ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

The periodic table

Periodic table is a chart in which elements are arranged according to their
atomic numbers. Periodic means something that repeat itself. It also means
that something that take place at regular intervals.

Periodic table
Periodic table is a chart in which elements are arranged according to their
atomic numbers.

Periodicity is the arrangement of elements in a table according to their

properties. Groups are the vertical columns of elements in the periodic
table. The number of the group indicates number of electrons in the
outermost shell.

Periods are the horizontal rows of elements in the periodic table. The
number of the period indicates the number of shells in an atom.

Trends in the periodic table

Atomic radius increases with increase in number of shells or energy
levels. Atomic radius is the distance from the centre of the nucleus to the
outermost shell.
 utermost
Shell
Atomic
Radius

The number of energy levels signifies the number of shells. Elements in

groups I 2 and 3 are metals. Metalloids are elements that exist as metals
or non-metals. For example Boron, Carbon and Silicon. Groups 5 to 8 are
non-metals. As you go down the group, the atomic radius increases as the
number of shells increase.Elements in the same group have:
The same number of electrons in the outermost shell.
Similar chemical properties.
Related melting and boiling point.
Similar electron configuration.

GROUP 1 ELEMENTS: ALKALI METALS

Group I elements are called alkali metals because when they react with
water, they produce a basic solution and hydrogen gas. Examples of
alkali metals are Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, and Caesium.
Group 1 elements are the most reactive metals in the periodic table.

Physical properties of alkali metals

1. They are soft metals.
2. They are easily cut by a knife.
3. They have low density.
4. They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
5. They are malleable. That is, they can be hammered into any shape.
6. They are ductile. That is, they can easily be drawn into wires.
7. They are shiny when freshly cut.

What happens as you go down the group 1 elements?

As you go down the group I elements, atomic radius increases. The
number of shells is increased; hence valence electrons experience less
attractive forces by the nucleus.
Therefore
1. Metals become softer.
2. Density of metals decreases.
3. Melting and boiling points
decreases.
4. Burn more easily in air.
5. React faster with chlorine.
6. React faster and vigorously with water.
Sodium reacting with Chlorine
Why are group one elements the most reactive elements in the periodic
table?
They have one valence electron that is loosely held by the nucleus hence
it is easily lost during a chemical reaction. Group 1 elements react by
donating a single electron to nonmetals.

Chemical properties of alkali metals

1. They react with oxygen to produce white solid Oxide

For example: 4Li(s) + 02 (g) 2Li20(s) (Lithium Oxide)

2. They react with chlorine to produce white solid chlorides.

For example:. 2Na(s) + C12(g) 2Nacl (Sodium Chloride)
3. They react with water to produce basic solution and Hydrogen gas.
For example: 2Na(s) + 2H20 (l) 2NaOH + H2 (g)

Uses of Lithium
1. Lithium is used in heat resistive ceramics and glasses.
2. Alloy of Lithium is used in aircraft building.
3. Lithium batteries are packed with lot of energy as compared to other
metals Revolutionized devices like cell phones, computers use lithium
batteries.
4. Lithium salts are used as mood stabilizing drug.
5. Lithium is used in deoxidizing copper and copper alloys.
6. Lithium compounds are used as pyrotechnic colourants in fireworks
that produces red luminance.
7. Lubricating greases are produced from Lithium.

Uses of Sodium
1. Sodium is used as luster in metals.
2. Liquid Sodium is used as coolant in Nuclear reactors.
3. Sodium salts of fatty acids are used in soap.
4. Sodium compounds are used in paper, textile, petroleum and chemical
industries. 5. Sodium Iodide is used to treat extensive ringworm.
6. Sodium is used in street lights and sodium vapour lamps as it can give
yellow glow with bright luminance.

Uses of Potassium
1. Potassium chloride is essential for the growth of plants. It is used in
fertilizers.
2. Potassium chlorate and potassium nitrate are used in explosives and
fireworks.
3. Potassium nitrate is used as a food preservative.
4. Potassium maintains blood pressure and acidity levels in our body.
5. Potassium chromate is used in the tanning of leather and in the
manufacture of inks, gun powder, dyes, safety matches etc.,
6. Potassium is essential for normal cell respiration and electrolyte
function as 95% of our cells are made of potassium.
7. Potassium hydroxide is used to make detergents.
8. Potassium helps to pump fluids inside the heart and the nerves.
9. Rubidium vapour is used in laser cooling.

Test for a basic or alkaline solution

A basic or alkaline solution turns the colour of red litmus paper to blue.

Test for hydrogen gas Hydrogen gas collected in a test tube produces a
pop sound when a burning splint is brought close to its mouth.
Test Tube containing Hydrogen gas

Group 2 elements: Alkaline earth metals

These are Alkaline earth metals with shiny silvery white colour. For
example Beryllium, Magnesium and Calcium.

Physical properties of the Alkaline earth metals

l. They are good conductors ofheat and electricity because they
have free delocalized electrons.
2. They are harder and denser than alkali metals.
3. They have higher boiling points and melting points than alkali metals.

