GEOGRAPHY & EARTH SCIENCE

EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE

The Universe is roughly 16 and half billion years old, and the Earth is 4 and half billion
years old. Spatial scales: Atom – mineral- rock-mountain-planet-solar system-
galaxy.

Topic: Earth complex environment

Drivers: Population, development, technology, climate change & urbanization.

Earth systems: Biodiversity, land, freshwater, air & oceans.

How do we study such a complex planet?

Air of the water on Earth 71% of the earth is covered by water & only 29%.

So what do we mean by the term system science?

4.1 Systems Science

Defining a systems approach to science

Earth Science? A branch of systems science.

System characteristics:

• It is a structured set of objects linked to perform some function.

• It has components linked by flows of energy, matter or information.
• It shows some degree of integration (e.g. overlapping spheres).
• It has boundaries in space and time (i.e. vertical & horizontal).
• It is a simplification of the totality that is the Earth in the case of Earth System
Science that allows us to study the relationships within a smaller portion of it.
Discussion in Earth Science= Pidwirny (2014) chapter 4.

Word: Model similar to term system.

(b) Definitions of systems and models

Figure 4b-1: Simple visual model of solar radiation being

emitted from the Sun and intercepted by the Earth.
Common characteristics of systems:

1. Systems have a structure that is defined by its parts and processes.

2. Systems are generalizations of reality.
3. Systems tend to function in the same way. This involves
the inputs and outputs of material (energy and/or matter) that is then
processed causing it to change in some way.
4. The various parts of a system have functional as well
as structural relationships between each other.
5. The fact that functional relationships exist between the parts suggests
the flow and transfer of some type of energy and/or matter.
6. Systems often exchange energy and/or matter beyond their defined boundary
with the outside environment, and other systems, through
various input and output processes.
7. Functional relationships can only occur because of the presence of a driving
force.
8. The parts that make up a system show some degree of integration - in other
words the parts work well together.

Three kinds of properties within the boundary of systems:

Elements - are the kinds of parts (things or substances) that make up a system. These
parts may be atoms or molecules, or larger bodies of matter like sand grains, rain
drops, plants, animals, etc.
Attributes - are characteristics of the elements that may be perceived and measured.
For example: quantity, size, color, volume, temperature, and mass.
Relationships - are the associations that occur between elements and attributes. These
associations are based on cause and effect.
Classified types of systems:

Isolated System - a system that has no interactions beyond its boundary layer. Many
controlled laboratory experiments are this type of system.
Closed System - is a system that transfers energy, but not matter, across its boundary
to the surrounding environment. Our planet is often viewed as a closed system.

Open System - is a system that transfers both matter and energy can cross its
boundary to the surrounding environment. Most ecosystems are example of open
systems.

Morphological System - this is a system where we understand

the relationships between elements and their attributes in a vague sense based only
on measured features or correlations. In other words, we understand the form or
morphology a system has based on the connections between its elements. We do not
understand exactly how the processes work to transfer energy and/or matter through
the connections between the elements.

Cascading System - this is a system where we are primarily interested in the flow of
energy and/or matter from one element to another and understand the processes that
cause this movement. In a cascading system, we do not fully understand
quantitative relationships that exist between elements related to the transfer of energy
and/or matter.

Process-Response System - this is a system that integrates the characteristics of

both morphological and cascading systems. In a process-response system, we can
model the processes involved in the movement, storage, and transformation of energy
and/or matter between system elements and we fully understand how the form of the
system in terms of measured features and correlations.

Control System - a system that can be intelligently manipulated by the action of

humans.
Ecosystem - is a system that models relationships and interactions between the
various biotic and abiotic components making up a community or organisms and their
surrounding physical environment.
(c) Structure of systems

Highest level in this hierarchy, we system called cosmos or Universe, (e.g.,

elements=galaxies, quasars, black holes, stars, planets & other heavenly bodies).

Solar systems= arrangement of planets, asteroids, comets & other material around
some stars in the Universe.

Definitions:

Planetary system: planetary system as a celestial body in space that orbits a star and
that maintains some level of dynamics between its lithosphere, atmosphere and
hydrosphere.

Biological system: An organism is alive and functioning because it is a biological system.

The elements of a biological system consist of cells and larger structures known
as organs that work together to produce life.

Chemical system: The functioning of cells in any biological system is dependent on

numerous chemical reactions. Together these chemical reactions make up a chemical
system.

Atomic system: The types of chemical interactions found in chemical systems are
dependent on the atomic structure of the reacting matter. The components of atomic
structure can be described as an atomic system.

(d) Environmental systems as energy systems

Definition: environmental system as a system where life interacts with the

various abiotic components found in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere.

In environmental systems, energy moves from the abiotic environment to life through
processes like plant photosynthesis. Photosynthesis packages this energy into simple
organic compounds like glucose and starch. Both of these organic molecules can be
stored for future use. The following chemical formula describes how plants capture
the Sun's light energy and convert it into chemical energy:

6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy = C6H12O6 + 6O2

The energy of light is used by plants in this reaction to chemically change carbon
dioxide (CO2 ) and water (H2O) into oxygen (O2 ) and the energy rich organic
molecule glucose (C6H12O6 ).

