MORPHOLOGY

Morphology is the study and description of word structure and word formation.
A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a language.
A morpheme is a short segment of language that meets three criteria:
1. It is a word or part of a word that has meaning. We can recognize a morpheme by either its
lexical or its pees meaning.
2. It cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts without violation of its meaning or
without meaningless remainders.
3. It recurs in different verbal environments with a relatively stable meaning.
MORPHEMES vs. PHONEMES
A morpheme differs from a phoneme in that the former has meaning whereas the latter does not.
Although phonemes have no meaning, they have distinctive features that help distinguish meaning.
E.g. A morpheme may consist of only a single phoneme like the /-z/ in GOES. But the phoneme /z/
and this morpheme are by no means identical. The phoneme /z/ occurs many times where it has
nothing to do with this morpheme, as in ZOO /zu:/ and ROSE /rəʊz/.
MORPHEMES vs. SYLLABLES
 A morpheme happens to be identical to a syllable, and so are many English morphemes.
However, any matches between morphemes and syllables are fortuitous (by chance).
 Many POLY-SYLLABIC words are MONO-MORPHEMIC (LION: two syllables - one
morpheme, CROCODILE: three syllables – one morpheme, ALLIGATOR: four syllables -
one morpheme).
 On the contrary, both /ɡəʊ/ and /-z/ in GOES /ɡəʊz/ are morphemes, though altogether they
are but a single syllable. That is, GOES is MONO-SYLLABIC but POLY-MORPHEMIC.
In English, a morpheme is not identical with a syllable. The syllable is a phonological unit
whereas the morpheme is the basic unit in morphology.
MORPHEMES vs. WORDS
 Words are made up of morphemes. In other words, morphemes are the constituents of words.
 A word may be composed of one or more morphemes:
- One morpheme: boy, desire
- Two morphemes: boy + -ish, desir(e) + -able
- Three morphemes: boy + -ish + -ness, desir(e) + -abil + -ity
- Four morphemes: gentle + man + -li + -ness, un- + desir(e) + -abil+-lty
- More than four morphemes: un- + gentle + man + -li + -ness, anti-+ dis-+ establish + -
ment + -ari + -an + -ism.
BOUND MORPHEMES vs. FREE MORPHEMES
1. FREE MORPHEMES
 A free morpheme is ‘one that can be uttered alone with meaning’.
  A free morpheme ‘can be used on its own’.
 Free morphemes 'may stand alone as words in their own right, as well as enter into the
structure of other words’.
E.g. DRINK is a free morpheme which occurs as a word on its own and as a free base in
DRINKABLE, UNDRINKABLE, DRINKING WATER, DRINKING FOUNTAIN, etc.
2. BOUND MORPHEMES
 A bound morpheme ‘cannot be uttered alone with meaning. It is always annexed for one
or more morphemes to form a word’.
 A bound morpheme ‘is never used alone but must be used with another morpheme’.
 Bound morphemes ‘may occur only if they combine with another morpheme’.
E.g. The English suffix -ING / -ɪŋ/ must be used after a verb form: WRITING, LIVING.
DRIVING, etc.
BASES (or ROOTS) vs. AFFIXES
1. BASES (or ROOTS)
A BASE (also called A ROOT) is ‘that morpheme in a word that has the principal
meaning’. It is the central morpheme, the basic part of a word. There are wo kinds of bases:
1. A FREE BASE is a base 'which may be a word on its own right once the other
morphemes have been stripped away’
E.g. BREAK in UNBREAKABLE, ACT in DEACTIVATED, FRIEND in
FRIENDSHIP, etc.
2. A BOUND BASE is a base (i.e. it is the basic part of a word and has the principal
meaning) which can never occur on its own but can only be joined to other bound
morphemes.
Eg. The bound base of AUDIENCE, AUDIBLE, AUDITION, AUDITORY,
AUDITORIUM, etc. is AUDI- ; that of SUICIDE, PATRICIDE, MATRICIDE,
INFANTICIDE, etc. is -CIDE; and that of SUSPENDER, PENDANT,
PENDULUM, efc. is -PEND or PEND-.
2. AFFIXES
AN AFFIX is a morpheme (usually a bound morpheme) that occurs before or behind a
base’.
 Classified according to their POSITION in words, affixes in English have 2 main
subclasses:
1. PREFIXES ‘occur before a base’ as in import, prefix,
2. SUFFIXES ‘occur after a base’ as in shrinkage, noisy, quickly, nails, dreamed,
mouse-like, etc.
Affixes may be added directly to bases or to constructions consisting of a base plus one or
more (either free or bound) morphemes. Thus we have:
 work +-s = works
worker + -s = workers
workshop + -s = workshops
 Classified according to their FUNCTION in words, affixes in English have two main
subclasses:
1. INFLECTIONAL AFFIXES, ‘which are always suffixes in English, perform a
grammatical function; they are representatives of grammatical categories’.
2. DERIVATIONAL AFFIXES, ‘which may be prefixes or suffixes in English, have a
lexical function; they create new words out of existing words ‘or morphemes by their
addition’.
Derivational affixes may be of two kinds:
- Class-changing derivational affixes change the word class of the word to which
they are attached: -al added to nation makes an adjective out of a noun.
- Class-maintaining derivational affixes do not change the word class of the
word to which they are attached. Derivational prefixes are usually class-
maintaining: re-mark, dis-enthrone, un-refined, etc.