Chemical properties of the Alkaline earth metals

l. They react with oxygen to form oxides except beryllium.
For example:
2. They react With water except beryllium.
3. They react with halogens to form salts.
Uses of Alkaline earth metals
1. For making some alloys. An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals.
2. For example magnesium is used for construction and in machinery.
3. Used as nutrient supplement for making strong bones and teeth, for
example calcium.
4. Magnesium is a constituent of chlorophyll responsible for
photosynthesis in plants.
5. Beryllium is used for military application and in electronics as
semiconductors.
6. As a constituent of lime.

Metalloids
They are chemical elements that have properties that are between metal
and nonmetals. They show characteristics ofboth metals and non-metals.
For example silicon, boron and carbon.
Silicon possesses a metallic luster yet it is a bad conductor
of heat and electricity. It is also brittle.
Boron acts as a non-metal when reacting with sodium yet
as a metal when reacting with fluorine.
Carbon in graphite is a good conductor of electricity while
carbon in diamond is a bad conductor of electricity.

GROUP 7 ELEMENTS: THE HALOGENS

They are poisonous non-metals. They are made up of diatomic
molecules. For example: Fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine.

Physical properties of the halogens

1. They have pungent smell.
2. They are slightly soluble water.
3. They have varying colour.
Halogen Colour
Fluorine very pale yellow gas
 Chlorine yellowish green
gas
Bromine reddish brown liquid
Iodine blue-black shiny solid

4. They exist as diatomic molecules e.g. F2, Cl Br 5. They have

relatively low boiling and melting point.

Chemical properties of the halogens

1. They react with hydrogen to produce hydrogen halides, which
dissolve in water to form acidic solutions.
For example: Ho (g)+ C12(g) —>2HCl (g) (Hydrogen chloride)
explodes with ultraviolet light.
2. They react with metals to produce ionic metal halides.
For example:. 2Fe(S) + 3C12 (g) —Þ 2FeC13(g)
3. They react with phosphorous to produce covalent Phosphorous
pentahalide.
For example: 2P(s) + 5C12 (g) 2PC15(s) Phosphorous
pentachloride.

Why does the boiling point of halogens increase as you go down the
group?
Going down group 7, the melting and boiling point increases because
the sizes of the molecules increase as you go down the group. This in
turn causes larger attractive forces or intermolecular forces holding the
molecules together to increase. Greater heat and higher temperatures
are needed to separate the molecules of the elements, thus increasing
melting points and boiling points as you go down the group.

Why are group 7 elements (halogens) the most reactive of all

nonmetals?
Group 7 elements have 7 electrons in their outermost shell. When they
react they gain one electron in order to reach an electron configuration
 of a noble gas. Therefore, halogens are the most reactive non-metals
in the periodic table because each element requires a single electron to
reach octet rule (noble gas electron configuration).

Why does the reactivity decrease as you go down group 7?

As you go down the group, the atomic radius increases, and the
reactivity of the elements decreases. As the atomic radius increases the
reactivity of the element• decreases because the incoming electron is
less attracted to the nucleus. It less force of attraction (effective
nuclear charge). Fluorine is the most reacti\ halogen because the
incoming electron is being more strongly attracted into the oute
energy level since Fluorine has the smallest atomic radius.

Uses of halogens
Fluorine
It is used in the form of fluorides in toothpaste because it reduces tooth
decay hardening the enamel.

Chlorine
It is used to make PVC plastics as well as detergents for killing bacteria
in drinkinL water.

Bromine and Iodine

1. They are used to make disinfectants and medicine.
2. They are also used as photographic chemicals.
Mention any two uses ofeach of thefollowing halogens:
l.
Fluorine
2.
Chlorine
3. Bromine and Iodine
GROUP 8 ELEMENTS
They are known as noble gases or inert gases. These are Helium, Neon,
Argon, Krypton, Xenon, and Radon. Their outermost shells are
completely filled hence they cannot gain neither lose an electron.
Therefore, they are unreactive.

Physical properties
1. They are all gases at room temperature.
2. They have no smell or colour.
3. They are non-metals.

Uses of noble gases

a. Argon is used
1. To fill ordinary and long life light bulbs to prevent the tungsten
filament from reacting with oxygen in the air and forming an
oxide
2. To provide an inert atmosphere in arc welding and in the
production of titanium metal.
b. Neon is used
1. In advertising signs, because it glows red when electricity is
passed through it.
2. In the helium — neon gas laser used in eye surgery.
3. In Geiger — Muller tubes which are used for the detection of
radioactivity.
c. Helium is used
1. To provide an inert atmosphere for welding.
2. As a coolant in nuclear reactor.
3. With 20% oxygen as a breathing gas used by deep sea divers.
4. To inflate the tyre of large aircrafts.
5. In the Helium — Neon laser.
6. To fill ships and weather balloons.
Trends of reactivity across the periodic table
The reactivity of metallic elements in the periodic table decreases as
you move to the right of the periodic table. Group I elements have I
valence electron in the outermost energy level; hence they require the
least energy to lose the single electron unlike elements in group 2 and
3 which have 2 and 3 valence electrons respectively. In metals as the
valence electrons increase more energy is required to lose the
electrons therefore reactivity decreases. The reactivity of non-metals
decreases as you move to the left of periodic table. Group 7 elements
require one electron only in order to reach octet rule unlike elements
in group 6 and 5, which require 2 and 3 electrons respectively in order
to be stable.
 CHEMICAL BONDING
Chemical bonding is the joining of two or more atoms together to attain
stability.

