RESEARCH PAPER
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
The word research is derived from the Middle French “recherche”, which means “to
go about seeking”. Research is “creative and systematic work undertaken to increase
the stock of knowledge”. It involves the collection, organization and analysis of
information to increase understanding of a topic or issue. A research project may be
an expansion on past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures,
or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a
whole. Another definition of research is given by Creswell who states that “Research
is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our
understanding of a topic or issue”. It consists of three steps: Pose a question, collect
data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question. “In the broadest
sense of the word, the definition of research includes any gathering of data.
Information and facts for the advancement of knowledge.”
TWO SOURCES OF RESEARCH
Primary source: Primary resources contain first-hand information, meaning that you
are reading the author’s own account on a specific topic or event that s/he
participated in. Primary sources provide direct information or data from the time or
event being studied. Examples include original documents, interviews, surveys, and
eyewitness accounts. Examples of a primary source are: • Original documents such as
diaries, speeches, manuscripts, letters, interviews, records, eyewitness accounts,
autobiographies • Empirical scholarly works such as research articles, clinical reports,
case studies, dissertations • Creative works such as poetry, music, video, photography.
Secondary source: Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon,
analyze, evaluate, summarize, and process primary sources. Secondary source
materials can be articles in newspapers or popular magazines, book or movie
reviews, or articles found in scholarly journals that discuss or evaluate someone else’s
original research.
RESEARCH DESIGN, METHOD AND METHODOLOGY
Research Design: Research design is the overall plan or structure of a research study. It
outlines the strategy for conducting the research and achieving the research goals. It includes
Quantitative research design, quantitative research design and mixed method.
Research Method: Research methods are the specific techniques or procedures used to gather
and analyze data within the chosen research design. They include activities like surveys,
experiments, interviews, observations, content analysis, questionnaires and statistical analysis.
Research methods are the practical steps taken to collect and process data according to the
research design.
Research Methodology: It is the rationalization or the justification of the research process. It is
justification of Various decisions that have been made during the research process. It involves
the systematic and theoretical analysis of how research should be conducted, including the
rationale for using specific research methods. Methodology encompasses the principles,
theories, and assumptions that guide the researcher’s choices in terms of research design and
methods.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to
understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or
generate new ideas for research. In qualitative research, data collection involves employing methods such as
in-depth interviews, focus groups, participant observation, and document analysis to gather rich and
contextually relevant information. Researchers engage with participants to explore their perspectives,
experiences, and behaviors in detail. They often use open-ended questions to encourage participants to
express their thoughts and feelings freely. Types:
Case Study: Case studies involve an in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or organization.
Researchers examine a particular case to gain insights into specific issues or phenomena.
Ethnography: as a qualitative research method, involves immersing the researcher in a particular culture or
social group to understand their way of life, beliefs, and behaviors. It relies on participant observation, in-
depth interviews, and careful analysis of data to provide a deep and holistic understanding of the studied
community’s culture and experiences.
Grounded Theory: Grounded theory is a systematic approach to generating theories from qualitative data.
Researchers collect and analyze data without preconceived theories and develop theories that emerge from
the data itself. •
Phenomenological Research: Phenomenological research explores the lived experiences of individuals.
Researchers aim to describe and understand how people make sense of their experiences, often using
interviews and extensive descriptions.
QUANTITAIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative research is a research methodology used by researchers to test theories and hypotheses about the attitudes and
behaviors of their customers on the basis of numerical and statistical evidence. Researchers use surveys to question a large
number of people or customers to obtain measurable and bias-free data in an indirect manner. There are several methods by
which you can collect quantitative data, which include: Experiments, Controlled observations, Surveys ( paper, mobile,
questionnaires), Longitudinal studies, Polls, Interviews (numerical responses, such as scales or measurement instrument). Types:
Correlational Research: This is about finding relationships or connections between variables. It’s like noticing that when one
thing goes up, the other goes up too (positive correlation) or when one goes up, the other goes down (negative correlation).
For example, studying if there’s a connection between studying hours and test scores – more hours might correlate with higher
scores.
Experimental Research: In experimental research, you’re like a scientist conducting an experiment. You deliberately change
something (an independent variable) to see how it affects something else (a dependent variable). For example, Researchers
want to find out if a new fertilizer makes tomato plants grow taller and produce more tomatoes. They give the new fertilizer
to one group of plants and nothing to another group, keeping all other conditions the same. Then, they compare the plant
growth to see if the fertilizer had an effect.
Quasi-experimental Research: A quasi-experiment is a type of research where scientists or researchers study things to see if
one thing causes another, but they can’t control everything perfectly like in a real experiment. For example, they might look at
two groups of people, like smokers and non-smokers, and see if smokers have more health problems. They can’t make people
start or stop smoking, so it’s not a perfect experiment, but it still helps them learn something.