There is not usually more than one prefix in a word in English, and English prefixes are always
derivational. There is never more than one inflectional suffix in English words and it always
comes last. A number of derivational suffixes may, however, occur. Derivational suffixes need not
close off a word: that is, after a derivational suffix one can sometimes add another derivation suffix
and can frequently add an inflectional suffix. The relative order of morphemes in the English word
is, then as follows:

DERIVATIONAL PREFIX - BASE - DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX(ES) -

INFLECTIONAL SUFFIX

Generally speaking, bases are central and affixes are peripheral.

In English, affixes are almost always bound morphemes and bases are nearly always free.

ALLOMORPHS

An allomorph is ‘any of the different forms of a morpheme'.

E.g. In English, the inflectional noun plural morpheme {-S1} is often shown in writing by adding -
(e)s to the end of a singular noun, eg. CAT /kæt/ => CATS /kæts/.

Sometimes this morpheme is pronounced /-z/, eg. DOG /dɒɡ/ => DOGS /dɒɡz/, and sometimes it is
pronounced /ɪz/, e.g. BOX /bɒks ɪz /
Criteria:

1. They are in complementary distribution

2. They all have the same meaning, either lexical or grammatical.

4 types of allomorphs: (1) Additive; (2) Replacive; (3) Suppletive; (4) Zero

MEANING OF BOUND BASES (ROOTS)

No. Word Bound base Example
-audi
1 audience audience, audible, audition
= means ‘hear’
-cide suicide, patricide,
2 Suicide
= ‘killing’ infanticide
-ora
oral, oration, oracle, orate,
3 oral = ‘mouth’ or
oratory
‘speak’
-aqua aquaplane, aquatic,
4 aquaplane
= ‘water’ aquarium
-mor(t) mortuary, mortal,
5 mortuary
= ‘death’ or ‘dead’ moribund
-corp corpse, corporation,
6 corpse
= ‘body’ corporeal, corps, corpse
-ten tenable, tenant, tenacious,
7 tenable
= ‘hold’ tenure
-pen pendulum, pendant,
8 pendulum
= ‘hold’ suspenders, impending
-man manual, manicure,
9 manual
= ‘hand’ manuscript, manacle
-ject eject, inject, projectile,
10 eject
= ‘throw’ / ‘shoot’ reject
visible, television, visual,
-vise
11 revise devise, supervise, televise,
= ‘see’
visionary, visibility
predict, dictate, verdict,
-dict dictate, dictator, dictation,
12 contradict
= ‘say’ diction, dictum,
contradiction, contradictory
regress, regressive,
-gress
13 regress regression, progress,
= ‘go’
progression, progressive
-vene intervention, interventionist,
14 intervene
= ‘come’ supervene, contravene
-prehend
15 comprehend apprehend
= ‘seize’
 -cur current, currently, currency,
16 recur
= ‘ run’ occur, occurrence
inspector, inspectorate,
inspection, prospect,
-spect
17 inspect perspective, prospector,
= ‘look’
prospective, prospectus,
spectacles
depose, deposition,
propose, proposal,
proposition, deposit,
-pose
18 oppose depository, depositor,
= ‘put’ or ‘place’
impose, imposition,
imposing, imposingly,
superimpose
-spire
19 inspire respriration, perspiration
= ‘breathe’
rod-
20 rodent erode, erosion, erosive
= ‘gnaw’
porter, portability, portage,
-port comport, deport, export,
21 portable
= ‘carry’ import, report, support,
transport
erupt, eruption, abrupt,
rupt- abruptness, corrupt,
22 rupture
= ‘break’ (in)corruptible,
(in)corruptibility
ann- annual, annually, annuity,
23 annual
= ‘year’ annuitant, anniversary
carn- reincarnate, carnage,
24 carnal
= ‘flesh’ carnivore
polygamy, polygamist,
-gam(y)
25 bigamy polygamous, bigamist,
= ‘marriage’
bigamous
-tain attain, substain, distain,
26 contain
= ‘hold’ retain, detain
Perceive, deceive, onceive,
receive, intercept, concept,
-ceive / -cept / -ceit
27 receive precept, percept, discept,
= ‘take’
except, accept, incept,
recept, deceit, conceit
-fer differ, transfer, prefer,
28 infer
= ‘carry’ / ‘bear’ defer, infer
-clude include, conclude, exclude,
29 conclude
= ‘shut’ / ‘close’ preclude
transport, export, comport,
-port
30 portable deport, import, report,
= ‘carry’
support
 DERIVATIONAL SUFFIXES
Noun Suffixes:
Input
Suffix Meaning Example
base
-acy V state or quality privacy, fallacy, delicacy
-al V “pertaining to or act of” refusal, recital, rebuttal
-ance, “action, state, condition acceptance, attendance, reference
V
-ence or quality” preference, insurance, existence
“agent who does
-er, -or V whatever the verb trainer, protector, narrator
indicates”
-ism Adj doctrine, belief communism, narcissism, skepticism
“agent who does
-ist V whatever the verb chemist, narcissist, plagiarist
indicates”
-ity, - “state or condition” inactivity, veracity, parity, serenity,
Adj
ty “quality of” sincerity
result or product of
argument, endorsement, punishment,
-ment V doing the action
gorvenment
indicated by the verb
“state, quality, heaviness, sadness, rudeness,
-ness N
condition” testiness, kindness
fellowship, ownership, kinship,
-ship N “state or condition”
internship, kingship, lordship
-dom N “state, being, condition” Kingdom, martyrdom
-hood N “state, being, condition” Manhood, childhood, godhood
-sion,
V state of being concession, transition, abbreviation
-tion
“action or the erasure, failure, pressure, legislature,
-ure V
resulting state” departure, enclosure
a business or trade, a bakery, creamery, machinery, slavery,
-ery N
behavior, a condition brewery
labyrinth, warmth, death, strength,
-th state or quality
width, length, filth, birth, growth, depth