Chemical bond
A Chemical bond is when two or more atoms have joined together.

Reasons for chemical bonding

1. To attain stability.
2. To attain low potential energy.
3. To experience more attractive forces.

Localised and delocalised

Localised refers to an object that is unstable, has high potential energy
and experiences less attractive force.

Delocalised refers to an object that is stable, has low potential energy

and experiences more attractive forces. Hence the ions which are not
combined are localized ions those which are combined are called
delocalized ions.

Illustrate the following molecular bonding using molecular models

1. HO
2. cb2

TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDING There

are three types of chemical bonding
1. Metallic bonding.
2. Ionic bonding.
3. Covalent bonding.
1. Metallic bonding
 It is the electrostatic attraction between fixed positive ions and free
delocalised electrons that move and surround them.

Properties of metals

1. Shiny. They are used for jewelry and silver and gold.
2. Good conductors of heat and electricity hence are ed for
electrical wires for example copper.
3. Hard wearing hence they are used for bridge structures for
example steel.
4. Strong.
5. Insoluble in water.
6. Sonorous. They produce a ringing sound.
7. Ductile. They are easily drawn into wires.
8. Malleable. They are easily hammered into any shape.
9. They have high density.
10. Metals have high melting and boiling points hence they are used
for cooking utensils.
Why do chemical reactions take place?
Chemical reactions take place so that elements attain stability, have
low potential energy and experience more attractive forces.
Valency
Valency is the combining power of an ion or atom. The size of the charge
of an ion is the measure of its valency or the combining power.
Valence electrons
It is the number of electrons found in the outermost shell. The size of the
charge of an ion is the measure of its valency or combining power.

Cation is a positively charged ion for example Ca2+

Anion is a negatively charged ion for example Cl-
Metals lose electrons to become cations. The charge and valency of
metals is equal tc number of valence electrons

The charge and valency of non-metals is equal to the difference between

valence electrons and inert gas configuration. They form anion by
gaining electrons.

Valence of some common substances

CATIONS

Valency 1 Valency 2 Valency3

Lithium (Li+) Calcium (Ca2+) Aluminium (A13+)
Sodium (Na ) Copper (Cu2+) Iron 111 (Fe3+)
Silver (Ag+) Zinc (Zn2+) Chromium (Cr3+)
Hydrogen (W) Magnesium (Mg2+)

Ammonium (NH +) Iron 11 (Fe2+)

Potassium (K+) Lead (Pb2+)

Deducing molecular formulae
When deducing a molecular formula make sure that the charges on the
cations and anions cancel each other so that the total or overall charge
should be that of the molecule. For example, as shown in the table below,
one Mg ion has 2 positive charges and one Cl ion has 1 negative charge.
Hence to have a total of zero charge we need 2Cl -to combine with I Mg
2
+ (Mg2+ +2Cl-) to have a total charge of O. Hence MgC12 (not Mg 2C1
).

Examples
Magnesium Chloride Mg2+ + 2C1- MgC1
Sodium Hydroxide IVa+ + 01+ NaOH
Calcium Hydroxide Ca2+ + 201+ Ca(OH)
Copper Hydroxide CU2+ + 2011- CU(OH)
Lead Bromide Pb2+ + 2Br PbBr
Magnesium Mg2 + + CO 2- MgCO
Carbonate
Magnesium Sulphate Mg2+ + SO 2- Mgso
Aluminium Sulphate 2A13+ + 3S0 2-
Potassium Iodide
Sodium Bicarbonate IVa+ + HCO NaHCO
 Magnesium and Chlorine can be represented as Mg and Cl
respectively.
• What are the valences ofMagnesium and Chlorine?
• Write the molecularformulaformedwhen Magnesium reacts with
Chlorine.

Dot and cross diagrams of ionic compounds

Example: NaCl

Properties of ionic compounds

1. They are made up of ions and not atoms neither molecules.
2. When fused (melted) they conduct electricity.
3. They have strong electrostatic force.
4. They have high boiling and melting points.
5. They are hard brittle solids at room temperature.
6. They are soluble in water.
7. They are good electrolytes.

3. Covalent bonding
It is the sharing of valence electrons between atoms. This takes place
between non metallic elements.

Examples
 Hydrogen (H2) Chlorine (C12)

Covalent Bonding in Oxygen

Covalent Bonding in Chlorine

Covalent Bonding in Hydrogen

Properties of covalent bonding (molecular compounds).
1. They have low intermolecular force.
2. They have low melting and boiling points.
3. They are volatile (can easily be vapourised) and have a particular
smell for example . Camphor.
4. They are non electrolytes.
5. They are not very soluble in water.
6. They are made up of molecules and not ions.

How are molecular compounds different from ionic compounds?

How do atoms attain stability?