(d) Food chain as an example of a system

The Sun is the original source of energy, in

the form of light, for the food chain.

(100,000 Units of Energy)

Plants capture approximately 1% of the

available light energy from the Sun for
biomass production by way of
photosynthesis. Photosynthesis can be
described chemically as: Light Energy +
6CO2 + 6H2O ==> C6H12O6 + 6O2

(1,000 Units of Energy)

Herbivores consume approximately 10% of

the plant biomass produced in a typical
food chain.

(100 Units of Energy)

 Carnivores capture and consume about
10% of the energy stored by the
herbivores.

(10 Units of Energy)

Figure 4e-1: Model of the grazing food chain showing the

movement of energy through an ecosystem.

Seven common characteristics:

1. Systems have a structure that is defined by its parts and processes. In the above
example, the structure consists of the system's three types of properties. This
system has the following elements: the Sun,
plants, herbivores and carnivores. Within this system the main characteristic,
or attribute, of the elements being perceived is units of energy. The last
component that makes up the structure of this system is the cause and effect
relationships between the elements and attributes. For example, the Sun creates
energy via nuclear fusion. This energy is radiated from the Sun's surface and
received by the surface of the Earth. On the surface of the Earth plants capture
some of this solar radiation in the chloroplasts that exist in their tissues.
Through photosynthesis the plants convert the radiant energy into energy rich
organic matter. Some of the energy fixed by the plants is passed on to
herbivores through consumption. Finally, a portion of the
energy assimilated by the herbivores is then passed on to carnivores through
consumption.
2. Systems are generalizations of reality. The food chain process described above
is a simple abstraction of what actually happens in a variety of different types
of terrestrial ecosystems of much greater complexity.
3. Systems tend to function in the same way. All systems consist of groups of
parts that interact with each other according to various cause and effect
processes. In the food chain model, the parts are
the Sun, plants, herbivores and carnivores. There are two main processes
 taking place in this system. The first involves the movement of energy, in the
form of radiation, from the Sun to the plants. The second process involves the
movement of energy, in the form of organic molecules, from plants to
herbivores, and then finally to carnivores through biomass consumption.
4. The various parts of a system have functional as well
as structural relationships between each other. The structure within the food
chain is defined by the functional relationships between the elements and
attributes of the system.
5. The fact that functional relationships exist between the parts suggests
the flow and transfer of some type of energy or matter. Systems exchange
energy and matter internally and with their surrounding environment through
various processes of input and output. The main material being transferred
into this system (input) is energy in the form of solar radiation. The solar
radiation is then fixed into organic matter (output) by way
of photosynthesis in the plants. Herbivores consume the constructed plant
organic molecules for nutrition to run their metabolism. The herbivores then
provide food for the carnivores.
6. Systems often exchange energy and/or matter beyond their defined boundary
with the outside environment, and other systems, through
various input and output processes. The organisms found in a food chains
transfer organic matter into the detritus food chain when they shed tissues or
die. This transfer represents a net output of matter out of the food chain. With
decomposition, the organic matter is converted into inorganic nutrients which
can be taken up by plants in the food chain to produce new organic matter. This
transfer represents a net input of matter into the food chain system.
7. Functional relationships can only occur because of the presence of a driving
force. The driving force in the food chain is the Sun.
8. The parts that make up a system show some degree of integration - in other
words the parts work well together. Integration in the food chain comes
primarily from the process of evolution. It was through evolution that plants,
herbivores, and carnivores came about and developed ecological associations
between each other.

(f) Equilibrium concepts & feedbacks

Definition: Equilibrium describes the average condition of a system, as measured through

one of its elements or attributes, over a specific period of time. For the purposes of this
online textbook, there are six types of equilibrium:

(1) Steady state equilibrium is an average condition of a system where

the trajectory remains unchanged in time.
 Figure 4f-1: Example of the state of a steady state equilibrium over time.

(2) Thermodynamic equilibrium describes a condition in a system where the

distribution of mass and energy moves towards maximum entropy.

Figure 4f-2: Example of the state of a thermodynamic equilibrium over time.

(3) A dynamic equilibrium occurs when there are unrepeated average states through
time.

Figure 4f-3: Example of the state of a dynamic equilibrium over time.

(4) Static equilibrium occurs where force and reaction are balanced and the
properties of the system remain unchanged over time.
 Figure 4f-4: Example of the state of a static equilibrium over time.

(5) In a stable equilibrium the system displays tendencies to return to the same
equilibrium after disturbance.

Figure 4f-5: Example of the state of a stable equilibrium over time.

(6) In an unstable equilibrium the system returns to a new equilibrium

after disturbance.

Figure 4f-6: Example of the state of an unstable equilibrium over time.