Verb Suffixes:

Suffix Meaning Example

-ate “become” regulate, eradicate, enunciate, repudiate
-en “become” enlighten, awaken, strengthen
-ify, -fy “make or become” terrify, satisfy, rectify, exemplify
-ize, -ise “become” civilize, humanize, socialize, valorize

Adjective Suffixes:

Input
Suffix Meaning Example
base
 -able, - V edible, presentable, abominable,
capable of being
ible credible
N regional, grammatical, emotional,
“pertaining to”
-al coastal
“of the kind”
medicinal
-esque N reminiscent of picturesque, statuesque, burlesque
-ful N “having” fanciful, resentful, woeful, doubtful
N democratic, mythic,
-ic, -ical “pertaining to”
domestic, chiastic
-ious, - N
characterized by nutritious, portentous, studious
ous
-ish N having the quality of fiendish, childish, snobbish
-ive V having the nature of creative, punitive, divisive, decisive
-less N “without” endless, ageless, lawless, effortless
N “characterized by”
sleazy, hasty, greasy, nerdy, smelly,
-y “having or marked
rainy
by”
-ly Adj “manner” “like” kindly, nicely (adv)
Adj backward, wayward, awkward,
-ward in a certain direction
afterward
N clockwise, edgewise, lengthwise,
-wise in relation to
otherwise