1. By losing valence electrons for example metals
2. By gaining electrons for example non metals
3. By sharing electrons

NOTE
Atoms become stable when their outermost electrons have a maximum
of 8 except for Hydrogen and Helium whose maximum is I and 2.
 ACIDS AND BASES
Acids and bases affect the colours of indicators.
What are indicators?
They are coloured dyes usually obtained from plants. Examples of
indicators are litmus paper, universal paper or universal solution,
phenolphthalein. An indicator tells you whether a given substance is an
acid or a base or a neutral substance.

Preparation of acid —base indicator from Hibiscus flowers.

Aim: to prepare acid —base indicator from Hibiscus flowers
Materials: hibiscus flowers, crucible, water, gas burner, vinegar, baking
soda

Procedure
1. Collect hibiscus flowers and cut into small pieces.
2. Place them in a hibiscus flowers crucible and add enough water to just
cover the pieces.
3. Boil gently in a crucible for 10 minutes
4. Cool the mixture.
5. Pour off the liquid, leaving the solid behind.
6. Record the colour of the solution.

7. Add some of the solution to an equal volume of vinegar, shake and

record the natural indicator colour in an acidic substance.
8. Add some of the solution to sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), shake
and record the natural indicator colour in a basic substance.
9. If you obtained different colours for a solution with the acidic
substance and with the basic substance, then you have prepared an
acid-base indicator solution. This solution will give one colour in
contact with an acidic substance and another colour with a basic
substance.

Note: Keep the unused solution for later activities.

Properties of acids
1. They have a sour taste for example: Lemons, Malambe.
2. They have a pH less than 7.
3. They turn blue litmus paper red.
4. They react with metals.
5. They react with bases.
6. They conduct electricity.
7. They enhance rusting.

Uses of acids
1. Acids are used in car batteries for example sulphuric acid.
2. They are used in the manufacture of paint.
3. They are used in the manufacture of plastics.
4. They are used in the manufacture of detergents.
5. They are used in the manufacture of fertilizers.
6. They are used in food preservatives.
7. They aid in digestion for example hydrochloric acid.
8. They are used in dyeing and electroplating for example methanoic
acid.
9. They are used as solvent for example ethanoic acid.
10. They are used in plant growth.
I l . They are used for tarring of leather.

Properties of bases
1. They have a bitter taste.
2. They have a pH greater than 7.
3. They turn red litmus paper blue.
4. • They react with acids.
5. They conduct electricity.
6. They enhance rusting.

Examples of bases are:

Chidulo, soap, ammonium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and sodium
hydroxide.

Uses of Bases
1. Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) is used in the manufacture of soap.
It is used in petroleum-refining, in making medicines and paper, pulp.
2. Calcium hydroxide is also known as slaked lime. It is also used by
farmers on the fields to neutralize acidic soil.
3. Ammonium ————Switch hydroxide is used to
remove ink spots from clothes
and to remove grease from
window- panes.
Ammeter

Voltameter
Anod
 Electrolyte

NEUTRALISATION
It is the process by which the acidity of a solution is reduced or removed
by a basic solution. The products of neutralization are salt and water.

Acid + Base Salt + Water.

For example HCI + NaOH NaC1 + H O

A substance with pH 7 is neither acidic nor basic but a neutral substance.

Uses of neutralization
1. It is used in Agriculture.
Acidic soils are neutralized by application of a base such as calcium
hydroxide (lime).
2. It is used in food digestion.
Food enzymes work better in either acidic or basic conditions.
3. It is used in neutralizing excess acid in the stomach.
EXPERIMENT 1
Aim: Conducting experiments to show neutralization reaction
Materials
Burette, Funneh, Measuring cylinder, Beaker, Clamp, Clamp
stand, O. NaOH, Phenolphthalein indicator, white tile or paper
and 0.1 M HydrochloriQ Acid

Procedure
l . Set up the apparatus as shown below

Notice: Remove Fifer Funnel

before titrating Funnel
Clamp

Retort Stand

0.1M (NaOH)

White Tile

2. Fill the burette with Hydrochloric Acid (HCI) to the zero mark.
3. Pour 10ml of Sodium hydroxide into a beaker
4. Add a drop of phenolphthalein indicator to the Sodium hydroxide;
note the colotr change.
5. Slowly add Hydrochloric Acid from the burette to Sodium hydroxide,
shaking the beaker all the time until pink colour disappears. at this
point the acid has just beer neutralized by the base.

NOTE and record the volume of hydrochloric acid used.

 What conclusion can you make from this experiment?
s omac IS neu ra we y mg an 1 aci s suc as magnesium Sl
Icate.

EXPERIMENT 1
Aim: Conducting experiments to show neutralization
reaction Materials
Burette, Funneh, Measuring cylinder, Beaker, Clamp, Clamp
stand, 0.1M NaOH, Phenolphthalein indicator, white tile or
paper and 0.1 M Hydrochloric Acid

Procedure
l . Set up the apparatus as shown below
Notice: Remove Fifer Funnel
Funnel

2. Fill the burette with Hydrochloric Acid (HCI) to the zero mark.
3. Pour 10ml of Sodium hydroxide into a beaker
4. Add a drop of phenolphthalein indicator to the Sodium hydroxide;
note the colour change.
 5. Slowly add Hydrochloric Acid from the burette to Sodium
hydroxide, shaking the beaker all the time until pink colour
disappears. at this point the acid has just been neutralized by the
base.