Descriptive Research: Descriptive research is a type of research that aims to provide a detailed and accurate description of
a particular phenomenon, situation, or group of people. It doesn’t involve manipulating variables or trying to establish cause-
and-effect relationships, but rather focuses on observing, recording, and summarizing data to gain a better understanding of
what is happening.
Population and Sample:
Population: Population refers to the entire group or collection of individuals, objects, or data points that share
a common characteristic or are the subject of a study. It includes every member of the group being studied.
The population is often large and may not be feasible to study in its entirety.
Sample: A sample is a subset or smaller portion of the population that is selected for the actual study or
research. It represents a smaller, manageable group that is chosen to make inferences or draw conclusions
about the entire population. Sampling is a way to study a population without having to examine every single
member, which can be time-consuming and costly. In summary, the population is the entire group under
consideration, while a sample is a smaller subset of that population used for research or analysis.
Types of Sampling Method:
The two different types of sampling methods are: 1. Probability Sampling 2. Non-probability Sampling
❖ Probability Sampling
Probability sampling is a method of selecting a sample from a larger population in such a way that every
individual or item in the population has a known, equal chance of being included in the sample. This method is
more time consuming and expensive than the non-probability sampling method. The benefit of using
probability sampling is that it guarantees the sample that should be the representative of the population.
Probability Sampling Types
1.Simple Random Sampling: In simple random sampling technique, every item in the population has an equal
and likely chance of being selected in the sample. Since the item selection entirely depends on the chance, this
method Is known as “Method of chance Selection”. As the sample size is large, and the item is chosen randomly,
it is known as “Representative Sampling”. Example: Simple Random: Imagine you have a box of colorful
candies, and you close your eyes and pick one candy without looking. That’s simple random sampling!
2.Systematic Sampling: Systematic sampling is a method where you pick items or individuals
at regular intervals from a list or group. Example: Imagine you have a class with 30 students,
and you want to choose a sample of 10 students for a survey. Instead of picking names
randomly, you use systematic sampling. First, your number the students from 1 to 30. Then, you
decide to pick every 3rd student. So, you start with student #1, then go to #4, #7, #10, and
so on, until you have 10 students in your sample. This way, you’ve selected a systematic sample
that represents your whole class.
3.Stratified Sampling: In stratified sampling, the population is divided into distinct subgroups
or strata based on certain characteristics (e.g., age, gender), and then random samples are
drawn from each stratum. For example, Let’s say you’re conducting a study on smartphone
usage among different age groups: teenagers, young adults, and older adults. You would
divide the population into these three age groups and then randomly select participants from
each group. This way, you’ll have a representative sample from each age group to gather
insights about smartphone usage patterns.
4.Clustered Sampling: Cluster sampling involves dividing the population into clusters (e.g.,
geographic areas) and then randomly selecting some clusters to survey, followed by sampling
all individuals within those selected clusters. Example: if you wanted to choose 1000
participants from the entire population of the Pakistan., it is likely impossible to get a complete
list of everyone. Instead, the researcher randomly selects areas (i.e. cities or counties) and
randomly selects from within those boundaries.
❖ Non-Probability Sampling
The non-probability sampling method is a technique in which the researcher selects the sample based on
subjective judgment rather than the random selection. In this method, not all the members of the population
have a chance to participate in the study.
Non-Probability Sampling Types
1.Convenience Sampling: In a convenience sampling method, Researcher select individuals who are readily
available or convenient to survey. The samples are selected from the population directly because they are
conveniently available for the researcher. The samples are easy to select, and the researcher did not choose
the sample that outlines the entire population. Example: If you approach pedestrians on the street to gather
their opinions on a local issue, you are employing convenience sampling as you’re selecting those who are
readily available at that moment.
2.Quota Sampling: Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling method that relies on the non-random
selection of a predetermined number or proportion of units. This is called a quota. You first divide the
population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called strata) and then recruit sample units until you reach your
quota. These units share specific characteristics, determined by you prior to forming your strata. Example:
Imagine you’re conducting a survey about smartphone preferences. You want to ensure your sample reflects the
population’s gender distribution. So, you set a quota of 60% for females and 40% for males. You select
respondents accordingly until each quota is met, helping ensure a balanced representation of genders in your
survey.
3.Purposive or Judgmental Sampling: Purposive sampling is a non-probability method for obtaining a sample
where researchers use their expertise to choose specific participants that will help the study meet its goals.