DERIVATIONAL PREFFIXES
Prefix Meaning Example
in- “not” inaccurate
un- (Adj) “not” unkind
un- (V) “reversiv” undo, untie
dis- (V) “revers, oppos” discontinue
dis- (N) “not” disorder
dis- (Adj) “not” dishonest
dis- (V) “not” disapprove
re- (V) “again” rewrite, redo
ex- (N) “former” ex-major
en- (V) “put in or into” encage, enrobe, endanger, enrage
en- (V) “make” enlarge, enable, ennoble, enrich
ad- (ac-, “to, toward” accept, admit
at-)
anti- “against” antidote, antifan, anti-aircraft, antibody,
antipersonnel
circum- “around” Circumstance, circumference, circumnavigate,
circumspect, circumlocution
co- “with” co-pilot, co-curriculum, co-operate, co-ordinate
col- collapse, collide, collision, collect
com- compact, comply, company
con- convene, consonant, convoke
cor- corrode, correlate, corresponse
contra- “against” contrast, contraceptions, contrapuntual, contravene,
contra-indicative, contra-flow, contraceptive, contra-
distinction
de- (V) “do the opposite” devitalize, deactivate, decentralize, dehumanize,
deform, denationalize, decolonize, decode
de- (V) “reduce” degrade, debase, decline, decrease
de- (V) “remove” dehorn, defrost, deice, deforset
dis- (V) “opposite or disappear, discount, disarm
absence of”
dis- (A,V) “not” dishonest, dissatify
in- “not” incompetent, inefficient, infertile, inorganic,
im- (Adj) insensible immature, immeasurable impolite,
il- impossible, imbalance, imbecile ilegal, illicit,
ir- illiterate, illogical, iliberal, illegitimate irregular,
irreplaceable, irrelevant, inrespective irreducible
in- “in” or “on” inspiration, inspirational inspiring, inspired, inspect,
install, inscribe
im- imbue, impale, impalpable impalement, imbile
inter- “between” interstate, international intercede, interact,
interbreed, interchange, intervene
intra- “within” intrastate, intravenous(ly). intramuscular, intra-
uterine (device), intramutual
ob- “against or obstruction, obstructive, obstrude, obstrusion,
oppose” obstrusive(ly), obstinate obstrusiveness, obstacle,
op- object(ion), obstruct
opposition, oppose, opposed, opponent, oppress,
oppressed, oppression, oppressive(ly)
pre- “before” prenatal, preconceive, predict, predispose, preclude,
pre-arrange, preamble, precaution(ary), pre-war
post- “after” posterior, post-mortem, postgraduate, postscript,
post-date, post-war
pro- “forwards” proceed, progress, profession, project(ile), propose,
proposal, prologue, prospect, prolapse
retro- “backwards” retroflex, retrograde, retrogress, retro-rocket,
retrospect, retroactive
semi- “half or partly” semi-professional, semi-soft, semi-conscious, semi-
detached, semicircle, semicolon semi-final
sub- “under or below submarine, subsoil, subordinate subdivide,
the normal” submerge, subordinate, subnormal substandard,
subway
super- “over or beyond superabundant, supervene, supervise, supermarket,
the norm” supematural, superhuman, superior superstar,
superficial
un- (Adj, “not” unlikely, untrue, unjust, unkind, unfair, unfit,
Adv) unavoidable, urelieved, unscientific, unshrinking
 unskilled
un- (V) “do the opposite” undress, uncurl, unfold, unlock, untie, unfreeze

INFLECTIONAL SUFFIXES (8)

No. Suffix Stem Function Example
1 ‘s {-s1} N genitive suffix (possessive) teacher’s
2 – s {-s2} N plural book-s
3 – s {-s3} V 3rd person, singular, present tense sleep-s
4 – ing {- V progressive (incomplete action) sleep-ing
ing}
5 – ed {- V past tense walk-ed
ed1}
6 – ed {- Adj past participle (perfect or passive) walk-ed
ed2}
7 – er Adj comparative degree tall-er
8 – est superlative degree tall-est

Greek Root Words

Root Meaning Examples
anti against antibacterial, antidote, antithesis
ast(er) star asteroid, astronomy, astronaut
auto self automatic, automate, autobiograph
biblio book bibliography, bibliophile
bio life biography, biology, biodegradable
chrome color monochromatic, phytochrome
chrono time chronic, synchronize, chronicle
dyna power dynasty, dynamic, dynamite
geo earth geography, geology, geometry
gno to know agnostic, acknowledge
graph write autograph, graphic, demographic
hydr water dehydrate, hydrant, hydropower
kinesis movement kinetic, photokinesis
log thought logic, apologize, analogy
logos word, study astrology, biology, theologian
narc sleep narcotic, narcolepsy
path feel empathy, pathetic, apathy
phil love philosophy, bibliophile, philanthropy
phon sound microphone, phonograph, telephone
photo light photograph, photocopy, photon
schem plan scheme, schematic
syn together, with synthetic, photosynthesis
tele far telescope, telepathy, television
tropos turning heliotrope, tropical

Latin Root Words

Root Meaning Examples
ab to move away abstract, abstain, aversion
acer, acri bitter acrid, acrimony, exacerbate
aqu water aquarium, aquatic, aqualung
audi hear audible, audience, auditorium
bene good benefit, benign, benefactor
brev short abbreviate, brief
circ round circus, circulate
dict say dictate, edict, dictionary
doc teach document, docile, doctrinal
duc lead, make deduce, produce, educate
fund bottom founder, foundation, funding
gen to birth gene, generate, generous
hab to have ability, exhibit, inhabit
jur law jury, justice, justify
lev to lift levitate, elevate, leverage
luc, lum light lucid, illuminate, translucent
manu hand manual, manicure, manipulate
mis, mit send missile, transmit, permit
omni all omnivorous, omnipotent, omniscent
pac peace pacify, pacific, pacifist
port carry export, import, important
quit silent, restive tranquil, requiem, acquit
scrib, script to write script, proscribe, describe
sens to feel sensitive, sentient, resent
terr earth terrain, territory, extraterrestrial
tim to fear timid, timorous
vac empty vacuum, vacate, evacuate
vid, vis to see video, vivid, invisible