NOTE and record the volume of hydrochloric acid used.

mtla vo umeo H I In Fina volume of Cl ml) olume o H I used ml)

What conclusion can you make from this experiment?

PH SCALE
It is a measure of alkalinity (basicity) or acidity of a solution. PH
means power of hydrogen ions. The pH value changes as the colour
of solution changes. Stronger acids have lower H values. Stronger
bases have greater pH values.
pH SCALE

0 2 It 3 and 4 5 9 and Il 12/13/

and 10
Red Orange Yellow Dark Purple
Green Blue
olour Dark Light Dark
pH means power of Hydrogen ions in a solution. pH scale is a measure
of alkalinity (basicity) or acidity of solution. The pH value changes as
the colour of solution changes.
pH 0 — 6 means that the solution is
acidic. pH 7 means the solution is
neutral pH 8 — 14 means the solution
is alkaline / basic.
The smaller the value of pH, the more acidic the substance.
The greater the pH the more alkaline / basic the substance is.
A universal indicator is preferred when measuring pH value of a solution
because it gives a wide range of colour. Acid/base indicators are made
from natural dyes.
Examples

The difference between strength and concentration of an acid

The strength of an acid tells you how easily it dissociates (ionizes) to
produce Hydrogen ions while the concentration of an acid indicates
the proportion of water and acid present in aqueous solution.
EXPERIMENT 2
Aim: To identify solutions as strong acid, or strong base or weak acids or
weak base. Materials: 4 test tubes in a rack, diluted Hydrochloric Acid,
Sodium Hydroxide Solution, Acetic Acid, distilled water, and Universal
indicator in a dropper.

Procedure
1. To each of the 3 test tubes add diluted Hydrochloric Acid, Sodium
Hydroxide solution, acetic acid to a height of about 2cm.
2. Add 2 drops of Universal indicator to each ofthe three test tubes. Note
the colour of the solution and determine the pH of the solution using
pH Universal Indicator below: -
3. Record the colour of the solution and its pH.

4. Identify solutions A, B, and C as strong base or strong acid or weak

base and strong base.
 a. Diluted Hydrochloric Acid:

b. Sodium Hydroxide:

c. Acetic Acid:

Comparing the strength of acids of the same concentration by reacting

with magnesium ribbon
The reaction of magnesium metal with different acids is used to
measure their relative strengths. Hydrogen gas is formed during the
reaction. Stronger acids will produce a more vigorous reaction with
more bubbling. The increased bubbling with acids of different
concentrations also demonstrates the affect of concentration on a
reaction.

EXPERIMENT 3
Investigating the strength of acids of the same concentration by
reacting with magnesium ribbon.
Materials:
* 0.1M Hydrochloric acid
* 0.1M Acetic acid
* Magnesium ribbon
* beakers
* pH meters

Procedure:
Be sure that the Mg ribbon is clean. Magnesium Ribbon pH Meter
l. Label beakers with each acid.
 2. Pour acids into respective beakers and add a clean magnesium ribbon.
Observe the evolvement hydrogen gas to indicate relative strength of
each acid.
3. Identify which acid showed a faster rate of reaction.
Discussion:
Rate of dissolution of magnesium is dependent upon strength of acid in
solution. The reaction of magnesium with HCI is given below:
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) —Y MgC12(aq) + H2(g)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Organic compounds
These are compounds that contain carbon except carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide and calcium carbonate. Many millions of years ago a lot of
plants and animals lived in the sea. The plants and animals contain
organic compounds in their bodies. When they died layers of earth and
rock covered their bodies. Bacteria attacked the remains of these plants
and animals which eventually decomposed producing petroleum.

Families of organic compounds

Families of organic compounds are :Hydrocarbons and oxycarbons

OXYCARBONS
These are organic compounds that are made up of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen atoms .

HYDROCARBONS
These are organic compounds that are made up of carbon and hydrogen
only.

ALKANES
Another name for alkane is paraffin. They are hydrocarbons, that is, they
consist of carbon and hydrogen atoms only. Alkanes are unreactive. Their
general formula is C n H 211+2 where n > 1. The smallest alkane is
methane. Alkanes are inert compounds hence they are used for keeping
elements such as alkali metals.
Example 2
Calculate the molecular formula of an alkane whose molecule has 6
hydrogen atoms

Solution: C n H2n

Sources of alkanes
Natural gas
For small alkanes that contain 1 to 4 carbons atoms.

Petroleum
Alkanes are obtained from petroleum by a process called Fractional
Distillation. Fractional Distillation is a process which is used to separate
substances of different boiling points.
bitumen for roads
and roofing
 Fractional distillation of crude oil
Uses alkanes
For Fuels for automobiles.
l. A fuel is a substance which when burnt in oxygen produces energy e.g.
petrol, kerosene.
2. For solvents.
3. For example paint dissolves in petrol
4. For lubricants.
5. For example Vaseline and grease
6. For surfacing roads.
7. For example Bitumen
8. It is used for making candle wax.
9. For making floor polish.
10. For storage of reactive metals. For example paraffin is used for storing
alkali metals.
I l. For lighting for example paraffin lamp.
12. For heating for example paraffin stove.
Physical properties of alkanes
l. They are insoluble (immiscible) in water.
2. They are colourless.
3. Viscosity of alkanes increases as the molecular size increases.
Viscosity is the resistance to the flow of a liquid.
4. Density of alkanes increases as the molecular size increases.
5. Melting and boiling points increases as the molecular size increases.

