday.
• Past habits: He always carried a notebook.
• Sequences of actions: She entered, saw the cat, and screamed.
2.2.- Past Continuous
Form: was/were + present participle
• I was walking, they were sleeping
Uses:
• Actions in progress in the past: He was reading when she called.
• Parallel actions: I was cooking while he was working.
2.3.- Past Perfect
Form: had + past participle
• I had finished, they had gone
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Uses:
• Actions completed before another past event: She had left before the meeting started.
2.4.- Past Perfect Continuous
Form: had been + present participle
• I had been working, they had been playing
Uses:
• Duration before a past point: He had been waiting for an hour when the bus arrived.
3.- Future Tenses
3.1.- Future Simple
Form: will + base verb
• I will go, they will see
Uses:
• Predictions: It will rain tomorrow.
• Spontaneous decisions: I’ll help you.
3.2.- Future Continuous
Form: will be + present participle
• I will be walking, they will be eating
Uses:
• Actions in progress at a future time: She will be sleeping at 10 PM.
• Plans or arrangements: I’ll be doing it, of course. (Expresses future actions as part of a plan)
3.3.- Future Perfect
Form: will have + past participle
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• I will have finished, they will have left
Uses:
• Actions completed by a future point: I will have completed the report by Monday.
3.4.- Future Perfect Continuous
Form: will have been + present participle
• I will have been working, they will have been studying
Uses:
• Emphasizing duration up to a future point: By next year, he will have been teaching for a
decade.
4.- Conditional Tenses
4.1.- Conditional Simple
Form: would + base verb
• I would go, they would see
Uses:
• Hypothetical situations: If I had time, I would travel more.
4.2.- Conditional Perfect
Form: would have + past participle
• I would have gone, they would have seen
Uses:
• Hypothetical past situations: If she had studied, she would have passed.
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APPENDIX 3: MODAL VERBS (SUMMARY)
1.- Modal Verbs in English
Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that express necessity, possibility, permission, ability, or other types of
modality. They do not inflect for tense (except for "can" becoming "could") and are followed by the
base form of the main verb. Here is a summary of the modal verbs mostly discussed by Quirk, with
examples of their various uses:
Can
• Ability: "She can speak three languages."
• Permission: "You can leave after the meeting."
• Possibility: "It can get very cold here in winter."
• Request: "Can you help me with this problem?"
May
• Permission: "You may leave early today."
• Probability: "It may rain later."
• Suggestion (formal): "You may want to reconsider your decision."
May is also used in more formal contexts, particularly in giving permission or expressing
possibility.
Must
• Necessity/Obligation: "You must wear a helmet when cycling." (Negative: needn’t)
• Deduction: "He must be at home; his car is in the driveway." (Negative: can’t)
Must often expresses a strong sense of obligation or necessity, but can also express deduction,
based on available evidence.
Will
• Future Prediction: "I will see you tomorrow." (also treated as ‘future tense’)
• Willingness: "I will help you with your homework."
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• Habitual action (especially one that annoys the speaker): "She will always forget her keys."
Will is commonly used for future time reference and to express willingness.
Would
• Polite requests/offers: "Would you like some tea?"
• Past habitual action: "When we were children, we would play outside until sunset."
Shall
• Formal future prediction: "I shall return before noon."
• Suggestion/Offer (often used in questions): "Shall we go for a walk?"
"Shall" is typically used in formal contexts, particularly in British English. In modern usage, it's
often replaced by "will" for future reference.
In formal, old-fashioned, or legal contexts, shall can express both obligation (as in a command
or prohibition) and prediction (as in a certainty or authoritative statement). While modern
English tends to favour will for these functions, shall still carries these meanings, often with a
more formal or authoritative tone:
• "She shall be queen" as a declaration of inevitability or authority.
• "You shall not steal" as a prohibition or command.
These uses highlight the strong, sometimes rigid sense of authority or certainty conveyed by
shall in such contexts.
Should
• Advice/suggestion: "You should visit the museum."
• Expectation: "The train should arrive at 5:00."
• Moral obligation (less strong than must): "You should apologize for being late."
Ought to
• Moral obligation/advice: "You ought to be more careful."
• Expectation: "This ought to be the right solution."
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Ought to is similar in meaning to "should," but is slightly more formal and old-fashioned in
usage. It typically conveys obligation or advice.
Need (to)
• Necessity: "You need to finish your work."
• Lack of obligation (in the negative): "You need not worry about it."
Need can function as a modal verb (especially in negative and interrogative forms), expressing
necessity or obligation. "Need to" is used in affirmative statements.