Feedbacks:

Figure 4f-8: Increase in food abundance causes a positive

effect on the size of the aphid population. Births increase
 significantly and are much higher than deaths causing the
population to expand.

Figure 4f-9: As the abundance of food levels

off aphid reproduction slows down and deaths
begin to increase. Population size of the aphids
begins to level off.

Figure 4f-10: The decrease in food abundance causes a

negative effect on aphid population size. Deaths now exceed
births and the population size of the aphids begins to decrease.

Open and Closed Systems

Energy flows that we have already mentioned occur within open or closed systems with
energy inputs, actions (or processes) and outputs.
A commonly used example to model open systems is the motor car.
 Events:
Events result in positive and negative feedback through interactions within,
and between, Earth System Spheres.

Unidirectional Energy Transfer.

Energy flows in a single direction. An example is the evolution of life.
However, it is a matter of debate as to whether it is unidirectional.

Physical Cycles:
Physical cycles are abiotic cycles, where matter is cycled on the planet; for
example:

• Hydrological Cycle;
• Rock Cycle;
• Sediment Cycle; and
• Supercontinent Cycle.

Biogeochemical cycles:
A biogeochemical cycle is one of several natural cycles in which conserved
matter moves through an ecosystem's biotic and abiotic parts. Examples are:

• Carbon Cycle;
• Nitrogen Cycle; and
• Phosphorus Cycle.

Forest fire destroys plants in an area. Results: Removal of plants-erosion-soilwater-

increased turbitidy-impacts water plants/animals.

What do we mean by an event?

Responses to an Event
Event feedbacks

Sphere Interactions

These are two examples of interactions between spheres. Can you think of others?
Supercontinent Cycle

The largest-scale physical cycle is the Supercontinent Cycle, which has the following
key components:

• Plate tectonics drive continental movement;

• Ocean basins open and close through the movement of the continents;
• Continental landmasses collide and rift apart; and
• The formation and breakup of supercontinents (like Pangaea, Gondwana, and
Pangea Ultimate in the future).
 Rock Cycle

• Igneous: Cooled from molten lava;

• Sedimentary: Comprised of weathered and eroded materials; and
• Metamorphic: Igneous and sedimentary rock that is altered by heat and
pressure.
The Hydrological Cycle

Biogeochemical Cycles

Biogeochemical cycles involve chemical and physical fluxes between living and non-
living reservoirs. They involve storage and transfer between reservoirs. Non-living
reservoirs are the Atmosphere, Lithosphere, and Hydrosphere. The living reservoirs (i.e.
all living organisms) are microbes, plants, and animals.

The Carbon Cycle

It contributes to climate regulation. Additions to the System are:

• Volcanic, anthropogenic and biological CO2 into the atmosphere.

• HCO3 to the ocean through leaching.
• Metamorphism of carbonates releasing CO2.
• Weathering releases CO2.

Atmospheric CO2 and other carbon are removed in several ways:

• Solution;
• Photosynthesis;
• and Weathering.

The Nitrogen Cycle

Summary:

In summary, we can use the 2001 Declaration on Earth System Science as a summary
(Earle, 2023: 12):

"The 2001 Amsterdam Declaration, signed by the Chairs of the International Geosphere-
Biosphere Program (IGBP), International Human Dimensions Program (IHDP), World
Climate Research Program (WCRP) and DIVERSITAS at the 2001 ‘Challenges of a
Changing Earth’ conference, described the key findings of a decade of Earth System
Science (ESS). The focus was on recognizing the Earth as a single system with inherent
dynamics and properties at the planetary level, all of which are threatened by human-
driven global change. The declaration concluded that:

• The Earth System behaves as a single, self-regulating system comprised of physical,

chemical, biological and human components, with complex interactions and
feedbacks between the component parts.
• Global change is real and it is happening now. Human-driven changes to Earth’s
land surface, oceans, coasts and atmosphere, and to biological diversity, are equal
to some of the great forces of nature in their extent and impact.
• Global change cannot be understood in terms of a simple cause–effect paradigm.
Human-driven changes cause multiple, complex effects that cascade through the
Earth System.
• Earth-System dynamics are characterized by critical thresholds and abrupt changes.
Human activities could inadvertently trigger such changes and potentially switch
the Earth System to alternative modes of operation that may prove irreversible and
less hospitable to humans and other forms of life.
 • The nature of changes now occurring simultaneously in the Earth System, as well as
their magnitudes and rates of change, are unprecedented. The Earth System is
currently operating in a no-analogue state."

We can simplify this and say that Earth System Science:

• Sees the Earth as an entire system.

• It is concerned with the flow and transfer of energy.
• Simplifies reality to facilitate understanding.
• The system evolves from events through positive and negative feedback.
• It allows scientists to explain the past and predict future behaviours of the Earth
System.
• It simplifies reality by viewing the Earth as:
o Spheres;
o Cycles; and
o Various interactions between the spheres and within cycles.