Chemical properties of alkanes

1. Combustion
 It is the burning of fuel in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water
and energy.
That is Fuel + Oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
 Types combustion
a. Complete combustion for example gas burner. Oxygen supplied is
enough.
i. Flame is very hot.
ii. Flame is blue. iii.
Flame is sootless.
iv. Products are carbon dioxide and water.
E.g. 2C2H6 (g) + 702(g) —¥ 4C02 (g) + 6H20(g)
b. Incomplete combustion. It happens when oxygen supplied is less
i. Flame is not very hot ii. Flame is yellow iii. Flame is
sooty iv. Products are carbon and water or carbon
monoxide and water. E.g (g) + 302(g) -+ c (g) + 6H20 (g)
2C2H6 (g) + 50 (g) 4CO(g) + 6H20(g)

Note: Alkanes with smaller molecules burn more readily than those with
larger molecules.
2. Substitution reaction
In a substitution reaction an atom or group is replaced (substituted) by
another atom or group. In alkanes, Hydrogen atoms are substituted by
Halogens for example chlorine, Bromine, Fluorine and Iodine.

Unwanted effects alkanes

l. They pollute air through combustion.
2. They cause water pollution if spilt in water.

ALKENES
Alkenes are Hydrocarbons. They contain carbon and Hydrogen atoms only.
They have C=C functional group hence they are reactive. The smallest alkene
is ethene. Alkenes can be produced by cracking alkanes. Cracking is the
splitting of larger hydrocarbon molecules into smaller hydrocarbon molecules
by subjecting these larger molecules to high pressure at high temperature in
the presence of catalyst. A catalyst is a substance that speeds up reaction.
For example.
Catalyst
Pentane propane + ethene
High Pressure + High Temperature
Physical properties of alkenes
1. They are insoluble (immiscible) in water
2. They are colourless .
3. Viscosity of alkenes increase as the molecular size increases.
4. Melting and boiling points increase as the molecular size increases.

Chemical properties of alkene

l. Combustion
Alkenes undergo complete combustion if oxygen is in excess. If oxygen
supply is not enough they undergo incomplete combustion.

2. Alkenes undergo addition reactions with Halogens and Hydrogen.

 a. Halogenation
It is the addition reaction with Halogens.

b. Hydrogenation
It is the addition reaction with Hydrogen.

NOTE
An alkene decolourises bromine solution.

Uses of alkenes
1. For fruit ripening.
2. For flower maturation.
3. For seed germination.
4. For production of alkanols.
5. For synthesis of polymers and plastics.

CHAPTER 5

AIR
Air
Air is a mixture of gases such as nitrogen 78%, oxygen 21%, carbon dioxide
0.4 % and other smaller amounts of other gases and water vapour.
Experiment
You are provided with three gas jars labeled X , Y and Z respectively. These
jars have been filled with oxygen. The other has been filled with carbon
dioxide. Is it possible to see which gas was put into jar X.

Procedure
1. In each test tube plunged a glowing splint. Did the gas Relights glowing
splint?
2. In each test tube bring a flame close to the mouth of its container. Did the
gas produce a pop sound when flame was held at the mouth of its
container?
3. In each test tube add limewater and shake well. Did the gas turn limewater
milky?

Results
Copy and complete the table below

Result
Procedure x z

A glowing splint was plunged into the

gas
A burning splint was held at the
mouth of its container
A few cm3 of limewater
Identify the gases in X, Y and Z. in each case give a reason for your answer.

Activity 30
Discuss any two uses ofeach of thefollowing noble gases:
l. Argon
2. Neon
3. Helium

Uses of noble gases

Argon is used
l. To fill ordinary and long life light bulbs to prevent the tungsten filament
from reacting with oxygen in the air and forming an oxide.
 2. To provide an inert atmosphere in arc welding and in the production of
titanium metal.

Neon is used
l. In advertising signs, because it glows red when electricity is passed
through it.
2. In the helium — neon gas laser used in eye surgery.
3. In Geiger — Muller tubes which are used for the detection of
radioactivity.

Helium is used
1. To provide an inert atmosphere for welding.
2. As a coolant in nuclear reactor.
3. With 20% oxygen as a breathing gas used by deep sea divers.
4. To inflate the tyre of large aircrafts.
5. In the Helium — Neon laser.
6. To fill ships and weather balloons.

NITROGEN
Nitrogen gas has no smell. It is colourless and very unreactive. It is a
diatomic molecule covalently bonded together by a triple bond. This
triple bond is very strong requiring large amount of energy to break it.

Uses of nitrogen
1. For making Ammonia gas and Nitric acid.
2. Liquid nitrogen is used as a refrigerant.