Dare
• Courage: "He dared to speak his mind."
Dare can be used as a main verb or modal verb, especially in negative or interrogative
constructions. When used as a modal, it expresses a challenge or courage.
Used to
• Past habitual action: "I used to go to the beach every summer."
"Used to" is a semi-modal expression, which is commonly used to refer to past habits or states
that no longer occur.
Would (as a past form of will)
• Past habit: "When I was a child, I would visit my grandmother every Sunday."
• Polite conditional: "If I were you, I would talk to him." (also treated as ‘conditional tense’)
Would can express habitual actions in the past or be used for conditional constructions, typically
involving hypothetical or polite situations.
Summary of Key Characteristics of Modal Verbs:
• Invariable: Modal verbs do not change form according to the subject (e.g., can remains can for
all persons: I can, you can, he/she can).
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• No infinitive or -ing form: Modal verbs do not have an infinitive (e.g., to can is ungrammatical)
or participle form.
• Followed by the base verb: Modal verbs are always followed by the base form of the main
verb (e.g., "She can speak").
• Express different shades of modality: Modals cover a wide range of meanings such as ability,
permission, obligation, necessity, possibility, and prediction.
2.- Quirk’s Treatment of Modals:
In Quirk’s grammar, modal verbs are characterized by their function in expressing different kinds of
modality. He outlines distinctions between core modals (can, must, will) and semi-modals (ought to,
used to, dare, need to), which may function either as main verbs or auxiliary verbs depending on context.
The meaning of a modal verb is shaped by both its inherent meaning and the structure of the sentence.
Core modals: These have the most straightforward and clear-cut meanings, such as necessity,
permission, and ability.
Semi-modals: These are more complex and often require more context to understand their precise
meaning. They can sometimes be used with auxiliary verbs and may express weaker modality than the
core modals.
Conclusion:
Modal verbs are essential elements of English grammar, expressing various forms of modality such as
ability, permission, obligation, and possibility. They do not inflect for tense (except for a few forms like
"can" and "could") and are always followed by the base verb. Understanding how modals function in
different contexts is key to mastering their usage in English.
3.- Catenative Verbs and Modality
Catenative verbs are verbs that are followed by another verb in the infinitive or gerund form. These
verbs can express different kinds of meanings, including modality, which affects the interpretation of
the subsequent verb. While modal verbs directly convey modality (such as necessity, permission,
possibility), catenative verbs may introduce certain shades of meaning that can also be considered modal
in nature, albeit in a more indirect way.
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Analysing start as a Catenative Verb Expressing Modality
In your example, "He started to work at six," start is a catenative verb that leads to an infinitive verb (to
work). We can indeed analyse start in terms of modality, but in this case, it's not about expressing direct
permission, obligation, or possibility as with modals like can or must. Instead, start can be seen as
introducing the modality of commencement or initiation, implying a shift from a non-action state to an
active one.
Here’s how we might break it down:
• Modality of Commencement: Start can be analysed as indicating the beginning of an action
or event. The modal flavour here is not about possibility or necessity (as with can or must), but
more about the initiation of an event.
o "He started to work at six" = He initiated the action of working at six.
Other Catenative Verbs with Modal-like Functions:
Several catenative verbs can express modal meanings, indirectly influencing the modality of the
following verb. Here are a few examples:
1. Begin/start: As we’ve seen, these verbs can indicate the commencement of an action,
introducing a kind of necessity or inevitability for the action to happen.
o "She began to read the book." (The initiation of reading is implied.)
2. Try: This verb introduces the modality of attempting or making an effort, which has an inherent
sense of possibility or likelihood.
o "He tried to fix the car." (He made an attempt, with an implied possibility of success or
failure.)
3. Continue: This verb indicates persistence or continuation, which can be seen as a modal of
duration or sustained action.
o "They continued to argue despite the late hour." (The persistence of the action is
emphasized.)
4. Fail: This verb can imply the failure to achieve something, which introduces a kind of possibility
or expectation of success or failure.
o "She failed to arrive on time." (There was an expectation of arrival that wasn't met.)
Key Comparison with Modal Verbs:
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• Modality in Modal Verbs: Modal verbs like can, must, may, and should explicitly express
possibility, necessity, permission, etc.
o "You must work hard to succeed."
o "She can sing beautifully."