These subjects have particular characteristics that the researchers need to evaluate their research question. In
other words, the researchers pick the participants “on purpose.” Example: Purposive sampling can be used in
educational research. Suppose a researcher wants to collect feedback from students on the pedagogical
methods in their school. The researcher will select the brightest students who can provide relevant information
for systematic investigation.
4.Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling starts with a small group of participants who are asked to refer
others to participate, creating a chain or “snowball” effect. For example, when studying illegal drug users, you
might ask one user to introduce you to others in their network.
RESEARCH PAPER
A Research proposal or synopsis is a document that outlines the planned research project in
detail. It serves as a roadmap or blueprint for the research endeavor and is typically
submitted to seek approval and funding from academic institutions, research organizations, or
grant providers.
How long should my research proposal be? It should be 2,000-3,500 words (5-10 pages)
long.
Writing a Research Proposal: The proposal will introduce what the research proposes to do
and/or prove. It will also give an in depth account of the methods and theories that will be
used to support the hypothesis within the project. A research proposal generally contains the
following segments:
1) Selection of Topic 2) Researching 3) Introduction 4) Statement of the problem5) Significance
of the research6) Research question 7) Research objective 8) Delimitation of study 9)
Literature review 10) Research methodology 11) conclusion 12) Reference/Bibliography
(Work citation)
Each of these segments is indispensable to a research proposal. For example, it’s impossible to
write a research proposal without reading related work and writing a literature review.
Similarly, it’s not possible to decide a methodology without determining specific research
questions.
1) Selection of Topic • It is the very first step because you should know what you want to write
about. • The topic should be narrow enough that you can research or learn about it accurately.
But not so narrow that you cannot final anything to say you can pick up a topic by brain
storming idea.
2) Researching After the selection of the topic the next step is to knowing how to write a
research proposal and to understand how to do a research. Research occurs when you look up
the information about your topic.
3) Introduction Your introduction should provide the background or the skeleton of the paper.
You are establishing your basic framework for research. You should probably have a few
subsections in the introduction. • You can grab the attention of the reader with your topic. • You
should provide brief background information and explore past research. • It will discern if
your research is qualitative or quantitative and should allude to the thesis statement.
4) Statement of the problem It is a concise description of the specific issue or challenge that
the research aims to address. • This section will describe the analytical approach that you
intend to use. • You will fully describe the problem as it is related to your topic of research. • It
will answer the question “Why does this research need to be done?”
5) Significance of the research • You will need to provide a well rounded, intelligent and
substantial Statement on why the research that you are doing needs to be done. • It will
normally begin with the statement “The purpose of this academic research study is…”
6) Research Question • You will disclose your hypothesis here. • A Research question is a
broad inquiry about your topic or problem. • It seeks to explore, understand, or investigate a
particular issue. • It is often formulated as an open-ended question and does not make a
specific prediction.
7) Research Objective It is done to achieve your goals and aims of your research.
8) Delimitation of study. • In this section you will discuss any limitation that may arise in your
research. • Here you will confine your study to specific or particular area or topic.
9) Literature review • It Is a summary and analysis of existing scholarly work related to the
research topic to provide context and identify gaps in current knowledge. • This will discuss the
information that is already known about the project. • It will review any pressing and pertinent
research that is in anyway tied to the Hypothesis debunking it.
10) Research methodology This section will tell exactly which methods you will use in order to
prove your hypothesis. It will provide a detail of whether you will be doing qualitative or
Quantitative research.
11) Conclusion • This section will describe a short logical summing-Up of the theme(s) of the
main idea or topic. • Here you will interpret your findings. • It sets out the information when
you investigate the topic • Here you put the answers of the questions.
12) Reference/Bibliography It comes at the end of your research proposal. Here you will list
all the sources alphabetically that you have consulted for collection of data for your research.
❖ Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the act of using someone else’s words, ideas, or work without giving them proper
credit, presenting it as your own. To avoid plagiarism, always cite sources, use quotation marks
for direct quotes, paraphrase with proper attribution, and use plagiarism detection tools when
needed.
❖ APA Style/Format
APA (American Psychological Association) style is a commonly used format for academic and
research writing. It provides guidelines for formatting papers, citing sources, and organizing
content. Here’s a brief overview with examples:
Title Page: Include the title, author’s name, institutional affiliation.
In-Text Citations: Use author-date format (Smith, 2020). For direct quotes, include page
numbers (Smith, 2020, p. 42).
References Page: Alphabetical list of sources cited. Example: Smith, J. A. (2020). The Effects
of Sleep Deprivation on Cognitive Performance. Journal of Sleep Research, 25(2), 37-45.
Abstract: Summarize the paper in 150-250 words.
Margins and Spacing: Use 1-inch margins and double-spacing throughout the paper.
Font and Size: Use a serif font like Times New Roman, size 12.