3. It is filled in an empty oil tanker to prevent fire because of its inertness.

4. It is used in food packaging For example in crisps packet to keep the food
fresh .
5. For making artificial fertilizers

Oxygen
It comprises 21% of air.

Physical properties of oxygen

1. Oxygen is a tasteless odourless.
2. It is colourless gas.
3. It has no smell or colour.

Chemical properties of oxygen

It reacts with metals and non metals to form oxides.
It supports combustion
It aids corrosion
Oxygen causes decaying. Decaying is an example ofoxygen reacting with
compounds.

Uses of oxvgen
1. It is used to make acids such as sulphuric acids, nitric acids
2. Hot oxygen is used in making steel and iron blast furnaces
3. Some mining companies use oxygen to destroy rocks
4. Industries use oxygen for cutting, welding and melting melts. Oxygen gas
can generate temperatures of 30000. For example in oxy-acetylene blow
torches.
5. Oxygen is used in combustion of fuels in cars and airplanes.
6. For breathing in human e.g. scuba divers, mountaineers and astronauts
7. Used in aerobic respiration by all living things

Carbon dioxide
It comprises 0.4% of air

Physical properties Carbon

dioxide l. Carbon dioxide is a
colourless gas.
2. It melting point -55.60 boiling point is -78.50C
3. It is soluble in water, ethanol and acetone.
4. It is linear covalent molecule.

Chemical properties Carbon dioxide

l. It reacts with water to form carbonic acids.
2. It reacts with alkali compounds to give carbonates bicarbonate
NaOH(aq) + C02 (g) —->C02 (g) + NaHC03(aq)
Uses of carbon dioxide
1. It is used in process requiring large scale refrigeration that is in the form
of dry ice.
2. It is used in fire extinguisher as a desirable alternative of water.
3. It is used in carbonated drinks

POLLUTION
It is the addition of harmful chemical substance or a form of energy such
as heat or any disturbance such as sound to the environment.

ENVIRONMENT
It is the surrounding of an organism and all things around it.

AIR POLLUTION
It is the addition of harmful chemical substance to air e.g. dust particles,
sulphur dioxide, Nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, smoke.

Causes of air pollution

1. Carbon dioxide
It is produced from the complete combustion of fuel in oxygen.
Increased amount of carbon dioxide in the air causes global warming
and greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide dissolved in water produces
acidic rain that damages most infrastructures and plants. Carbon
dioxide is primarily greenhouse gas emitted through human
activities. Carbon dioxide is naturally part of the earth's carbon
cycle.

Human activities that increase carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are;

 a. Carbon dioxide emitted from incomplete combustion of fuels in
cars, buses, lorries and trains
b. Industrial gases for example the factory that produces cement
releases carbon dioxide.
c. Carbon dioxide from firewood used for cooking.
2. Carbon Monoxide
It is a very poisonous gas. It is produced from incomplete combustion
of fuel. When inhaled carbon monoxide mixes with haemoglobin in the
blood and stops it from carrying oxygen to the brain and other parts of
the body where it is needed for respiration. It also destroys ozone layer
as shown below.
Sulphur Oxide
It is produced from combustion of fuel that contains sulphur. Inhaling
sulphur dioxide causes irritation of the eyes and the lungs. When
sulphur is dissolved in water it forms sulphuric acid. As a result, the
rain is acidic.

3. Metal Particles
When leaded petrol burns, the lead particles are released into the
atmosphere. Lead particles are poisonous. They affect the brain.
4. Nitrogen oxide(NO)
78% of air is Nitrogen. When combustion takes place, Nitrogen burns
in oxygen to produce Nitrogen dioxide. Nitrogen dioxide irritates the
eyes and lungs. When it dissolves in water, it forms Nitric acid.

5. Particulate matter and pesticides

Examples of particulate matter are: dust particles, pollen grains and
smoke. These dirten your clothes, furniture and windows. Pesticides
such as doom and DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) are
poisonous and can irritate the skin and even kill human beings.

6. Methane
 Atmospheric methane is a greenhouse gas. Methane is emitted from
industry, agriculture, and waste management activities and natural
sources.

Industry
Methane is the primary component of natural gas. Some CH is
emitted to the atmosphere during the production, processing,
storage, transmission, and distribution of natural gas. Because gas is
often found alongside petroleum, the production, refinement,
transportation, and storage of crude oil is also a source of CH
emissions.

Agriculture
Domestic livestock such as cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, and camels
produce large amounts of CH4 as part of their normal digestive
process. Also, when animals' manure is stored or managed in
lagoons or holding tanks, CH is produced. Because humans raise
these animals for food, the emissions are considered human-related.
Globally, the Agriculture sector is the primary source of CH
emissions. For more.

Waste from Homes and Businesses

Methane is generated in rubbish pits and pit latrine. Methane is also
emitted from a number of natural sources. Wetlands are the largest
source, emitting Methane from bacteria that decompose organic
materials in the absence of oxygen. Smaller sources include termites,
oceans, sediments, volcanoes, and wildfires.