• Modality in Catenative Verbs: Catenative verbs like start, try, continue, begin, and fail express
different shades of modality in terms of initiation, effort, continuation, and success/failure,
which is subtler and more context-dependent than the direct modality of auxiliary modals.
o "He started to study French last year." (Initiation of the action)
o "She tried to lift the heavy box." (Effort or possibility of success)
Conclusion:
While catenative verbs like start do not function exactly as modal verbs, they do play a similar role in
expressing modality—albeit in a different form. They introduce subtle nuances of meaning, such as the
commencement, persistence, or effort related to an action, which can be viewed as a form of modality,
albeit more about the initiation or progression of actions rather than permission, necessity, or ability.
Therefore, your analysis of start as a catenative verb that expresses a form of modality (initiation or
commencement) is quite valid and points to the broader range of modality expressed not only by modals
but also by catenative verbs.
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APPENDIX 3: PRO THEORY
Basics of 'PRO' theory
In syntax, the term PRO refers to a type of "empty category" or "null pronoun" that appears in
certain non-finite clauses, where the subject is not phonetically realised, not overtly stated.
Understanding the role of PRO is critical for analysing non-finite clauses, as it helps clarify
who or what the clause refers to.
Big PRO vs. small pro
1. Big PRO (PRO):
o Found in non-finite clauses (e.g., infinitives, gerunds).
o Functions as a silent subject that must be controlled or interpreted.
o Example: John wants [PRO to leave].
▪ PRO is interpreted as John (the subject of the main clause).
2. Small pro (pro):
o Found in finite clauses, in a few cases in English.
▪ Examples: Come here! (imperative) / He came and had dinner (coordination-based
ellipsis) / Got it? (informal)
o Found in finite clauses of null-subject (pro-drop) languages (e.g., Italian, Spanish) where
the subject can be omitted because verbs inflect for person.
o Represents an unpronounced subject in these languages.
▪ Example (Spanish): Hablo español. (pro = I) (Translation: (I) speak Spanish.)
Types of PRO
1. Subject-controlled PRO
• PRO that is controlled by the subject of the main clause.
• Often occurs with verbs that express intention, desire, or obligation.
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• Example: Mary hopes [PRO to win the race].
o PRO refers to Mary (the subject of hopes).
2. Object-controlled PRO
• PRO that is controlled by the object of the main clause.
• Often occurs with verbs that involve causation or permission.
• Example: John persuaded Mary [PRO to leave early].
o PRO refers to Mary (the object of persuaded).
3. Arbitrary PRO (PROarb)
• PRO that does not refer to any specific antecedent; instead, it has a general or arbitrary
reference (e.g., "people in general").
• Occurs in non-finite clauses where no controller is available.
o Example: It is important [PRO to exercise regularly]. (PRO refers to "anyone" or
"everyone" in general.)
o Example: [Swimming in that river] is dangerous. (PRO is arbitrary, in that it refers
to anyone.)
4. Context-based or logophoric PRO
• PRO that is interpreted based on a contextual or discourse-related antecedent, such as the
speaker’s or subject’s perspective.
• Common in structures involving reported thought or speech.
o Example: John believes [that PRO being late is unacceptable]. (PRO is logophoric,
referring to John’s internal perspective.)
o Example: His aim is [PRO to win the race]. (PRO is logophoric, “controlled” by a
noun in the subject.)
Control and interpretation of PRO
• Control refers to the mechanism by which the reference of PRO is determined.
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Gramática Inglesa I
General Notes
157
o Subject Control: The subject of the main clause controls PRO (e.g., John hopes
[PRO to leave]).
o Object Control: The object of the main clause controls PRO (e.g., She told him
[PRO to stay]).
• PROarb and logophoric PRO are not controlled but interpreted either generically or
contextually.
Why PRO matters for non-finite clauses
Understanding PRO helps in:
• Determining who or what is implied as the subject in non-finite clauses.
• Analysing control structures, such as whether the subject or object governs the reference.
• Interpreting sentences accurately, especially in ambiguous contexts.
Summary table
Type of PRO Definition Example Reference
John wants [PRO to leave]. Subject-controlled.
John wants [PRO Peter to
Object-controlled.
leave].
Subject not phonetically
Big PRO realised in non-finite clauses
[PRO Swimming there] is Arbitrary control
dangerous (anyone)
Logophoric /
His aim is [PRO to win the
context-based
race]
control
2nd person
Subject to finite verbs not Come here! imperative,
phonetically realised in English See you later! Got it? informal talk,
(only in some specific cases) He came and ate lunch ellipsis by
small pro coordination.
Subject to finite verbs not
Found in languages
phonetically realised in pro- Hablo español. (pro = I)
like Italian, Spanish.
drop languages
UNIVERSIDAD DEL SALVADOR
Escuela de Lenguas Modernas
Gramática Inglesa I
General Notes
158
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