OZONE LAYER
It is a region located in the stratosphere several miles above the surface of
the earth that contains ozone. Ozone (03) is a gas that occurs naturally in
our atmosphere.
 Ozone layer depletion
The ChloroFluoroCarbons(CFCs) destroy the ozone layer. Large holes have
been

discovered in the ozone layer and scientists believe that CFCs have produced
these holes. CFCs escape into the atmosphere and because of their inertness
they remain constant without further reaction until they reach the
stratosphere and ozone layer. In the stratosphere the high-energy ultraviolet
radiation causes a chlorine atom to split off from the CFC molecules. This
chlorine atom or free radical then reacts with the ozone.

The effects of pollutants on human health and the environment.

Pollutants are a threat to our ecosystem and health hazard to human beings.
Pollutants are contaminated by products that cause instability or harm to our
environment and ecosystem. These pollutants can be manmade or naturally
occurring. Effects
l. Causes lung cancer and stomach cancer eg HC
2. It leads to heart diseases, TB, brain and lungs congestion, pneumonia,
strokes eg
co
3. Irritation, coughing and exhaustion headaches.
4. Chronic bronchitis and pulmonary edema e.g. NO. 5. Asthma
acute respiratory infections e.g. aerosols.
6. Causes cardiac disorder and respiratory infections.

evision questions
l. Define "air pollution"
2. Describe two ways by which air can be polluted.
3. Mention one effect of air pollution on humans.
4. Explain one negative effect of bush fires on the environment.
5. What is the main source of carbon dioxide that is released into the
atmosphere?
6. Explain how rural electrification would assist in reducing pollution of the
environment.
7. Explain why the use of petroleum products as a source of fuel is a danger
to the environment

SOIL
Soil Components
It consists of four major components namely
1. Mineral (or inorganic).
2. Organic matter. It is made of decaying plant and animal matter.
3. Water.
4. Air.

The relative proportions of these four soil components vary with soil type
and climatic conditions. Soil is made of living things and non living things.

Chemical properties of soil

1. pH
2. Salinity (EC)
3. Cat ion exchange capacity (CEC)
4. Carbon to nitrogen

Soil pH
It is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the soil
Neutral = 7
Acid < 7
Alkaline > 7

Soil pH and plant growth

1. Affects availability of plant nutrients
2. Low pH soils (acidic) results in an increase in aluminium ions which are
toxic to plants
3. Affects availability of toxic metals
 4. Affects activity of soil microorganisms thus affecting nutrient cycling
and disease

Importance of controlling soil pH

Increasing soil pH
Lime ( ie pure calcium carbonate) will increase soil pH. Alternately wood
ashes can be used to increase soil pH

SOIL POLLUTION
Soil pollution is the addition of harmful chemical substance to soil or any
activity that has a negative impact on the quality of the soil.

Sources of soil pollution

1. Erosion
It washes out all the top soil.

2. Dumping of non- biodegradable substances such as plastic papers and

dangerous substances such as sulphuric acid, lead compounds leads to
soil pollution.

3. Agricultural practices such as chemical pest control methods and

fertilizer application.
 4. Over irrigation.
Too much irrigation causes soil to become waterlogged.

5. Overgrazing.
This leaves the soil bare and loose making it easy for the wind to blow it
away.

6. Bush fires.
It leaves the soil bare leading to soil erosion.

7. Desertification
It is caused by cutting down and burning vegetation which leaves the soil
bare which can lead to natural disasters such as floods. Floods are the most
common natural disaster in Malawi. Floods refer to a natural process that
occurs when quantity of water in a water-shed exceeds the capacity of
stream, river and lake. It is a temporary covering of land by water usually
as a result of heavy rainfall

Effects of floods
• Loss of life and property. Many people die or get injured and lose property.
• Destruction of the environment. The natural environment gets destroyed
making the landscape change completely.
• The disasters can make communication difficult.

Ways of managing disasters

In general disasters can be managed through Disaster Risk Management
which is a collecting process by which government and individuals plan for
and reduce the impact of disasters and also do something after disaster has
occurred.
Disasters may be prevented by:
• Avoiding having settlements and farms in lower areas that are prone to
flooding.

• Constructing houses using strong materials so that the houses should not
collapse easily in the face of such disasters such as earthquake.
• Early warning system. For example listening to weather and other
information to avoid the risk of a disaster.
Preventing soil pollution.
1. Reducing Usage of Chemicals
 Overuse of chemicals such as pesticides, insecticides and fungicides in
gardens is considered to be one of the prime factors leading to soil pollution.
Reducing or even avoiding the use of such chemicals is one of the most
elementary and important preventive measures. Manures can be used as
alternatives to chemicals.

2. Weed Control
Another common measure used to minimize soil pollution is controlling the
growth of weeds. Weeds are unwanted plants that grow alongside the main
plant and often result in the accumulation of various minerals into the soil
layer.

3. Reforestation and Recycling Wastes

Other common methods efFeventing soil pollution include reforestation.
Deforestation or the cutting down of trees often leads to erosion of the soil,
which leads to soil pollution due to the loss of fertility of the soil.
4. Recycling materials such as plastics, papers and various other materials is
another effective and common method of preventing the phenomenon of soil
pollution. Thermoplastics can be recycled to make cardboards and chairs.
Plastic can also be reused.